Theory of Arches

TG
JC-NRLF
THEORY
lAROHBS.
Prof.
W. ALLAN,
<nifi
Formerly of Washington
I.w University,
'
D.
NEW YORK: VAN NOSTRAND COMPAN.i',

^3
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1890,
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59.RA1LROAD ECONOMICS OR, NOTES WITH COMMENTS. By S. W. Robinson O.E-
THEORY
ARCHES
BY
Prof.
W. ALLAN,
Formerly of Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Fa.
D.
NEW YORK: VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY,

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COPYRIGHT.
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1890.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.

The
"
original
edition
of
this
Monoof
graph was reprinted from the pages
Van Nostrand's Engineering

it
zine," to which
late
Magawas contributed by the Prof. W. Allan. It had been priwhich

notes
marily prepared by him from a series of

notes,
had
been
litho-
graphed for the use of his classes in " studying "Kankine's works.
In printing this second edition, therehas not been thought necessary
fore, it
to
make any changes whatever,
as the
text is simply an amplification and ex" " planation of the Theory of Arches as
given by Prof. Eankine, and as Prof.
Eankine himself has been dead
some
years, his treatment of the subject as de-
veloped in his Manual
is
probably as
127692
complete as
it
ever will be.

little
It
would
will
seem, therefore, that this
book
it
answer the purposes for which

intended for
all
was
the
time to come.
To
reader and student of Kankine's works it

will
undoubtedly be found interesting as
well as useful.
THE PUBLISHERS.
May,
1890.
THEORY OF ARCHES.
is an amplification and Professor Rankine's chapof explanation ters on this subject.
The following
Perhaps the clearest way of developing " the " Theory of Arches is to begin with the consideration of the forces which act
upon a suspended chain or
cord.
The
force in the chain or cord is just the opposite of that upon an arch that is, it
is
the relations between and " internal "

forces,
tension instead of compression, but the "external"

or,
what
is
the
same, between the loads and the resistances they produce, are strictly analogous.
Let (Fig. 1) be a cord suspended at C and B and loaded in any manner over its whole length. Consider the forces acting on this cord. Suppose it
CAB
attached to a hook at
at C.
and to another
cord without stiffness cannot
length;
exert a pull except in the direction of its therefore the "pulls" in the
C and B, and exerted at these points on the suspending hooks, must be in the direction of the tangents at FIG. 1.
rope at
those points.
The load
is
supposed to be
distributed over the cord, but we may find its resultant. Let P be this result-
ant and
P F
its direction.
The
three
the pulls at C and B, and the resultant of the load, P, are all in the same vertical plane they are the
forces, viz.,
;
only forces acting on the cord and as they are in equilibrium, the directions of these three forces must meet in one point,
;
portional
and the forces themselves must be proto the three sides of a triangle
drawn
GNF
known
C,
parallel to their directions. (Fig. 1) is such a triangle.
The
and
and directions of the pulls at of P, give us the angles in this

;
and if we know also the magtriangle nitude of the load P, represented by the line F, we can determine that of the
pulls at
and
C.
For
:
(PullatB=GN) :GF
(PullatC=NF)
:
GF
isinNGF
rsinGFN isinGNF. sinGNF.

:
The analysis we have made for the whole cord may be applied to any part of it. Thus, if we consider any arc B' A' (Fig. 2) of the cord, and the load on that arc, we have three forces in the same plane in equilibrium. For at A' and B' the other parts of the cord may
be replaced by two hooks, and the pulls on these hooks, exerted by the cord at A'
and
B', will be, as before, in the direction of the tangents at those points. The resultant P' of the load on A' B' must
pass through the point of intersection of the tangents, and if the direction of
that resultant be as indicated in the figure, then G' N' F' will be the triangle of
forces.
FIG.
2.
The principles above explained enable us to calculate the " pulls " at all points of a loaded chain or cord, and consequently to fix its size and strength to bear a given load or to determine the
;
amount, distribution and direction of the load necessary to produce assumed " " pulls in a cord of a given shape.
Thus, suppose in the half of the loaded cord of (Fig. 1) we draw the tangents at
and
(as is
sultant of the load
done in Fig. 3), the reP must pass through
gents.
F, the point of intersection of the tanIf the direction and amount of
be known, lay
off
FG
3.
to represent
it.
FIG.
X
Then, as above explained,
NF=
and
pull at
N G = pull at B.
sume the
Suppose, on the other hand, we aspulls at A and B to be equal,

lay off
we
on the two tangents (Fig. 4) equal lengths, F S and F N, to represent these equal pulls, and upon them
construct a parallelogram.
Then
F G
10
gives the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the load that must be put
on the cord to produce the given
pulls.
it is
cord
is
in equilibrium
when
balanced under the load applied. Change the distribution of the load and the
FIG.
4.
cord at once changes shape and assumes the form necessary to equilibrium under the new load.
Thus, if (Fig. 5) equals the direction of the resultant of the new load on
the cord from the horizontal point A to the point of support B, draw the tan-
gent A F, until it meets the direction of the load P, at F then draw F B. The
;
11
cord
that
A B will have so changed its form F B (Fig. 5) will now be the direc-
tion of the tangent at B.
FORMS OF CORDS UNDER VARIOUS LOADS.
Let us now investigate the various curves which a cord will assume under
different distributions of the load.
FIG.
5.
Suppose the load be altogether vertical, and to be distributed uniformly along the horizontal. Let equal weights be hung, for inI.
Case
stance, along a cord C B (Fig. 6) so that the horizontal distance between the
12
threads by which the weights are suspended shall be everywhere equal. Or,
draw little elementary triangles along the curve, so that the bases of all these little triangles shall be equal, and let the
threads holding the weights cut the midThen each weight dle of these bases.
FIG.
6.
may be
considered as the resultant of the load on 'the element of the curve
which constitutes the hypothenuse of the little triangle to which it is attached. Such a load is vertical and is uniformly
distributed along the horizontal. To determine the curve of the cord.
Obtain the resultant of the load between
13
the horizontal point
(Fig. 7). forces are
and the point

equal to the
This resultant, as the

all parallel, is
little
sum
of them,
and
it is
vertical in direction.
7.
Fia.
It will also evidently bisect

it,
T.
Draw
and from its point of intersection with A T draw the line F B, which, as has been shown, must be tangent at B.
Prolong
I J
is
B F to I, then the subtangent seen to be bisected at the vertex

Hence the curve C
A
is
of the curve.
a parabola.
14
The
allel
AB
T has its sides partriangle to the forces acting on the half cord T be taken to represo that if
BF B
sent P,
Let
T = equal
cord.
B F = pull at B F T = pull at A.
tension at any point along the
at the horizontal point horizontal pull" on the
H = value of T "
A, or the
cord.
i
= inclination
as
of the tangent at any point to the horizontal.
Then
the arc
A F
(Fig. 7)
may
stand for any part of the curve counting from the horizontal point A towards one of the points of suspension, we have the
following
triangle
general
:
equations from the

(1.)
BFT
Tan
i--.H - H -
*JL
dx
(2)
(p being
tal distance,
A T = axis
From
the load per unit of horizonA the origin of co-ordinates,
of
X and A J = axis
and
of y).
equations (1) solve three problems.

1.
(2)
we can
Given the curve, and the load, to
find
T and H.
15
2.
Given the curve, and

Given the load, and
full
and H,
to
find P.
3.
T and H,
to
find the curve.
For a
discussion of this case, see
Rankine's "Civil Engineering." Such a distribution of the load as

FIG.
8.
we
have discussed in the above case
is
ap-
proximated to in suspension bridges, and sometimes in wood, iron, or steel arches,

but not usually in stone or brick ones.
16
Case II. Let the load still be vertical, bnt distributed uniformly along the
curve.
That is, divide the arc C B (Fig. 8) into elements each of a unit in length then the load on these elements is constant
;
throughout. It is easily seen that such a load is not, as in the last case,uniform along
the horizontal, for the bases of the little triangles of which the hypothenuses are
now
equal, diminish in extent as we go from A towards B or C. A chain of uniform material and cross-section, and acted on by nothing but its own weight, is
the condition described, and, as is well known, the curve assumed by it is the " common catenary." Let p weight of a unit's length of
in
the cord, then if p on the cord at A
m = horizontal pull = H, m is called the
modulus of the catenary, and represents the length of cord of the same kind as C B, the weight of which would equal the pull at A. The weight on A B P
when
length of cord
B.
The
triangle of forces for
any arc
AD
17
(Fig. 9) can be found as before,
by drawing
the tangents at A and D, and the line representing the force P vertically through
their intersections.
The
;
triangle
DFT
will represent the forces
DT
=p T =
s,
and
FT = H =p
Then
9.
being
=P
m, and
DF=
tension at D.
FIG.
F T pm
d x
(4.)
From
the differential equation d y_ s

d x
18
we
curve.
obtain the linear equation of the In doing so it is most conveni-
ent to take the origin at a point O, whose distance below the vertex A is =
m.
The
line
QOX
(Fig. 10) is called
the directrix of the catenary.
The equations
IMj
:
of the catenary are

'X-
~2~(E
(
-E
i/7/2_|_jj2
m-'] ~iengthofaro(5.)
x_
)
_m
x
_%_
= m.
hy. log. j
j,
/i/
/ #
.
V.
-
(7.)
Area
AGE D=fyxd
ms
(8.)
r> jRadius of curv.
Since the
= -= =m m area A O E D m
p
8
,.
(10.)
s,
and
m=
But
*JS
a constant, the area varies as s. the load on the arc A (=p s) also
Base of Naperian Logarithms.
19
varies as
s,
since
is
constant.
Hence a
convenient
mode
on any
arc,
of representing the load D^ Suppose a sheet of
metal
C QT BAC
(Fig. 10),
bounded
below by the "directrix," Q T, to be Let the suspended from the curve. weight of this metal corresponding to
20
units of
its
surface be
p, or
=
w
p.
That
.
is,
let
wm The weight
m
a unit
to
of
strip
in
breadth extending from
is
then
=p =
the cord.
ODE whose weight

resents the weight
the weight of a unit's length of Then the part of the sheet A
wms
=p
A
rep-
on the arc
D. So
A O B T represents the weight on A B, and C Q T B the whole weight on C A B. In the horizontal pull at A we have H =pm wm (!!)
2
and
at
any pointD
2
T= i/H
-]-P
=p \/s*-\-m*=py=w my.
B
all
(12.)
The property above explained may be

illustrated in another way.
tle triangles
Construct on A with
(Fig. 11) a series of littheir bases equal. Let
the weights of the little arcs constituting the hypothenuses of these triangles be
suspended by represented by balls threads from the middle of each little Take the length of the thread corarc.
responding to the
ball
at
as
=m
21
make
the lengths of all the threads proportional to the weights of the balls hung to them then the lower ends of these
;
lines will
all
be on the directrix
FIG. 11.
O X.
the intensity of the load on a catenary along the horizontal line (

is,
That
weight on a unit of horizontal distance)

varies as the ordinates of
the catenary,
when those
from the
ordinates
are
measured
directrix.
22
It
makes no
difference in the
(Fig. 11), to
form of
the curve
AB
increase or
diminish the weights, provided the pro-
portion
among them is preserved. Thus we may assume the cord and the sheet
(Fig. 10),
CQTB
to
be of a different
material in which a unit's length of the cord shall in weight =p', and the weight
of the sheet per unit of surface shall
w',
be unchanged. Note, however, that we cannot change the depth A O of the sheet (Fig. 10), nor the length of the lines (Fig. 11), without changing the curve for if the lines ended
will
;
and
AB
in O' X' for instance, instead of
A O would D E
Hence,
O X, then A not be equal to O'. D E' the modulus (m = A O) fixes

or, if
the catenary,
if
we assume
the catena-
ry, this determines the
modulus.
Thus,
three points, B, A, C (Fig. on the catenary, the distance A O is 10),
we assume
thereby determined
and
if
we assume
and the point assume B and C.
AO
A we cannot generally
This often interferes with the use of
23
in the building catenary of arches [in which case the curve is inis reverted, the metal sheet A O T
the "
common
"
placed by a wall of uniform material, and the tension on its cord, C B (Fig. 10), is
replaced by a thrust along

FIG. 12.
CAB
(Fig.
12)].
For we
the
are often compelled to
make
fixed.
curve
points, while yet
pass through three the value of A O is
But this difficulty may be obviated by the use of the transformed catenary,
which we
will
now
discuss.
24
'Case III.
By
if
Projections, 'balanced under a system of forces which =are represented in the figure by lines, and
=a
the principle of Parallel any cord or arched rib is
parallel projection
<;urve of the cord or rib
be made of the and of the lines
representing the forces, then the new curve will represent a cord or rib that
will be balanced under the forces represented by the new lines.
Imagine a
structed upon
cylindrical
surface
con-
CQ T B A C
(Fig. 10) as a
base. To simplify matters, suppose the elements of the cylinder to be perpendicular to the plane of the base. Cut
by a plane inclined to the and we shall get a " Transformed Catenary," and the shape of the sheet of metal under which it will be balanced for the new curve and surface cut out
this cylinder
base,
inclined plane are the parallel and the projections of the curve
by the
CAB
surface
CQTBAC
CB
(Fig. 10).
Let
this
inclined plane be so placed that it shall intersect the plane of the base in the straight line
(Fig. 10) or in
one paral-
25
lei
to
it.
Then
all
those parallel to
CB
horizontal lines (or or T) will be un-
changed
to
in length in the parallel projecwhile all vertical lines (those parallel tion,
AO,
etc.,) will
be lengthened in a conwill
stant ratio
whose magnitude
FIG. 13
(a).
depend
upon the
Make
a vertical section
line
inclination of the cutting plane. of the cylinder
on the
triangle
Y.
Then
if
plane passes through
C B we
the cutting get the
OUY
the
wedge
(Fig. 13a) cut out of to which the cylinder reduces
26
in this case.
In the
triangle,
U Y is
the
ordinateof the vertex of the transformed

FIG. 13
(b).
catenary, corresponding to
OA
in the
parallel
common
to
catenary, and
all lines
U V
are evidently increased over the
27
corresponding ones of which they are the
parallel projections, in the
U V
exceeds
A.
same ratio that Laid down in the
same plane the two curves are and C' A' B' (Fig. 13 b). It is easy to pass from a given catenary to a transformed catenary whose ordinates shall be shorter instead of
longer than those of the given curve, by erecting an oblique cylinder on the given
CAB
catenary and surface

ting
base.
it
C QT
by a plane
less
So, too, the sions can be changed instead of the ver-
B, and cutoblique than the horizontal dimen-
by making the cutting plane meet the base in a line parallel to O Y, instead
tical,
of in one parallel to The equations of
T.
the curve C' A' B'
The ab(Fig. 136) are ttfus obtained. scissas are the same as those in C B,
but the ordinates are changed, so that (if y = general ordinate of C' A' B' and y A' O, the ordinate at the vertex A')
y'
:
A'
Ao
m.
'*'= IT
yny-y'-^
28
In the equations of the common catenary substitute y' for y and we have the equations of C' A' B'.
From
equation
(6)
(
ra j_ ,_ ra -fc *=-*-' (V3
+E
-
m
(.
j*L I
)
y'
_ I!*!
"
A.
(E
+E
(13.)
So equation
* = thy.
log.
(7)
becomes
So equation
(8)
or area A'
OE
D'.
(15.)
etc., etc., etc.
The
comes
"
135), for
FED'
triangle of forces (Fig. of the catenary, beany arc for the arc A' D' of the
"FED
is,
AD
transformed catenary
horizontal
lines
that
since the
and forces
are
un-
changed.
Tension
at vertex A'
= H' = H =wm*
(16.)
29
Load on A' D'

A'
is
increased in ratio of
to
AO
or of D'
A
to
D E.
'
'D
E~
is
(17.)
(D'
represents this load.)

tension at D'
T'
Then
|/p
H_
H*
( 18 )
and
~&x
trix
2m E
I
#i
E~
~wj
(19.)
In this curve we can assume the direcQ T, the distance A' O ( = y ) and also the points B' and C'. These quantities
assumed, we determine
of the corresponding
(the
modulus
common
catenary) from equation (14) and then by equation (13) find points of the trans-
formed catenary.
From equations (18) and (19) we can solve three problems similar to those given under the head of Case I.
Case IV.
allel
So
far
we have
vertical.
discussed
the forms of cords under
loads
and altogether
Let
parus
30
take
up the
cases of loads
varying in
direction.
Suppose (as Case IV.) that the load be uniform and normal at every point to the cord. Such a load is represented in the load on each element d s (Fig. 14), of the curve being constant and perpendicular to
it.
FIG. 14.
be noted that the pull or any load which is everywhere normal to it, must be constant. That is, the pull along the cord at A and B, and at all other points, is one and the same. That the tension at
It is first to
tension on a cord under
31
in the cases previously discussed is greater than at A, is due to the fact that the elements of the load between A and
B have in those cases tangential components, which go to change the value of

FIG. 15.
along the cord. But in the present case, the load being everywhere normal, there are no such tangential com" " does ponents, and therefore the pull
the pull
not change.
32
the cord
Take any two adjoining elements d s (= D E, Fig. 15) and d
of
s>
F, Fig. 15), each of such length as to correspond to equal elements of the

load.
(= E
The
little
loads on these lines

s'.
we
all
will represent
by p d s, and p' d
the
load
Note
that, unless
be
uniform
around the cord, d

to
s'
s will
not be equal
d s'. The equal loads p d s and p' d being normal respectively to D E and F, their resultant which lies in the
direction
OK
s
between p d
angle
(Fig. 15) bisects the angle and p d s', and also the
D E F between d s and
T
last is the angle
of the pulls
d s', which between the direction and T' on the cord at D
F.
(
as
Hence the parallelogram of forces shown at R") will be a rhombus, or
E, E F, Again, take three elements, (Fig. 16), of the cord, each bearing the normal load s.
FH
pds=pds = pd
In place of the little arcs, we use for clearness the chords of those arcs. Since the load around the whole curve
33
CAB (Fig.
equal, or
14) is
supposed to be uni-
form, the arcs bearing the equal elements (p d s) of that load must also be
DE = E F = F H. We have
T
T".
above proved
sides
Hence the three
will arrange themselves symmetrically as in (Fig. 16).
D E, E
F, and
FIG. 16.
piece of the cord conwill assume exelements three taining as the same H, since each slope actly
Now, every other
in length such piece must equal D and must be acted on by an equal and
precisely similar system of forces.
Con-
etc. r sequently, must constitute a regular polygon, and

little
the
chords
D E,
34
the curve in which
they are inscribed
must be constant words a circle.
in curvature, in other
Therefore the curve of the cord
CAB
any
(Fig. 14) is the arc of a circle. To form the triangle of forces for
point of a loaded circle as for

FIG. 17.
A D (Fig.
x P
17),
draw the tangents at the extremities and D. From the intersection, F, of

off
these, lay
the equal pulls at

diagonal
load,
F N = F S, to represent A and D. Then the

the resultant
of
F G =
the
or F S triangle represents the forces acting on A D. It is often easier to deal with a uni-
and the
FNG
its vertical
form normal load by resolving it into and horizontal components.
35
The load on an element

quadrant
AB
horizontal
p d
s sin. 6^
= component where 6 = the angle made

of
this
(Fig.
D ~Et=ds 18) is = p d
s
of the
s.
The
load
by the direction of p d
with the verti-
FIG. 18.
cal (or what is the same, the angle made by the tangent of ds with the horizontal). The vertical component = p d s cos. 6. Consider the horizontal component (p ds
sin.
6)
with reference to the vertical

it is
space over which
distributed.
This
36
space
is
E K
(Fig.
18)
sin.
6.
Hence the
component
intensity
of the
horizontal
_p ~~
d
s sin. e
s sin. e
So the
vertical component (p d s cos. 6) distributed over a horizontal space
is
= DK
d
is
s cos. 6,
and therefore
its
intensity
pdscos.o
d scos.o
=P>
But p
force.
the intensity of
Hence the
the normal force normal original
tal
at each point is equivalent to a horizonand a vertical force, at that point, of
little triangles on such that their 19) (Fig. vertical sides shall be constant in length,
equal intensity. If we then construct

the curve
AB
the horizontal forces on these sides will be represented by lines of constant Transfer these forces in their length.
lines
of direction
to
Y.
AY
is
the
lit-
sum
of all the vertical sides of
the
tle triangles,
sity is
and as the horizontal intenconstant and equal to p, we have
37
(if
=
on
radius of the circle) p (A Y) pr total horizontal force on quadrant

Similarly,
if
AB.
we draw
AB
with
all their
a set of triangles horizontal sides of
the same length,

total vertical force
we may
on
see
is
that
the
A B
Hence,
1.
The
resultant of the entire normal
38
force on the quadrant A B is equal to the resultant of a horizontal and a vertical force each of which
2.
is
r.
Therefore in the parallelogram of forces for the quadrant (Fig. 20), F S,

at B,
which represents the pull along the cord is the vertical component of P,
FIG. 20.
while
NF=
component
pull at A, is the horizontal of P. Each of these forces
r.
Therefore the
is ==
constant
pull
all
along the cord

If
r.
we make
point (B)
= V, we have H = V = T = pr
the pull at the vertical
(20.)
39
ists in
In practice a uniform normal force exthe case of a cylinder filled with
steam, or in a vertical cylinder filled with liquid. Thrust instead of tension
along
AB
exists
when the normal

as in the
force
a pushes inwards, steam boiler or an empty vertical cylinder immersed in water. In reference to arches, this discussion has its princi-
tubes of
pal value as introductory to those that

follow.
Case
V. In this case
we
obtain the
curve and forces by parallel projections from the circle.

If
we suppose
a cylinder erected
the circle (Fig. 21) as
abase, and cut
upon it by
an inclined plane whose line of intersection with the plane of the base shall be parallel to A I, we will get an ellipse
whose vertical axis A' I' (Fig. 21) A I, and whose horizontal axis C'
will
will
be greater than C B. All lines parallel to A I will be unchanged in length, while all parallel to C B will be increased in
the proportion of C' B' to
B.
Now,
by the
principle of parallel projections,
40
the ellipse, which is the parallel projection of the circle, will be balanced under the forces which are the parallel projections of those under which the circle is
balanced.
As we have seen, the circle is the curve assumed by the ring under a uniform horizontal and vertical force at each point of the same kind, and equal in intensity; for such a system of forces is equivalent to a constant normal force around the curve. For convenience,
these forces are represented in Fig. (21) along the two diameters, each little line
tance.
representing the force on a unit of disThe pull around the ring is of

the same
course tangential to
(
=p
A
sented
there.
at
and is everywhere This r). pull is repreand B by the arrows

it,
In the ellipse, the vertical lines being unchanged, the total vertical force on the
elliptic
ring
(=
the
sum
of all the little

it
vertical lines) is the

circle,
same as
was
in the
we call the vertical force on quadrant V (= B M) for the circle and

and
if
FIG. 21.
i
JrjTT* i
42
(=:
B' M') for the
ellipse,
.
we
.
will
.
have
(21.)
V=
Notice, however, that in the ellipse the force is distributed over the distance
O' B' and not over a distance
= O B.
Hence the the amount

In the
intensity of the force V, or of that force on each unit of

[
distance, is not the
same as
in the circle.
little verti-
ellipse (Fig. 21)
each
cal line represents, therefore, the force
on
a distance greater than a unit. Let O' B' Then to obtain the intensity c O B.
of
V, divide
it
by the space over which

Thus,
let
it is
distributed.
^-QB^^XO
represent the vertical and horizontal intensities in the circle. We have al-
ready seen that in the

Py =
circle
Px = p.
Let p y and p'x represent the vertical and horizontal intensities in the ellipse.
Then
- V - Y = J^ py ~O' B'~c.OB c
'
(22.)
43
The
lines representing the
"
"
pulls
at
and C (as B N) are also unchanged. Hence the pulls at those points in the elliptic ring are the same as in the circular
;
that
is,
they are equal to

lines are
V = V.
The horizontal
in
all
increased
length in the ratio 1 : c. Hence the sum of the lines representing the hori-
zontal force on a quadrant of the ellipse

(as I' S') is greater than the corresponding line (I S) in the circle in the above
ratio.
Therefore
if
H'
== the horizontal
force on the elliptical quadrant,
H'
(23.)
The length over which

distributed (A'
this force
H'
is
O') does not change, however, and hence the little horizontal lines in both figures represent the force on a unit of distance. Hence the inten-
sity of the horizontal force in the ellipse
has increased just as the length of the lines, or from the equation
H' c. H Px= &-0'=^0
=
Cpx
(24.)
The
horizontal pull in the ring at A' or
44
I'
being equal to the horizontal force on a quadrant is

H'
= <j.H =
e.
V=
"
it
c.
(25.)
is
Hence the " pull not constant as

pulls at B'
around the ellipse was in the circle.
The
But
and A' are as

:
V AT
H'
c.
C'B'
c.
Therefore,
1. The pulls in an elliptical ring are as the axes to which they are parallel.
Again the intensities in the

p'y.p'x:
:
ellipse are
:
~- cpx c
: :
-c
:c:
:
,
c2
And
(AT) 2
Therefore,
2.
(C'B')
8
: :
c*
The
intensities of
the forces in an
ellipse are as the squares of the axes to which they are parallel.
From
this proportion
we have
.
.
c=J^-
(26.)
45
It will be
noted in the
elliptic
that the resultant of the
little
ring horizontal
and vertical loads at any point is not normal to the curve except at the extremities of the axes.
relations
Let us determine the pulls and the between the forces at other
points besides the extremities of the the axes of vertical and horizontal
ellipse.
In the circle (Fig. 22) if we resolve the forces along any two rectangular axes,
A I, and C, B we shall have evidently the same relations between them as when
as
1 t,
resolved along a vertical and horizontal axis. Now the three parallel lines, viz., the diameter, A. I p and the tangents at Cj and B are projected in the ellipse
l
x ,
into three parallel lines, viz.: A',, I',, and the tangents at C', and B\. Similarly
Cj, B,, and the tangents at A and Ij continue parallel in the ellipse. Hence rectangular diameters of the circle be1
come conjugate in the ellipse. The lines representing the forces perpendicular to C, B in the circle become parallel to O'
t
46
Fie. 22.
47
I\ in the
ellipse,
and are changed
in
length just as O' I\ is changed from So the forces which are parallel to
O
l
Ir
C O
in the circle become parallel to C\ O' in the ellipse, and vary as C\ O' does from
0,0.
Let O' !',= / and O 0',= /' and let the total force parallel to O' I', on a quadrant (such as C\ I\ or I', B',) of
the ellipse be O' B/ be=H
the
circle,
=
.
V, and that parallel to radius of Then if r
=
I
(since the force quadrant of the circle as C I is

l
we have
on a
=H=
V=
T)
H: Hl
Hj
t
is
A' or
equal to the pull along the ring at and V, is that at 0^ and B',. I',
JLeucQ proposition 1 may be applied generally to all conjugate diameters in the ellipse that is,
;
total pulls along the ring at the extremities of any two conjugate diam3.
The
48
eters are as the diameters to which they are parallel. Again, the intensities being equal to the total loads divided by the surfaces over which they are distributed, let
p'y
intensity of load parallel to O'
I\
P'x
i
"
"
"
C' O'
Then
Vi
y
i
V
~~
r'
//
r
j^y
"I
f\i~rv~ \j \j i
r.T
r //
r"
r'
p'
Hi
1~~O' I/
.
>
~
r r
y r"
llr"
.
r"
_ PX ~
r
"
.
r'
'
'
i'
r'
r'
~^~
Hence for proposition 4. The intensities of

gate loads
are to
we may read, a pair of conjueach other as the

2,
squares
of
the conjugate diameters to
which they are respectively parallel. To pass from one set of conjugate forces on the ellipse to another let
;
p'x and p'y be the intensities parallel to one

set of
conjugate diameters.
total pulls parallel to same set of conjugate diameters. r" r' be the conjugate semi-diameters.
HI and Vi be
49
Also
let
i
i'
be the corresponding quantities for the

other
set.
Then
,
PX
i
= PX -r" r
r"\
r
r'
'
. .
,~
PX
P X r Tf i
,
r "i
\
r\
Also,
TT
r\ r"
r
Hi
/
I
~
'
TT orH=
TT' .H 1=
Hi
Al
'
,T
1
Hr TT ^ H =-^T'
^ (29 .)
~^-
Similarly
Vi'=Vi -V
The ellipse (Figs. 21 and 22) is the form assumed by a cord under a load composed of horizontal and vertical components which are constant along the horizontal and vertical lines, but which differ from each other in intensity. The diameter
21)
might have
C' B' of the ellipse (Fig. been made shorter
50
instead of longer than that of the circle,
if
required. Cor. If one set of the forces are ver-
tical and the other not horizontal, but inclined at an angle to the horizon (Fig. 23), we still have an ellipse, the direc-
tions of the forces giving
the directions
(A.\
of
two conjugate diameters

O').
O' and
B\
Then,
if
p' x
i
the intensity of
the inclined force and the vertical force,

4,
'
intensity of
we have by
(Bi
O')
2
:
proposition
'
p'x
:p'v
(A!
O')
So
proposition 3, if the cord at B/ or C/ and along that at A/

1
from
V = pull H =
1
'
H!
Vi
BI
'
O'
A!
O'.
From we have
meters
eters.
;
the first of these propositions the ratio of the conjugate diaand from the second we find the
extremities of those diam-
pulls at the
Knowing two conjugate diameters and the angle (90-^*) between them we can readily obtain the ellipse.
51
To
of
obtain the pulls at the extremities
any diameter, such as

This
is
B,.
merely passing from one set of conjugate diameters to another and

FIG. 23.
equation (29) gives the pull at B,, for instance, as
O'K
52
(O'
etc.
being conjugate to C, O' BJ,

fact is
etc.,
An important
now
to
be noted.
Whenever the load on a cord is entirely normal to it, at that point the pull
along the cord
is
of the normal load
equal to the intensity multiplied by the
radius of curvature.
For the cord
situated to a circular cord
at that point is similarly of the same
curvature and under a load of the same

intensity. Thus, in the ellipse (Fig. 21) the action of the load at the extremities of the
axes
is
entirely
normal, for at A' and
I'
the horizontal component of the load vanishes and leaves only the vertical, which, at these points, is normal to the
curve.
tal
So
at C'
load has
and B' only the horizonvalue, and its action is

arc,
there normal to the curve.
Consider the elementary
d s,
at A',
for instance, which is subjected to this normal load. It is balanced under the
T' (Fig. 24) coming equal pulls T from the adjoining parts of the cord, and
53
the normal load
curvature.
p d s, which gives
it its
if it
loaded with a normal load = p ds. Then, be acted on at its two ends by tensions
Imagine a circle under a constant normal force of intensity p. Take an equal little arc d s of it,
=
;
T', it is
evident that
it
will
have the same curvature as the arc

ellipse
or,
of the
conversely, if it has the same the curvature, pull around the circle
must be
T=T
f
.
FIG. 24.
Hence, having given the load on the curve at any point where it is normal, we determine easily the pull along the cord at that point. For, in the circle,
H = V = T = px
and in the
H'
= py
=p
r,
ellipse at A'
=p' y p
54
Where p
radius of curvature. If A' O'
=
21)
and O' B'
c r in the ellipse (Fig.
we have
p
at A'
=
r
c
c a r.
.'.H'
2 p' y. c r r=
-^-c 2 r
So
tical
H = 2 p m (Bankine's C. E., p 165). But H = p p == % p m (since p = 2 m at

the vertex). If the load be everywhere normal to the cord the above equation will apply to
in the parabola under uniform verloads (Case I.) we have seen that
every point, or
=pp
the load
is
be a general equation of the curve.
And
further,
when
every-
where normal we have already seen that the pull along the cord must be constant, as there is no tangential force to change
it.
Hence,
=pp =
a constant.
is
(31.)
"When the load p
constant, of course,
55
p must be constant
too,
and we have the
circle already discussed.
When^? varies,
p must vary
inversely as p.
FIG. 25.
Case VI.
in
Ifp
to
proportion
increases in value just the distance of the
56
points
line
of the
(Fig.
cord above a horizontal

25), the
MN
cord assumes
the shape of the hydrostatic arch. This curve possesses geometrically the loops shown in the figure and may be extend-
ed indefinitely, but for our purpose
it is
evidently only necessary to discuss that part between the points C and B (Fig. 26) where the tangents are vertical.
Taking L (Fig. 26) for the origin, if the intensity of the load then be y Q (=. A. L). multiplied by a constant, or w y ,
then at any other point it is w y. Hence the equation of the curve is
T=pp=wyp=wy
= a constant
(y and p Q are the values of the ordinate and radius of curvature at A). Let us resolve the normal load on C
A B
as
we
did in the
vertical
circle, into
its
horizontal
and
components.
As
was the
case in the circle, these will be for each point equal in intensity to each other and also to the normal force, or
= px
pv-
But these
quantities are
no longer
58
all along the from to but curve, vary point. point If we form the parallelogram of forces
constant (as in the circle)
for any arc
A D (as in Fig. 27),t.he side N F = F S, since H = T = a constant, and F G must represent the resultant of the whole load on A D both in amount
and
direction.
vertical
The
component
FE
of
F G is
equal to the vertical component S SF, or

Vertical load on
sin
i.
X of
=H
AD =T
sin i
At
B the
i
vertical load
= T = H =Y
(since
90 there).
total load
So the horizontal component of the on A D is G E, and since
NF = GS = GE + FX
we have
horizontal load on
i
AD
= G E = N F-F X = H-H cos =

H
(1
.-.
cos
i).
At B,
90
Horizontal load on
AB=H
(Icost)
On
the arc
DB
= H H
Horizontal load
= H cos
i.
59
The
vertical load
:
on
A D may
be thus
expressed
sin i
=
FIG. 27.
sinj
The
horizontal load thus
60
wf ydy=w.
And
if
~y
(33.)
ordinate of B, the hori2
zontal load on
A B is H = w y ^~^
(34.)
For formula
see Bankine, C.
for radius of
curvature
The equation T
=H=
w>2/
=w
y p, enables us to solve problems similar to those under the parabola.

Case VII. If we construct a curve from the last one by using the same ordinates and by changing all the abscissas
in the ratio c
:
1,
so that the
new
co-or-
dinates of a point shall be y and c x, and at the same time change the hori-
zontal
forces
in
the same proportion,
leaving the new curve and

so
the
vertical
ones
unchanged,
of forces
new system
evidently be parallel of the former, and will be projections This new curve C' A B' balanced.
obtained will
" Geostatic," and bears (Fig. 28) is the " a relation to the " Hydrostatic strict-
61
ly analogous
lipse
to
that between
the
el-
and
circle.
Hence,
N
total vertical load on A B' = V 1 l, q ~ V = pull along cord at B'. Total horizontal load on A B' = H' = ^ OJ c H = pull along cord at A'. J
The
FIG. 28.
62
The
intensities are
For horizontal load p' x
H'
H
I
=rrr DA. =TTT O A. =^?o;
(V
Pa.
and
jt? y
referring to the hy-
drostatic curve.)
The load at A and B' and C' being altogether normal (it is not so at the
other points), let p' and p\ be the radii of curvature at
and
B'.
Then
In the hydrostatic
H= Pyp
.'.
cH
<
R'
cpyp
'
Py
P'O
Po
=
Po
So
=p' x p'i
=cpx p'i =
V.
But
in the hydrostatic
'PxPi
.
'
=
-
(38.)
63
These
radii are useful in
drawing the
geostatic curve.
Case VIII. So far we have discussed the curves assumed by cords under loads distributed according to some
simple law.
But
it
is
possible to dis-
FIG. 29.
cuss the more general problem Given a load that varies and is distributed in
:
will cause the

ly,
any manner, required the curve which it cord to take or converse;
given a curve, required the character and distribution of the load to produce
it.
The most
is
useful form of the prob-
lem
that
in
which we assume the
64
shape of the cord, and the vertical components of the load, and require to be found the intensity and distribution of
the horizontal components of the load
necessary to produce equilibrium. To illustrate Assume the curve to be

:
circle,
and the
vertical load to
be unithat
form
in intensity,
we
see at once
the horizontal load should be also uni-
form, and of intensity equal to that of the vertical load.
But generally Let C A B (Fig. 29) be some assumed curve, and let the vertical load be known in amount and dis:
tribution.
Making some changes

the
letters
let
in the
signification of
heretofore
used,
now
Y = vertical load
Y!
H=
H!
on any arc A D. on the semi-cord A B. horizontal load on any arc A D.

vertical load
"
half -cord
A B.
H =
Px
PQ
P
pull along cord at (the quantity heretofore denoted by H). and py the horizontal and vertical
intensities as heretofore.
value of py at the point A. and PI radii of curvature at
and B.
65
The
vertical load
on an arc
pydx
o
AD
.
is
=
/
(39.)
Again
vertical projection of the
at the horizontal point A, the element of the
curve being
vertical,
is
zero, the load is entirely
and consequently at that point normal to the curve. Hence the pull
along the cord at
A is H =PoP
To discuss the forces upon an D. Draw tangents at A and D.

meet at F
(Fig. 29),
arc
They
through which point
the resultant of the total load on

pass. the vertical
AD
must
The
vertical load is also
component
of the pull along
the cord at D, for these two forces, being the only vertical ones connected
with
other,
A
off
D, must
therefore,
needs balance each
Lay
tical
FN = E
S X.
Lay
off
FE
ver-
and
~y
p y dx. Complete the rectThe

i
angle F cord at
pull along the
D = F S = FE
cosec
= V cosec i
(40.)
66
Also,
SE
= FX = V
cot
horizontal
compound
.
of pull along the cord at
(41.)
But the horizontal
pull at
is
H
.-.
GE = H - V
=FN = GS.
cot
of horizontal load
on
=H= AD
resultant
(42.)
The
intensity of this horizontal load
may be expressed
PX
thus
H _d ~~
dy
At
'-
(V cot
i)
_
load
dy
the vertical
dy
.
(43.)
be represented by 29). If the cord be itself vertical at that point, B K Vj will be equal to the it at B. If the cord is inpull along
this
.
=V B K (Fig.
t
Let
clined as in the figure,
draw
its
tangent
it
atB, and
BL
and
B cosec along the cord.
e\
Vi cosec
pull
K L = B K cot ii = H
component
Vj
cot
= horizontal
Vj
of this pull. cot i l resultant of entire H!
horizontal load on
A B.
67
It
i
= horizontal
may
often happen that
E = V cot
component
along the cord at = than
GS
H
A
FN = H
of the pull (Fig. 30) is greater
horizontal
In such cases pull along the cord at A. E cot i is negative, which indicates that the horizontal load be-
tween
and D,
for at least a part of
FIG. 30.
this distance,
must be contrary
in direc;
tion to that heretofore discussed
that
it
must exert an inward pull instead of an outward one (Fig. 30). If this "inward " were removed or replaced by an pull outward one, the curve would evidently be flattened about A.
68
We may
relation
illustrate
geometrically the
all
between the forces in

vertical
parts
of
AB.
The
load
and
given, draw
F E v (Fig. 32) = the fatal vertical load on A B, and lay off on it F E' = vertical load on the arc A D'. F E" = " A D", etc.
curve being-
Draw
off
a horizontal line at
FN
and
K, each
=H =
and lay
pull at
A.
Draw through F
lines parallel to the
69
tangents at D' D" D"', E' E" E'", etc., lines
horizon.
etc.,
and through
to the
Then
parallel the oblique lines
S',
S", etc., represent the pulls along the cord at D", etc., while E' S', E" S', etc., represent the horizontal components
of these pulls.
Lay
off
from each point

each equal to
S' S", etc., horizontal lines,
N, and draw through the points G' It G", etc., thus obtained, a curve.
will evidently
through
zontal
S' S", etc.,
be similar to that drawn and the line G' E'
will represent the resultant of the hori-
load
that
must be distributed
along the curve from A to D'; G" E", the resultant of the horizontal load be-
tween
(Fig.
and D", and so on. 32) is really formed from the
parallelogram of forces for the arcs
D', etc.; this parallelogram being at D' G' S', in which E' S' is the horizon-
FN
G'
tal
component
of the pull at
and
the resultant of
the horizontal
load on
D'.
As the
etc.,
abscissas of the curve
increase to the left of
F G' G" r F E v from
70
the^point F to G'' (which correspond to D" on the curve), the horizontal load
FIG. 3
1
acts
outward
011
the arc
D".
G'".
scissas
then diminish
to
The abHence
71
between D" and D'" on the curve, the horizontal load must act inwards as
shown
in
(Fig.
31).
abscissas
increase until
horizontal
From Of" we reach
the
Gv
Hence the
load acts outward
throughout the remainder of the cord.
The points n and n' correspond to those arcs on which the resultant of the horThus on the arc A n the negative horizontal load is just equal to the positive, and hence their sum zero. So on the arc A n'. Note that the abscissas of the curve
izontal load is zero.
G'
Gv
are not the intensities of
the horizontal loading, but that each such abscissa represents the algebraic sum of the entire horizontal load between A and
the point to which the abscissa corre-
sponds.
The
intensity in
question has
already been shown to be
dB. dy
In this expression d the difference of two neighboring abscissas of the curve F G' .G v as for instance, d
. .
H=
72
G' E'
G" E".
And d
?/
vertical
projection of the arc D' D'' of the cord to which the above corresponds.
ARCHES.
FIG. 33.
ii
Let us imagine the curve
of the cord
to be reversed, and the cord itself to be replaced by a thin metal strip, which,
like the cord, shall
be practically without
transverse stiffness, but, unlike the cord, shall be able to resist a compressive
force in the direction of its
length at
distrib-
every point.
Let the loads be
uted
as heretofore, except that
where
there are horizontal components of the load, these should act inward, where
upon the cord they acted outward, and

vice versa.
We then
have what
is
called
73
a " linear arch
it
or rib
"
;
and the curve
assumed by
distributed
be identical with that of the cord under equal and similarly

will
loads.
If
the
loading
rib
is
changed change in shape just as the cord would do under similar circumstances. "linear In practice there are no arches," but the discussion of them enables us to determine the form of
If we know equilibrium for real arches. the form that a linear arch would as-
in
distribution, the
will
sume under a given load, we can find the "line of pressures" in the real arch. This line and the value of the thrusts
at all its points enable us to solve problems that arise in arch building.
1.
the
Suppose, for instance,
we
desire to
construct an arch to bear a uniform vertical load, such as that discussed in Case
I.
The shape of the linear rib under such a load is a parabola. We then have, 1 Step. Assume this curve for the in-
trados
CAB (Fig, 34).
If the arch
and
the load be of
homogeneous
material,
the shape of the extrados, or outside of
74
the load, will be distance between
constant.
2
MY
M', the vertical
C A and
M Y being
AL
Is to determine the depth Step. of the keystone. This depth is always greater than necessary simply to
prevent the crushing of the material of

FIG. 34.
the arch under the thrust at the crown.
from the best examples depth of the keystone in In single arches

"
Prof. Eankine's empirical rule derived is to make the

feet
1
!
V. 12 x radius of curva'e at the crown.
,,/,
In arches of a series
V.17 x radius of curva'e at the crown.
J
75
3
of
" line Step. Determine whether the
pressures" can He
"
in
the "middle
third
of the ring of voussoirs. It should be restricted to the middle third to prevent the voussoirs tending to open at
any
We
of the joints. can test this as follows
Suppose the voussoirs to be constant in depth all around the arch as in (Fig. Consider any part of the arch in34). cluded between the vertical plane (A L) at the crown, and a vertical plane at any other point, as D' P'. The calculated
horizontal thrust along the linear rib, which coincides in shape with the soffit
A,
is
head
at
indicated by the arrow with its A. Let the horizontal thrust
of the rib at D'
row with
its
be indicated by the arhead at D' pointing in an
crown take
L.
plied to
opposite direction to that at A. At the A not greater than % A
Imagine a left-handed couple ap-
AL
arch, whose force = H = the thrust at A, and whose lever- arm = A K. Apply an equal and opposite couple on the plane
in the vertical plane of the
76
D' P', with a force H', equal to the horizontal thrust of the rib at D'. Its lever-
arm
P' must then

H.
AK
H'
H = H' .-. D' P' = A These couples being equal and opposite do not change the conditions of
In; the parabola
K.
equilibrium of the section of the arch L D', but they transfer the line in which
the thrust acts from
D' to
P.
We
can repeat the process as often as we choose by taking parts L D", etc.; and if the curve drawn through the points
P' P", etc., lies within the third of the arch-ring, the arch
middle
is
suffi-
ciently stable. In the case before us, the horizontal
thrust being constant for every point of the rib C A, the lever-arms D' P', D" P",
are also equal, and therefore the " " line of K' is merely the pressures raised vertically a distance parabola
etc.,
=A
K.
If
K' does not
lie
in the
middle
third, a slight increase in the voussoirs,
77
especially
towards the springing,

difficulty.
will
usually remove the
4
soirs,
Step.
The
joints
between the vous-
such as D' G (Fig. 35) are usually made normal to the soffit A C, but whether
D' must be such that at
this
be done or not, the direction of G S, where the
line of pressures
cuts
it,
the angle in-
cluded between S
and S T (the be less than the angle of
N (the normal to G D') tangent at S to K K') may

friction of the
material of the voussoirs.
The best
D' G,
posetc.,
sible direction for the joints
78
would be
to
make them perpendicular

component
of
to
KK'. The
horizontal
the
thrust (H) along the curve of pressures in a parabolic arch, is, as we have seen,
constant
at
but the thrust along the curve
A to C, and its value be determined by the any point may formulae in Case I.
(T) increases from
Parabolic stone or brick arches are noi
common, because
it is
rare to have such
a distribution of the load as that supposed above.

2.
But
if
we
reverse the curves

II.
dis-
cussed under Cases

a form of
plicable.
and III., we have arch much more frequently ap-
Thus, suppose the arch and its backing to be homogeneous, and that the
extrados of
this
loading
is
horizontal
Y), and suppose the action of the load to be entirely vertical. Then the arch and its backing are similar to the
(M
metal sheet and the cord discussed in

the cases just referred to, and therefore the form of the linear rib under such a
79
load will be a catenary or transformed catenary usually the latter.
FIG. 36.
Assume
this curve
for the soffit
CA
80
determine the depth A L (Fig. 36) the line of the pressures K'; and the
; ;
FIG. 37.
direction of
case.
the joints
as in the last
In this case, as in the parabola,
81
is
constant,
is
and hence the curve
of
merely the curve C raised vertically through a distance A K.

pressures
Example.
Let the data

height
of
arch be (Fig. 37) span
C B
for a required 10' ; rise
O A =
4';
extrados*
above springing at C = 10'. Let the arch and brickwork be of solid brick-
work whose weight w per cubic

112
Ibs.
foot
The equation of the transformed catenary passing this C A B is
Where y
ing at
zontal).
=AY
6'
(the origin be-
and the axis of abscissas hori-
First find m, the modulus of the cor-
responding
(14)
common
catenary.
By
eq.
82
At the point C x
10ft.
.-.
=
ft.
ft.
and
y'
m=
4.54
= YN.
of the curve,
Then determine points

thus
x
;
for
1,
for x
for x
= 2, y = = 4, y =
curve
for #
etc
3,
Describe
points.
the
through these
The thrust
at the
crown
is
(for a
unit of length of the arch)
.-.
From
H = wm* from eq. (16). H = (112) (4.54) = 2,308.3 Ibs. eq. (15) area A Y M C =
8
E Weight
of load
E~ m
= 36.32 sq.
ft.
AYMC
=P=
=
From
4,067.84 Ibs. T eq. (18) thrust at C
(112) (36.32)
4/p^-H 2
4,677.1 Ibs.
Inclination at
C
x l
Tan
i,
=
)
dx,
:
*^=^ 2m
EW
.-.
E m
\
*-
60
33'.
83
The formula for depth of keystone will be satisfied by making the depth of the arch A L 9", length of one brick
oc CO
for this gives 9" X 12" =108 square inches to bear the thrust 2,308.3
H=
Ibs.,
or
4,677.1 Ibs.
The
latter
is
the greatest thrust in the arch.
84
It is easy to see that K' will be in the middle third, for even at C the dis-
tance of the point of the
curve
K'
vertically over C, from the nearest point of C A, is approximately

6
cos (90
60
32')
5"+.
The extrados of the transformed catenary need not be the directrix it may be another transformed catenary,
MY
provided these catenaries have the same

directrix.
To
illustrate:
a unit of the material between
Suppose the weight of and
MY
CAB
of
w.
Then
the intensity of verti-
cal pressure at
(Fig. 38)
is
=w
any point
y.
CAB
If a heavier build-
ing material were used this vertical pressure could be brought upon G by a less
height of it. Let this heavier material have a weight per unit = w and let
w
Then
over
a
=w.
2
column
of the heavier material
G and of
a height
f y would give
85
the same pressure as the whole column of the lighter, or
o
--w'y
(47.)
At each point (Fig. 38) lay off two-thirds of the vertical ordinate, and
through these points draw C" A" B." The upper service of the load may have this form, and yet still be the shape of the linear arch balanced under
CAB
CAB
the applied forces.
The equation
of
A B being
y =
that of C''
-T
1
is
+ E
A" B"
evidently
**>
E "I
example
(48.)
The
eral.
principle of this
is
gen-
When
the
extrados
is
a transformed
catenary, note that, since in all the forthe weight mulae under Case III., w
corresponding to a unit of surface
of
86
the space between and must make in these formulae
CAB
n
w'
M Y,
we
Where
w'
=
n
weight
of
the
building
material and
= AA
"
YA
is
In arches of this class no provision needed for horizontal thrust on the

the
spandrels, as
arch
is
equilibrated
under vertical loads alone. In all stone or brick
arches,
the
changes in the curve of pressures K K' due to passing loads are usually slight, because the weight of such passing loads
is
generally small compared

itself
with the
backing. case in
weight of the arch

3.
and
its
The
simplest
practical
which a uniform normal load (such as that discussed in Case IV.) can be applied to an arch is when it is subjected to water pressure, the arch ring being
horizontal instead of vertical.
Such a
pressure will exist on an empty well constructed in a reservoir or other body of
87
water (Fig.
39).
For each horizontal
considered layer of the well wall may be normal uniform a to as subjected pressFIG. 39.
an intensity due to the depth of This intensity the water at that layer. will of course diminish (and so will the
ure of
88
pressure on the wall) from one layer to another as we come towards the top.
The
soffit of
such a well should be of
circular form (Case IV). The thickness of the wall at any depth must be determined
by the thrust, which is constant around any given layer, and is
all
T = p r = w y r.
Where w
and y
(49.)
weight of a unit of water depth of water at the layer in
question.
In determining the line of pressures consider a section of the wall befween
two
yertical planes
not parallel as heresoffit.
tofore,
but both normal to the
Take
for the lever-arm of
The
(Fig. 39) a distance force is still to be
= = H = T.
the couple at A K \ A L.
At
the thrust
apply an equal couple with force along the soffit at that

is
point,
which
also
=T =
H. Then the
lever-arm must be equal to A K. Hence we see that the curve of pressures is a

circle parallel to the soffit,
and may pass through the middle of the arch ring.
89
This kind of arch
may be used
for
dams
or the walls of reservoirs.
(See
Fig. 40.)
There is no case in ordinary pracwhere the pressures upon an arch are strictly identical with those on an el4.
tice
90
liptical
cord, for in this case the press-
ure must be constant in intensity along both the horizontal and vertical projections of the arch, but the intensity along the horizontal must differ from that
along the vertical in a constant ratio But, as Prof. Rankine says, (Fig. 41).
FIG. 41.
H,
the curve of equilibrium for the arch of a tunnel through earth, when the depth
below the surface

to an ellipse.
is
great compared with

itself,
the rise of the arch
approximates
The pressures in a mass of earth are intermediate in character between those
91
existing in a solid and those in a liquid Thus a little cube of earth (Fig.
mass.
42) under the weight of the superincumbent column of earth /?, presses downFIG. 42.
ward with a force equal to its own weight and that of the column above.
It also presses
out horizontally
with
force,
a force less than this
downward
92
but
to
it.
always bearing a constant ratio If the little cube were solid it

;
would have no horizontal push

FIG. 43.
xL
if
liquid,
that horizontal push would equal its pressure downward. If the upper surface of the earth is inclined, the outward
93
it
push which always remains parallel to becomes inclined too, and is then "con"
jugate
If
to the vertical.
M Y (Fig.
when
43)
is
the surface of the
earth,
O, then that we may assume
Y A is great compared with Y A and M C differ so slightly
We then
tical load
them to be equal. have on the arch a uniform verwhose intensity
=
earth=w#
,
Py
= (Y A) x weight of
px
)
a unit of the
and a horizontal load whose uniform

tensity
is
in-
sity (p y
equal to the vertical intenLet multiplied by a constant.

f)r
-
=c
Py
(a constant).
Then
px = c*wy and
c
\ ^L
py
From
the discussion of Case V.
we
see
that c must be the ratio of the axes of
spectively parallel.
the ellipse to which the pressures are reHence if the arch be
a semi-ellipse and
? A O
OB
be given, we have
OB =
r^
.'.
OA =
OB
c
94
From
soffit.
these data draw the curve of the
The
thrust along the
soffit at
= H = Py 9o = AtC or Bit is V = p x g
At other points
eq. (27)
it
^y $V
im
may be gotten from
Case V.
We
can determine the curve of pressFIG. 44.

JL
ures by a
in the last
method
case.
similar to that used
curve
K'
will
Here, however, not be parallel to
the
A,
since the thrusts along C A are not constant, but increase from A to C. Assume
95
A K
fall
=i f (Fig. 44)
L, then the arch
must be so proportioned that

within the middle third.
If the arch
K' shall
C A B is not to be a ^miabove ellipse (as assumed) but only a segnient of one, a few trials will enable us to get the ellipse from the data already
given.
The
strictly true
required by earth pressure

static arch.
5.
curve of equilibrium is the Geo-
An
arch built with the curve disis
cussed in Case VI.
known
is
as the
Hythe
to
drostatic arch, from the loading there described

arch.
fact that
similar
the pressure of the water upon a vertical
For if (Fig. 45) be the surface of the water, then its pressure on C A B
normal and proportioned at each point Y. This pressdepth below ure, as has been shown, may be resolved into a vertical and horizontal pressure
is
M Y
to the
tal
at each point, this vertical and horizonpressure being equal in intensity to
each other at every point, and also to
96
the normal pressure of which they are the components.
to ^
The above form

in
of arch
may be
applied
two
cases.
97
(1) To bear the pressure of water or other liquid. Thus in the case of a river tunnel (such as those at Chicago) where the top of the tunnel is practically on a
level
with the bottom of the river, we might use the hydrostatic arch.
The equation
of the curve is
The
*
I
vertical load
on the
half -arch
AB
pdx=\=wy
Xi
p =thrust along arch at B.

l
The
horizontal pressure against
AB
.
y=iD
y\
y^-y<f -=H=
s
w#
/>o
(51.
The 'thrust along
the arch
is
constant, or
=H=
a),
V.
the depth
The
rise
),
A O (=
AY
(=
p,)
f/
and the
radii at
are connected
and by the following apand

(p
proximate equations. The co-ordinates of B being x and y l? let

l
(52)
98
Po
=V
'
a,f
= a +^7 = in 1 *-^)
53 -)
The
line of
pressures in a hydrostatic
arch, since
the
soffit,
T is constant, is parallel to as in circular arches.
99
ft.
Suppose the span to be 50 and the depth A Y = 16 ft. Find first the rise A O. In eq. (52) x = 25' y = 16', and a few trials show that a = rise = 20' about. Hence
Example.
(Fig. 46)
32Jft.
and^ =
14.1
ft.
With
the
tion
these data describe the curve of
soffit
besides
and
the radius at any other point B being given by the equa-
The
thrust at
62.4 Ibs.
.
w =
The
A = H = wy
32,448
$>
Here
H=
Ibs.
rule for the depth of keystone in a
single arch gives
Depth A
L =
V .12
32T5
1-9 f t-
This is ample. It only gives about 120 Ibs. per sq. in. as the pressure at the crown.
T
ring
being
H, the depth of the arch-
may be uniform.
100
when
The hydrostatic arch is also used the loading is homogeneous masonry up to the extrados M Y, provided
(2)
the spandrels be suited to sustain a horizontal thrust at each point of the arch equal to the vertical load at that
point.
As
all
stone or brick arches sink at the
crown when the centers are removed,

they will exert at other points an out-
ward horizontal thrust. Now if we sume that this horizontal thrust is
as-
at
every point equal in intensity to the vertical loading at that point, the curve of
equilibrium under such a system of forces is the hydrostatic curve. This is
the assumed condition of the forces act-
ing in the Neuilly and other bridges of

this class.
the spandrels cannot be made and solid this form should not be used, but when they can be, as in the
firm
When
successive arches of a stone bridge,
it is
advantageous rather than otherwise, to have such a thrust from the arch against
the
spandrel
while
the
hydrostatic
101
given span and rise gives a greater water-way than the corresponding catenary would.
curve of
The catenary needs no resistance from the spandrel, being balanced under the vertical load alone.
Example. Let the span be 100 ft. and rise 30 ft. Then the depth of loading at the crown (= A Y, Fig. 46) will be found from equation 52
Then
Hence
Ibs.)
OQ
91.7ft.
Q
H = wy^
107,600
(putting
w =
160
Ibs.
Depth
of keystone
A/TT2^T9r7
3.3
ft.
This gives a pressure of 32,280 Ibs. to the sq. ft., or about 225 Ibs. to the sq. in. 6. If the vertical forces vary as in the
hydrostatic arch, and the horizontal are not equal to them, but differ at each
point in a constant ratio, the curve of equilibrium (Fig. 47) becomes the Geo-
102
static
curve discussed in Case VII. This curve derives its name from the fact that
is
the system of pressures above described similar to that exerted by a mass of
loose earth against Let the horizontal surface of the earth

FIG. 47.
CAB.
MT=
;
then.
at each point
of
the arch there
is
vertical
pressure of intensity (p' y ) probelow portional to the depth (y) of
Y, and a horizontal pressure whose

'
in-
tensity
ratio,
is
less
than p
in
a constant
or
p' x
c*p' y
103
being taken to represent the ratio of the intensities). Assume a hydrostatic arch whose verti(c
2
cal
dimensions shall be identical with
those of the geostatic arch, and
whose
span (C B) (Fig. 48)
shall
be connected
oo
with the span of the geostatic arch (C' B') by the equation
C'B'
(55.)
104
The
intensity of the vertical pressure (the horizontal is like it) in this hydro-
static
arch must be
Py
From
these data deduce a hydrostatic arch and then pass by parallel projec-
tions to the required geostatic arch.
values
Equations (35) (36) (37) (38) give the of the quantities needed in dis-
cussing the Geostatic arch. Example 1. Let the span of the geostatic arch (C' B'= 100 ft.) be given;
also the depth of the loading (A 20 2 the of the also ratio ft.) pressures (c J); and the weight of a cubic ft. of the
;
Y=
loading
=w
100
Ibs.
Whence
P'y*
= Wo = 2,000 Ibs. =
c
Then
since
= 58 Ibs.
"
.2000
l,154.71bs.
We.
find from equations (52)
(53)
(54)
for the hydrostatic arch
105
Else
a
P
P!
= O A = 57.7 = 140.93
ft.
ft.
H=V= T =
=363 ft. pyo Po = 1,154.7 X
140.93
162,700 Ibs. nearly.
In the geostatic arch

equations (35) (36) (37)
Thrust
at
we have from
(38)
Ibs.
Ibs. nearly.
and
= V = V = 162,700
H'
A=
Po'
= cH =
ft.
=46.97
2.
p,'
94,300
62.65ft.
Example
ft.
Suppose the span = 100 y Q = 20 ft. and rise, a depth, 30 ft. given to find c and thence
AY =
;
the hydrostatic arch.
From
equation (52)
b
we
find
40.71,
l
and thence in same equations x = 39. Hence the span of the hydrostatic arch
=
Andasc.CB=
2x
78
ft.
C'B'
Then proceed
as in the last example. In
106
this
example the hydrostatic arch smaller of the two.
is
the
The
arch
is
line of
found as
geostatic
pressures in a geostatic it was in the elliptic.

is
The
the true curve

earth pressure,
is
of
equilibrium under
but
when
with
approximates the described through the points C'

it
A Y A O,
(Fig. 48)
great compared
ellipse
B' as
already stated.
7. Convenience, or other reasons, will often dictate the form of the arch with-
out reference to the loading, and again necessity may make the vertical load
different from any and all the cases we have discussed. In such instances Case VIII. will enable us to determine the character and amount of the horizontal forces which must be applied through the resistance of the spandrel, when once the form of the arch and the vertical load are known. When the horizontal forces thus re-
quired are thrusts directed against the

arch, it is generally possible so to build the spandrel that the arch may be se-
107
cure,
but when they are the opposite, or

it
outward pulls on the arch, then

difficult
is
do so requires tension between the arch and the spandrel. In such cases it is best to change the form of the arch.
to insure stability, as to
The
discussion of Case VIII. of cords
enables us to determine the necessary data in the case of similar linear arches
under similar loads.

Fig. (50)
gives the geometrical con-
108
struction of the triangle of forces at every point of the semi-arch (Fig. 49). may discuss a given linear arch
AB
We
1.
CAB under a given vertical load, by determining

:
The
thrust at crown
which
is
H
2.
=jpo/>
(560
Total horizontal thrust required on
any arc
equation
D',
A D",
etc.
This, from
(42), is
H = H - V cot.
If
t.
(57.)
this
be negative the spandrel must
exert a pull instead of a thrust.
On
tion
the half-arch
AB
T
the above equa
becomes
H!
D' counting from On any upwards, the total spandrel thrust is

,
=H arc B
-V
v
cot. \.
(58.)
H,
-H
Vi
cot.
a,
+V
cot.
i.
(59.)
This last expression has at least one maximum value corresponding to some
arc
D.
In the Fig.
(49) this value
corresponds to the arc
D'".
109
110
Let
this
maximum
Hm and
Then
let im
value be denoted by
the inclination at D'".
Hw =
~D"' is
cot. t\
-f-
cot.
= E'" G'".
(60.)
(Fig. 50)
known as the " point of rupture." There the action of the spandrel ceases
to be a thrust, and must, above that point, for some distance at least, become
tension.
intensity of the horizontal or pull in any layer (as thrust spandrel between D'" and D' v ) is from equation
3.
The
(43)
'
_
dy
d cv cot. dy
dy
When is positive (that is thrust) p x is negative, as it should be, since it is equal to the increment of the abscissas of the
curve F G' G", etc. (Fig. 50), and these increments are decreasing from G"' to
Gv
At the point
of rupture
0.
(61.)
Ill
We
can determine the point of rupture

:
First, by constructing ways the Fig. (50) and finding the inclination ( m) corresponding to the maximum
in three
abscissa E'" G'". Secondly, by substiin tuting the various values of i and the value of
(H
- H) (eq.
59),
and getting the maximum value of the expression. The i which gives this max-
imum
value corresponds to the point of

Thirdly,
0.
rupture.
(61) #,
4.
by solving equation
The
is
thrust along the rib at every

40,
(62.)
point
from equation
T = V cosec.
and
lines
it
is
represented
by the inclined
of
this
F S' F
is
S", etc., Fig. (50).
The
thrust
horizontal
component
Hr
= V cot.
the abscissas of
K 8', etc.
which are always equal to
the thrust
112
at the crown minus the spandrel thrust between A and the point in question
.
H r = V cot. i = H maximum
H.
(63.)
This
is
evidently a
at the point
of rupture, or, since at the point of rupture,
H = HJ
HB = H
Hm,
we have
x -|-
Hm.
i,
But
...
H - H! = Y! COt. H B = V, cot. i, 4- Hm.
(64.)
This horizontal thrust of the rib at D'"

is
therefore to be balanced by the hori-
zontal reaction of the abutment at

cot.
with the resistance i^) together Vj of the spandrel between B and D'" (
Hm
).
When
the arch
is vertical at
B,
cot. i v
5.
0.
know
cot.
it is necessary to the point of application of the resultant of the forces represented by (V,
i^
In single arches
-f
Hm
in order to determine the
stability of
the abutments.
Take mo-
ments with reference to the axis of ab-
113
scissas
M Y.
Then
if
yB
ordinate of
l
point in question, and ym and y be the ordinates of D'" and B, we have *
= (V
cot. i 1
)y l
+v& H
+ / ymy #B
/
(V l
cot. *,)
yj
dy.
ypxdy /k Vm
HB
(65.)
In this we neglect the spandrel forces above D'" so far as they affect the staThis can be bility of the abutment. done with safety.
The
line of pressures
and depth
of
keystone are determined as heretofore. Example 1. Let the assumed form of

the
soffit
be a semi-circle, and
let the
loading consist of the arch and backing of homogeneous masonry carried up to a

horizontal "extrados"
M Y (Fig.
51).
Place the radius of the arch
Heaviness of
Depth A Y = a r w the material
114
Take the origin of co-ordinates
at
and
1C
*
express the co-ordinates in terms of the
115
inclination
i
of
the arch as
on
p.
217
RanJcinds C. E.
Then
Thrust at crown
=H
= (war)
v
2
war
Vertical load on any arc
cos.
*
= V = wr
i
sin. i
Spandrel thrust on any arc
H = H - V cot.
(
AD i = wr
2
a -
(1
cos. -+ a) cos. --s 2

.
i -\
{'
=. sin.
cos. i
.
i
j
On A B
this
vertical at
B
.
becomes and C)
(since the arch is
H!
'
war 9
Hm
=H V cot. im
Intensity of spandrel thrust
- d (V
,.
--"
cot.
t
(1
a)
cos.
cos.
sin. t
The point
of rupture is
found by put-
116
ting
px
by
trials.
o and finding the value of As a first approximation
im
arc. cos.
+ 30
a
i.
Thrust along the rib
= T = V cosec
-
At
B this
is
Y!
tw/a+l
Y!
cot. e\
-V
So
HB
B.
= Hm = wr
cos.
m-
and
^R
r a /90 HR" 47 / ^m PX
2.
sin
'
* (!
cos
Êxample
r
Let
= 20' A Y = 2.5'.
15
lbs
-
Then
*
= 25 = 1 w = "io 8
(Fig
Then
H = V60,000
^^= 7,500
(
lbs.
sin.*-
cos. i sin.
----
?,
117
At B,
V=
60,000
--
= 20,376 Ibs.
Angle of rupture
im
arc. cos.
-^-
.- 1
6875
= 46
34'
118
HR = H m =
_
60,000
.Six. 947 2
= 8>154
Ibs.
j"
(Fig. 53)
shows the manner
in
which
there
the forces vary. From A to (Fig. 52) must be a pull in the spandrel to
119
produce equilibrium. The total of this pull is small, being
amount
=8,154
7,500
it,
654
Ibs.
To
1
rid the arch of

shall either
so that the part
D A D
be balanced under
the vertical load alone or exert a thrust
outwards, instead of a pull inwards, we 1 A D. A few trials flatten the arc
will
determine this flattening near enough

if
for practice.
(Fig. 54) is to be balanced under the vertical load alone, find
Thus
D AD
1
the center of gravity of the section Draw a vertical line and its load.
D A
1
through this point, then if we can draw a line from any point in the middle
third of the joint parallel to the tanthe arch to there, and from its ingent
tersection with
the arch at
P draw a line parallel to which will intersect A L within the middle third, then the extreme
points of the line of pressures in the section A will be within the middle
third,
erally
and the line of pressures be altogether within it.
will gen-
FIG. 54.
121
The new radius required
for the arc
D A D may
1
also be
by putting
getting r
1
H =
since,
determined roughly war* = R and thence if D A D is to be bal-
anced under vertical load alone, the horizontal thrust at every point of it must be 1 the same and B , the thrust at
=H
andD.
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BERKELEY
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vised edition.
Moncel.
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No.
65.
POCKET LOGARITHMS TO FOUR PLACES OP

DECIMALS.
66.
DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
Thompson.
edition.
With notes by
By
S.
P.
F. L. Pope.
Third
No.
No.
67.-HYDRAULIC TABLES BASED ON "KUTTER'S FORMULA." By P. J. Flynn. Third STEAM-HEATING. By Robert Briggs. 68.
69.
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CHEMICAL PROBLEMS. By
edition, revised, with additions by A. R. Wolff. Prof. J. C. Foye.
Tkird edition, revised and enlarged.
Xo
No.
No.
70.
EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS. By M.
Bertholet.
71.
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J.
A. Schoolbred, and R. E. Day.

S.
John Hopkinson,
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Specht, Prof. A. H. F. Walling.
George J. Hardy, John B. McMaster, and
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No.
SYMBOLIC ALGEBRA: OR, THE ALGEBRA OF ALGEBRAIC NUMBERS. By Prof. W. Cain. 74.-TESTING MACHINES THEIR HISTORY, CON73.
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Electric
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