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Abstract
Under the Mediterranean farming conditions of Syria, rain-fed cropping predominates, but irrigation is increasing where water
sources are available. In both rain-fed or irrigated systems, it is important to understand N use by crops and its behavior in the
soil. In this paper, we report on nitrogen fertilizer-use ef®ciency (NFUE) by wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) under 1/3, 2/3 and
full irrigation with 15N-labeled fertilizer at different application rates (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg N haÿ1) for two seasons with
varying rainfall, i.e. 323 and 275 mm. NFUE values in the above-ground crop varied with measurement date, reaching a
maximum before anthesis, and then, during the grain-®lling period, either remaining constant under irrigation or decreasing,
particularly under the rain-fed conditions. Irrigation increased the recovery of applied N in grain and straw at harvest from
10% in the wetter year to over 60% in the drier year. Nitrogen at 100 kg haÿ1 level increased recovery by >45% in the wetter
year, while fertilizer recovery improved in the drier year only with enhanced water availability from irrigation. The Difference
method (28±95%) for estimating N recovery diverged from the 15N Direct method (21±63%), emphasizing the need to
examine both labeled, and unlabeled, N pools for interpretation of 15N studies. With irrigation, the crop removed signi®cantly
more fertilizer N than under rain-fed conditions, with less remaining in the soil; over 40% of the fertilizer N remained in the
top 20-cm soil as organic N. Irrigation had no effect on the 15N recovery at depth, with no signi®cant re-mineralization being
detected. While NFUE is increased by higher rainfall and irrigation, fertilizer N losses under the Mediterranean climatic
conditions of Syria are low. The apparent inef®ciency induced by organic immobilization adds to total soil N, which can
potentially be used by future crops. # 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
15
Keywords: Ammonium sulfate; N balance; N ®eld experiment; Net N mineralized
cation-exchange capacity (CEC>50 cmolkgÿ1), (b) to assess the impact of irrigation on grain and
which promotes ammonia retention on exchange above-ground plant recovery of fertilizer N under
sites. field conditions; and
Supplemental irrigation in the WANA region, (c) to construct a fertilizer N balance.
beginning in the spring with the onset of increased
evaporative demand and soil water de®cit, is designed A secondary objective was to compare 15N isotope and
to increase and stabilize yield (Perrier and Salkini, difference methods for determining NFUE. While
1991). The higher yields under supplemental irriga- yield and N accumulation data for wheat grown under
tion also promote fertilizer use. Nevertheless, the low Mediterranean climatic conditions of Syria were pre-
recoveries of applied N in rain-fed wheat (Abdel sented in the first paper (Garabet et al., 1998), this
Monem, 1986; Pilbeam et al., 1997) suggest the need companion paper describes NUE during the same two
to improve N-use ef®ciency. seasons.
Under dry conditions, N ef®ciency at harvest gen-
erally ranges from 20 to 80%, depending on factors
such as fertilizer type (Abdel Monem, 1986; Pilbeam 2. Material and methods
et al., 1997), application time and method (Malhi and
Nyborg, 1992), soil type and climatic conditions Full description of the site, climatic conditions
(Fillery and McInnes, 1992; Pilbeam, 1996). While during the experimental period, N fertilizer rates
NFUE can be calculated by two methods: labelled and irrigation treatments are found in Garabet et al.
(Direct) and unlabelled (Difference) N fertilizer, it is (1998). Brie¯y, wheat was sown after a lentil crop in
possible to distinguish between N derived from ferti- 1991/92 (mid-November) and a wheat crop in 1992/
lizer and from the soil pool only with the isotopic 93, with 3 weeks delay in the latter year (early
tracer method (Hauck and Bremner, 1976). The Direct December). 15N-fertilizer (ammonium sulphate) was
method is based on 15N recovery by crops growing in applied on micro-plots (21 m2) in the main plots
15
N-fertilized plots, while the Difference method is (45 m2) at various rates (0, 50, 100 and 150 (kg
calculated by the difference in plant N uptake in N) haÿ1). Supplemental irrigation was applied at 0,
fertilized and unfertilized plots. Estimates of NFUE 1/3, 2/3 and full ®eld capacity to wheat from heading
using 15N are usually lower than those calculated by onwards for two growing seasons, i.e. 1991/92
the Difference method (Harmsen and Moraghan, (323 mm) and 1992/93 (275 mm). Yield, N-uptake
1988; Palta and Fillery, 1993), while the extent of and recovery of 15N in the above-ground crop was
such differences varies depending on crop and envir- monitored at 2-week intervals each year. Soil samples
onmental conditions. were taken from micro-plots three times after sowing
Most NFUE studies using 15N are presented as (35, 140, and 216 days in Year 1, and 38, 120, 184 days
balance sheets at crop maturity (Pilbeam et al., in Year 2) each season to monitor N dynamics in both
1997). While N uptake kinetics by plants during the unfertilized and fertilized (100 (kg N) haÿ1), and rain-
growing season under winter-rainfall Mediterranean fed and full irrigated, treatments for the four repli-
conditions have been investigated (Mary et al., 1987), cates, which involved 16 plots. Nitrogen concentra-
little attention was given to supplemental irrigation, tions were calculated on an area-basis by multiplying
and considerable differences exist between the calcar- %N by the bulk density (1.0±1.3 g cmÿ3) in the
eous clay soils in Syria (Abdel Monem, 1986) and the respective layers.
sandy or duplex soils reported from Australia (Palta Inorganic N was determined in soil samples in
and Fillery, 1993), where a Mediterranean climate also 150 ml 2M KCl (NH4±N) and of deionized water
occurs. (NO3±N) per 30 g fresh soil after shaking for 1 h
Thus, the aims of the 15N-fertilizer experiment (Buresh et al., 1982). The 15NH4±N and 15NO3±N
described here were as follows: forms in these extracts were separated with MgO, i.e.
Devarda's alloy. During distillation, cross-contamina-
(a) to measure yield and the N accumulation by tion was prevented by distilling ethanol between
rain-fed and irrigated wheat throughout the season; samples and, subsequently, by passing steam through
S. Garabet et al. / Field Crops Research 58 (1998) 213±221 215
3. Results
Fig. 2. Nitrogen fertilizer-use efficiency by the Difference and Direct methods for wheat in two seasons.
Difference method were higher compared with the With the Direct method, NFUE substantially
Direct method (45 and 39%, respectively). However, increased with N fertilizer rates in Year 1, particularly
the discrepancy between the two methods was smaller at 100 (kg N) haÿ1, but levelled off at the highest
in Year 2 (10%) than in Year 1 (20%). (150 kg haÿ1) N rate. In Year 2, NFUE values sig-
As the variation was high with the Difference ni®cantly (P0.05) increased as the N application rate
method, we will concentrate on the results obtained increased from 50 to 150 (kg N) haÿ1. Thus, both N
by the Direct method for subsequent interpretation of and water were major yield determinants in Year 2,
NFUE. In Year 1, ef®ciency was increased with re¯ecting the low soil N content (<50 (kg N) haÿ1,
increased N fertilizer rates, with a moderate increase mainly in the 40-cm soil layer) and the limited water
by irrigation; while in the second year, it was increased available from rain alone.
by both N and irrigation levels with a signi®cant
(P0.05) interactions between them. 3.3. Soil N recovery
Irrigation had a moderate effect on NFUE in Year 1
and a marked effect in the drier Year 2; the greatest Recovery of soil inorganic N at different sampling
increase was observed at the ®rst irrigation level (a), times was inversely related to growth and uptake
particularly in Year 2, with NFUE increases of 41, 62, (Table 1); at the season's end, only 20±30% of the
and 88% for the three N levels, respectively; the added N was recovered in the soil under rain-fed
increases in Year 1 were only 0, 15 and 11% with conditions, while in irrigated plots, virtually none
the same N application rates. remained in the soil following the addition of
S. Garabet et al. / Field Crops Research 58 (1998) 213±221 217
Fig. 3. Nitrogen balance sheet for nitrogen fertilizer (100 kg haÿ1) applied to wheat under rain-fed and irrigated conditions in two seasons.
218 S. Garabet et al. / Field Crops Research 58 (1998) 213±221
Table 2
Sources of nitrogen used by wheat at harvest, and net nitrogen mineralized from soil total nitrogen
1991/92
Rain-fed 2.8 55.1 52.5 33.2 Ð Ð 55.1 36.0
Rain-fed100 (kg N) haÿ1 3.2 106.0 52.5 58.8 0 44.8 61.2 12.2
Irrigated 3.6 66.4 52.5 28.4 Ð Ð 66.4 30.3
Irrigated100 (kg N) haÿ1 5.2 125.5 52.5 29.2 8 49.1 76.4 ÿ2.0
LSD (0.05) NW 13.3 11.4 22.6
1992/93
Rain-fed 1.56 34.9 64.2 22.8 Ð Ð 34.9 ÿ6.5
Rain-fed100 (kg N) haÿ1 1.65 66.3 64.2 74.3 2 24.5 41.8 ÿ22.0
Irrigated 3.20 55.4 64.2 19.6 Ð Ð 55.4 ÿ0.2
Irrigated100 (kg N) haÿ1 4.63 98.1 64.2 24.9 10 37.1 61.0 ÿ42.0
LSD (0.05) NW 12.2 11.4 16.9
a
Net N-mineralized[TNU soil inorganic-N at harvest N-loss] - [initial soil inorganic N N fertilizer applied addition through rain or
irrigation].
according to Hart et al. (1986) and Rao et al. (1992). after reaching a peak, by extending the life of green
Fertilizer-N, unaccounted from the 15N balance, was leaves with longer photosynthetic activity. Thus, leaf
used as the N-loss and the amount of N added through area index was greater and longer lasting in irrigated
irrigation ranged from 11.2 to 11.9 (kg N) haÿ1. On than in rain-fed plants. Under the rain-fed Mediterra-
average, about 17 (kg N) haÿ1 more soil N was used nean conditions of Syria, therefore, a relatively small
by wheat in the ®rst year. In both years, more soil N (<30 mm) supplemental irrigation at the sensitive
was used by wheat in irrigated plots than in rain-fed crop-growth period (before heading) can substantially
plots; the net-N mineralized in Year 1 was positive, but increase NFUE at harvest. Similar effects of moisture
negative values occurred in Year 2. on NFUE in wheat were demonstrated by others in the
region (Buresh et al., 1990; Soltanpour et al., 1987).
In accordance with other studies (Abdel Monem,
4. Discussion 1986), NFUE values were low, and did not exceed
60% in either year, even under optimum N and
Focussing on N ef®ciency and its measurements, irrigation levels. Low recoveries of labelled ammo-
this paper complements the ®rst paper (Garabet et al., nium sulphate were also recorded by Pilbeam et al.
1998) which reported crop yields data from the same (1997) for rain-fed wheat growing at the same site in
experiment. Measurements of NFUE generally Syria but at lower rates of 30 (kg N) haÿ1 applied at
showed that values recorded at harvest underestimate autumn. Also, NFUE from the Difference method was
fertilizer N-uptake ef®ciency, since this value was higher than that from the Direct method as shown by
greater at heading than at harvest in both years under Harmsen and Moraghan (1988) and Abdel Monem
rain-fed conditions. This suggests that appreciable (1986). As soil N differences between fertilized and
amounts of N can be lost after heading, possibly unfertilized plots were not signi®cant in either year,
due to either leaf drop induced by water shortage in mineralization±immobilization±turnover was prob-
rain-fed plots, or gaseous losses from plant tops (Mary ably responsible for the discrepancy between the
et al., 1987). Thus, NFUE values recorded are depen- two methods (Jenkinson et al., 1985), with immobi-
dent on the time or the growth stage selected for lization being dominant over mineralization.
evaluation of fertilizer recovery. It was clear that limited moisture (probably induced
However, supplemental irrigation (particularly in a by the wheat/wheat compared to the less moisture-
relatively dry year) can reduce the decline in NFUE demanding wheat/lentil sequence) and, therefore,
S. Garabet et al. / Field Crops Research 58 (1998) 213±221 219
limited root exploitation (75 vs. 100 cm moisture pene- turnover may be an important source of rhizosphere
tration) was a factor in explaining the higher NFUE in C, thus increasing the readily available C fraction for
the wetter year. The crop sequence in¯uences NFUE microbial activity. Hence, the total amount of N
in ways other than moisture availability. Legumes are immobilized in the growing season is likely to
known to increase soil N levels whereas non-legumes increase with increased N application as a result of
(i.e. cereals) usually provide little N bene®t (Giddens increased availability of organic C in the system. The
et al., 1965), or they may induce net N immobilization higher N immobilized and the lower net-N minera-
(Mahler and Hemamda, 1993) as in the second year of lized, calculated from the fertilized plots of this study,
this study: the 3-week delay in the sowing date may con®rm this. However, the crop sequence probably
have been also a factor in the lower ef®ciency values had a signi®cant in¯uence on the mineralization rate.
obtained. For example, we found relatively more net-N miner-
The high total fertilizer N recovered in soil and alized after a preceding lentil crop (Year 1) than after
plants which we observed coincides with previous wheat (Year 2), where net-N immobilization occurred.
work at the same site (ICARDA, 1982), i.e. 95% Similarly, Myers and Paul (1971) found that the
15
N recovery in Mexipak wheat and in the soil at addition of 448 (g wheat straw) mÿ2 increased net
harvest. Also, fertilizer N loss was slightly smaller fertilizer N immobilization by 1.3 (g N) mÿ2. The
than that calculated by Abdel Monem (1986) for urea low proportion of N mineralization from wheat resi-
fertilizer at the same site (11±18%) and the 6±16% dues can be attributed to their high C/N ratio (Bremner
observed by Feigenbaum et al. (1983). However, and Van Kissel, 1992).
Pilbeam et al. (1997) reported higher losses expressed Mineralization of the immobilized fertilizer N
as a percentage of split-applied N (autumn and spring) obviously did not take place in this study since the
for rain-fed wheat. As fertilizer N did not leach amount of N derived from fertilizer measured in the
beyond 40-cm soil depth in the latter study, the soil did not increase any time during the two years.
unaccounted N study was probably due to volatiliza- Shen et al. (1989) showed that the re-mineralization of
tion. labelled-N, which is immobilized within a short period
As considerable amounts of fertilizer N remained in of a few days or weeks, is very slow, even occurring
the soil at harvest, immobilization appeared to be the over several years. Thus, residual immobilized
major process involved. With autumn fertilizer appli- fertilizer N is primarily a long-term source of N for
cation, as in this study, the long period prior to rapid crops; it builds up soil organic N with a bene®cial
spring growth (e.g. from late November to early effect. This means that, under the Mediterranean
March), when soil moisture is conducive to microbial conditions where N losses are relatively low, NFUE
activity, may have promoted N immobilization. With is, to a large extent (Mary et al., 1987), determined by
late fertilizer N application (i.e. in spring) soil micro- competition between the immobilization process and
bial needs are satis®ed by the native soil N so that a plant uptake.
higher percentage of fertilizer N remains available for
crops (Hart et al., 1986). The greater quantity of 15N-
fertilizer remaining as organic N in the 0±20 cm soil 5. Conclusions
layer in the irrigated plots suggests that higher immo-
bilization was stimulated by microbial activity under This study indicated that under the rain-fed wheat-
the more favourable soil-moisture regime. Part of this growing Mediterranean conditions in Syria, recovery
N was probably present in the crop root system, but is <50% of the applied fertilizer N. Immobilization
was unlikely to exceed 5±10% of the N in the above- within the current season is a main cause of unused
ground crop. However, recent estimates from foliar- fertilizer N, considerable amounts of which remain in
applied 15N for several ®eld crops in Australia showed the soil in organic form. However, continued accu-
that below-ground N may represent 25±30% of total mulation of fertilizer N in the topsoil is not a real loss,
crop N, e.g. lupins (Russell and Fillery, 1996). as immobilized N improves soil fertility and reduces
With increased dry-matter production as well as fertilizer N requirements in subsequent years. Addi-
root size from tillering to anthesis, the rapid root tionally, supplemental irrigation can improve fertili-
220 S. Garabet et al. / Field Crops Research 58 (1998) 213±221
zer-N ef®ciency. Management practices (e.g. suitable Fillery, I.R., McInnes, K.J., 1992. Components of the fertilizer
sowing date, proper rotation, supplemental irrigation, nitrogen balance for wheat production on duplex soils. Aust. J.
Exp. Agric. 32, 887±899.
splitting fertilizer N if suitable rainfall conditions Garabet, S., Wood, M., Ryan, J., 1998. Nitrogen and water effects
prevail) that lead to both, lower fertilizer N immobi- on wheat yield in a Mediterranean-type climate. I. Growth,
lization and higher plant N uptake ± and thus higher water-use and nitrogen accumulation. Field Crops Res. 57,
NFUE values, would be bene®cial. The method by 309±318.
which NFUE is calculated can also have a consider- Giddens, J., Arskjad, S., Rogers, T.H., 1965. Effect of nitrogen and
green manures on corn yield and properties of a Cecil soil.
able effect. The mineralization±immobilization±turn- Agron. J. 57, 466±469.
over process and the added N interaction can cause Harmsen, K., 1984. Fertilizer use in rain-fed agriculture. Fert. Res.
uncertainty when N ef®ciency is measured by the 5, 371±382.
Difference or the Direct method, due to either real Harmsen, K., Moraghan, J.T., 1988. A comparison of the isotope
recovery and difference methods for determining nitrogen
N interaction or biological exchange between soil and
fertilizer efficiency. Plant Soil 105, 55±67.
fertilizer N by mineralization±immobilization±turn- Hart, P.B.S., Rayner, J.H., Jenkinson, D.S., 1986. Influence of pool
over. These processes may occur simultaneously, substitution on the interpretation of fertilizer experiments with
being dif®cult to separate from each other. Never- 15
N. J. Soil Sci. 37, 389±403.
theless, as N interaction was not evident in this study, Hauck, R.D., Bremner, J.M., 1976. Use of tracers for soil and
fertilizer nitrogen research. Adv. Agron. 26, 219±266.
we conclude that mineralization±immobilization±
ICARDA, 1982. International Center for Agricultural Research in
turnover is the dominant process that controls the the Dry Areas. Annual report. pp. 16±17.
soil±plant N dynamics. In this context, studies using Jenkinson, D.S., Fox, R.H., Rayner, J.H., 1985. Interactions
15
N-labelled fertilizer can de®ne the precise amount of between fertilizer nitrogen and soil nitrogen ± the so-called
fertilizer N in the plant and the soil and, particularly, `priming' effect. J. Soil Sci. 36, 425±444.
Mahler, R.L., Hemamda, H., 1993. Evaluation of the nitrogen
the amount lost from the system.
fertilizer value of plant materials to spring wheat production.
Agron. J. 85, 305±309.
Malhi, S.S., Nyborg, M., 1992. Recovery of nitrogen by spring
Acknowledgements barley from ammonium nitrate, urea and sulphur-coated urea as
effected by time and method of application. Fert. Res. 32,
We express our appreciation to Drs. Lester Sim- 19±25.
Mary, B., Recous, S., Machet, J.M., 1987. A comprehensive
monds, Abdallah Matar and Douglas Beck for their
approach to the fertilizer part of plant nitrogen uptake. In:
advice in planning of this work. We also appreciate the Jenkinson, D.S., Smith, K.A. (Eds.), Nitrogen Efficiency in
technical support of several ICARDA and Reading Agricultural Soils. Elsevier Appl. Sci., The Edinburgh School
University staff in the ®eld and laboratories. of Agric., UK, pp. 85±94.
Myers, R.J.K., Paul, E.A., 1971. Plant uptake and immobilization
of 15N-labelled ammonium nitrate in a field experiment with
wheat. In: Nitrogen-15 in Soil Plant Studies. IAEA, Vienna,
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