Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Geoderma 144 (2008) 370 – 378

www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Long-term impact of fertilizers on soil organic carbon pools and

sequestration rates in maize–wheat–cowpea cropping system
T.J. Purakayastha ⁎, L. Rudrappa, D. Singh, A. Swarup, S. Bhadraray
Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, India
Received 30 June 2007; received in revised form 5 December 2007; accepted 6 December 2007
Available online 14 January 2008

Abstract

We assessed the impact of long-term manuring and fertilization on changes in different SOC fractions over ten years period (1994–2003) in a
Typic Haplustept under intensive cropping with maize (Zea mays L.) — wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) — cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) in semi-
arid, sub-tropical India. The application of graded doses of NPK from 50% (130 kg N, 35 kg P and 41.5 kg K ha− 1) to 150% (390 kg N, 105 kg P
and 124 kg K ha− 1) in the cropping system significantly enhanced SOC, particulate organic C (POC) and KMnO4 oxidizable C (KMnO4–C)
fractions in soil. The increase in these C fractions was greater when farmyard manure (FYM) was applied conjointly with 100% NPK (260 kg N,
70 kg P and 83 kg K ha− 1). This treatment showed highest amount of SOC (58.3 Mg C ha− 1 in 1994 and 72.1 Mg C ha− 1 in 2003), POC (5.30 Mg
C ha− 1 in 1994 and 6.33 Mg C ha− 1 in 2003) and KMnO4-C (10.05 Mg C ha− 1 in 1994 and 11.2 Mg C ha− 1 in 2003) in 0–45 cm soil depth. The
C sequestration rate in SOC calculated over ten year period (1994–2003) was highest with 100% NPK + FYM (997 kg C ha− 1 yr− 1) followed by
the 150% NPK (553 kg C ha− 1 yr− 1). It was estimated that 17.1 to 34.0% of the gross C input over ten year period contributed towards the
increase in SOC content, while C sequestration efficiency (CSE) in POC (varied between 1.28 and 2.58%) was lower than KMnO4-C (varied
between 1.42 and 3.72%). The CSE was highest in 150% NPK treatment, while 100% NPK + FYM showed the lowest CSE. By applying the
values of humification constant (h) and decay constant (k) in Jenkinson's equation, it is possible to predict SOC level in the year 2003 and the C
inputs required to maintain the SOC level in the year 1994 (AE) were calculated from Jenkinson's equation. The low k value in native SOC was
responsible for lower requirements of C input required to maintain SOC in equilibrium. Thus increase in SOC concentration under long-term
maize–wheat–cowpea cropping was due to the fact that annual C input by the system was higher than AE. In semi-arid sub-tropical India,
continuous adoption of 100% NPK + FYM treatment in maize–wheat–cowpea cropping system might sequester 1.83 Tg C yr− 1 which
corresponds to about 1% of the fossil fuel emissions by India.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbon sequestration; Farmyard manure; Long-term fertilizer experiment; Microbial biomass C, NPK fertilizer; Particulate organic C; Root biomass;
Soil organic C

1. Introduction rotation, fertility maintenance including use of inorganic fer-

There is a critical need for the development of best manage-
ment practices that enhance soil organic C (SOC) sequestration.
Increased sequestration of C in agricultural soils has the
potential to mitigate the increase in atmospheric greenhouse
gases (Sampson and Scholes, 2006; Young, 2003). Optimum
levels of soil organic matter can be managed through crop
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 25841494; fax: +91 11 25841529.
E-mail addresses: tapanpurakayastha@rediffmail.com, tapanjp@iari.res.in
(T.J. Purakayastha).
0016-7061/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.12.006
tilizers and organic manures, tillage methods, and other
cropping system components (Huggins et al., 1998a; Janzen
et al., 1997; Swarup, 1998; Purakayastha et al., 2008). Among
these, management practices like proper cropping systems and
balanced fertilization are believed to offer the greatest potential
for increasing SOC storage in agricultural soils (Swarup et al.,
2000; Lal, 2002).
Analysis of long-term experiments indicated that increasing
crop rotation intensity from single crop (corn) to double crop
(corn–soybean) increased SOC sequestration by 20 g C m− 2 y− 1
in humid continental climate at Wooster, OH (West and Post,
 T.J. Purakayastha et al. / Geoderma 144 (2008) 370–378
2002). In long-term experiments in Canada, SOC sequestration
rates were 50 to 75 g C m− 2 yr− 1 in well-fertilized soils
(Dumanski et al., 1998). In contrast, long-term experiments in the
northern Great Plains have shown that fertilizer N increased crop
residue returns, but generally did not increase SOC sequestration
(Halvorson et al., 2002). However, it might be possible that
manuring along with fertilizer application in highly managed
multiple cropping systems could sequester C in soil. It was
reported that manure amendment can improve the nutrient status
of the soil and increase SOC levels simultaneously (Jenkinson,
1991, Rochette and Gregorich, 1998). Similarly the return of 30%
of the crop C as manure would sustain SOC sequestration in
wheat–oat–barley–hay–hay rotations with net above ground
crop productivity (NAGCP) N 400 kg ha− 1 yr− 1 and in those
wheat-fallow rotations with NAGCP N 1000 kg ha− 1 yr− 1 from
the Breton Classical Plots at Breton, Canada (Izaurralde et al.,
2001).
Recent studies on long-term fertilizer experiments in India
indicated that integrated use of farmyard manure (FYM) with
chemical fertilizers (100% NPK + FYM) over 30 years showed
significant increase in SOC content than 100% NPK in rice–
jute–rice cropping system in humid tropical climate (Manna
et al., 2006). But there is a paucity of information available on
data pertaining to manure and fertilizer applications on C
sequestration in the semi-arid tropics of India. Thus, it becomes
imperative to study how management practices, such as long-
term manuring and fertilizer applications could affect SOC
particularly in the semi-arid tropics of India where decomposi-
tion of organic C is fast (Goyal et al., 1999). This is very per-
tinent because cropping intensity and N fertilization in semi-arid
dry land areas could contribute positively towards mitigating
adverse effect on atmospheric CO2 levels and subsequently
effect on global climate change (Lal et al., 1998).
Changes in SOC due to management practices are difficult to
quantify as these changes occur slowly, are relatively small
compared to the vast SOC pool size, and vary both spatially and
temporally (Paustian et al., 1997; Russell et al., 2004). Some of
the soil C fractions, such as microbial biomass C (MBC)
(Nannipieri et al., 1990), particulate organic C (POC) and
potentially mineralizable C (Powlson and Jenkinson, 1981;
Camberdella and Elliott, 1992), and KMnO4 oxidizable C (Blair
et al., 1995) are likely to be more sensitive to management
practices than the total SOC (Campbell et al., 1997). Thus, these
soil C fractions may serve as indicators of future changes in total
SOC that are presently undetectable (Janzen et al., 1997). As
labile C fractions are characterized by their turnover times, their
pool sizes provide insight into the consequences of management
practices that could not be gleaned from studies of total SOC
alone. Resistant fractions of SOC generally have longer
turnover times, and thus hold clue regarding the long-term
potential for SOC sequestration (Paul et al., 2001).
In a recent study on the same long-term fertilizer experiment,
we observed wide variations in SOC and its fractions across
different manuring and fertilization treatments in 0–15, 15–30
and 30–45 cm soil depths (Rudrappa et al., 2006). By taking the
clue from this, the present study attempted to unravel the very
vital information on the rate and efficiency C sequestration, and
371
to develop relationship between C additions versus C accu-
mulations across various manuring and fertilization treatments
in 0–45 cm soil layer over the last one decade. For this we
hypothesized that balanced and optimum fertilization and
conjoint applications of fertilizers (NPK) with manures
(FYM) on a long-term basis would influence the production
of root biomass in a high intensity cropping system (maize–
wheat–cowpea) which in turn would affect storage of total SOC
and various organic C fractions (POC and KMnO4-C) in soil.
This should influence the C levels in soil over ten-year period
(1994–2003). Further we intend to study C sequestration
efficiency in high input treatments (NPK, NPK + FYM) with
relation to imbalanced fertilization practices.
Keeping in view of the above hypothesis, the following
objectives were derived for this study: (i) to determine the
changes in SOC, POC and KMnO4-C in 0–45 cm soil depth
between the year 1994 and 2003 as affected by long-term fer-
tilizer applications, and (ii) to estimate the return of C to the soil
through root biomass and efficiency of conversion of root C
input to SOC over ten-year period (1994–2003) and (iii) to test
Jenkinson's empirical equation for prediction of SOC, and
annual C input required to maintain SOC in equilibrium.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Experimental site
All India Coordinated Research Project on Long-term
Fertilizer Experiment (LTFE) with a maize–wheat–fodder cow-
pea cropping sequence was initiated in 1971 at the experimental
farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute farm, New Delhi,
India (28°37′–28°39′N latitude and 77°9′–77°11′E longitude,
altitude 250 m above mean sea level). The climate of Delhi is
semi-arid and sub-tropical. Average temperature in warmest
(May/June) and coldest (January) month is 39 °C and 6 °C,
respectively. Average annual rainfall of Delhi is 750 mm. In the
year 1971 this experiment was started with pearl millet–wheat–
cowpea (fodder) cropping sequence. Later, in 1982, pearl millet
was replaced by maize. The cowpea crop was discontinued
since 2002. Currently, therefore, the crop sequence is maize
(cultivar Ganga Safed-2)-wheat (cultivar HD 2329).
2.2. Experimental design
This experiment consisted of 10 fertilizer treatments, of
which seven treatments were chosen for this study. These are (i)
50% NPK (130:35:41 kg ha− 1), (ii) 100% NPK (260:70:82 kg
ha− 1), (iii) 150% NPK (390:105:123 kg ha− 1), (iv) 100% NP,
(v) 100% N, (vi) 100% NPK + manure, and (vii) control (no
NPK). The percent values indicate amounts of NPK applied
with relation to soil-test based recommendations of initial soil
samples at 1971. The 100% NPK indicates the dose which was
optimum for plant growth in 1971. The N, P and K were applied
through urea, diammonium phosphate and potassium chloride.
Farmyard manure, with an average composition of 350 g kg− 1 C,
5 g kg− 1 N, 2.5 g kg− 1 P, 15 g kg− 1 K was applied at a rate of
15 Mg ha− 1 once per cropping cycle, (i.e., each year before the
372 T.J. Purakayastha et al. / Geoderma 144 (2008) 370–378
sowing of maize). The above rate of FYM supplied 5250 kg C
ha− 1, 75.0 Kg N ha− 1, 37.5 kg P ha− 1 and 225 kg K ha− 1
annually.
Each treatment was replicated four times (plot size
21 m × 8 m) in a randomized block design. The plots were
tilled with tractor drawn disk plough to a depth of 15 cm twice
and with a cultivator to a depth of 12 cm once before sowing
wheat. Before sowing cowpea, the field was irrigated followed
by sowing with minimal disturbance of soil. Before sowing
maize, the plots were disked to a depth of 15 cm once followed
by use of a ridge maker and ridge packer for preparation of
raised beds. All the crops were adequately irrigated with ground
water and an irrigation of about 7.5 cm was applied to each
crop. All the crops were manually harvested and the above-
ground crop residues removed from the field, which is a
common practice in the studied area of India.
2.3. Soil sampling
The composite soil sample for each plot was prepared by
mixing five soil cores (4-cm inner diameter) collected randomly
after the harvest of maize crop in 1994 and 2003. Soil cores
were sectioned into depth increments of 0- to 15-, 15- to 30-
and 30- to 45-cm. Samples were obtained after removing plant
debris from the soil surface. Immediately after collection, the
soil samples were brought to the laboratory; air dried, ground,
and passed through a 2-mm sieve for estimation of SOC, POC
and KMnO4-C. The moisture content in soil samples was
determined after drying the soil at 105 °C in an oven for 24 h.
Soil bulk density was calculated from weights of total field-
moist soil, an oven-dried (105 °C, 24 h) sub-sample and the
volume of the core sampler following the method of Veihmeyer
and Hendrickson (1948).
The soil samples collected during the year 1994 were air
dried in the laboratory and stored in plastic bottles covered with
lids tightly. The initial soil pH (1:1 w:v) was 8.3, electrical
conductivity 0.45 dS m− 1, CEC 10.6 cmol (p+) kg− 1, Walkley-
Black C (4.4 g kg− 1), NaHCO3-extractable P 16 kg ha− 1,
NH4OAC-extractable K 155 kg ha− 1 soil. The soil is alluvial in
origin and sandy clay loam in texture; it belongs to the
hyperthermic family of Typic Haplustept. Root biomass yield
was estimated based on root-to-above ground (shoot + grain)
biomass ratios of 0.3 for wheat (shoot + grain), 0.4 for cowpea
(shoot), and 0.5 for maize (shoot + grain) (Kanchikerimath and
Singh, 2001). The estimated return of organic C through root
biomass was calculated assuming root biomass contained 45% C.
In 100% NPK + FYM treatment an additional C input from FYM
(15 t ha− 1 with organic C content 350 g kg− 1) was 5250 kg C
ha− 1.
2.4. Soil organic C fractions
Soil organic carbon was determined by wet digestion with
potassium dichromate along with 3:2 H2SO4, 85% H3PO4
mixture in a digestion block set at 120 °C for 2 h (Snyder and
Trofymow, 1984). Particulate organic matter (POM) was
separated from 2-mm soil following the method described by
Camberdella and Elliot (1992). The C content in POM was
determined following the method of Snyder and Trofymow
(1984). Labile C in the soil sample was determined by oxidation
with 0.333 M KMnO4 as described by Blair et al. (1995). The
weight of soil in 1 ha (10,000 m2) to a depth of 0.15 m was
determined by using bulk density value. Soil organic C and its
fractions, e.g., POC and KMnO4-C were expressed as Mg ha− 1
separately in three 15-cm soil depths and these were added to
determine C stocks in 0–45 cm soil layer. The C sequestration
rates in SOC and its fractions were also estimated after
deducting the values for 1994 from those for 2003 and dividing
these by 10. The C sequestration rate due to manuring and
fertilization was determined after deducting the rate pertaining
to control treatment from other treatments. Carbon sequestration
efficiency was calculated by the following relationship:
CSE ¼ ½ðC2003  C1994 Þ=ðERCÞ⁎100
where
CSE — C sequestration efficiency (%) in SOC/POC/
KMnO4-C pools
C2003, C1994 — C indicates SOC/POC/KMnO4-C in the year
2003 and 1994, respectively (Mg ha− 1)
ERC — Estimated return of C to soil between the year 1994
and 2003 (Mg ha− 1). The relationships between ERC with SOC,
POC and KMnO4-C were also developed through regressions.
2.5. Carbon modeling
The dynamics of return of organic C versus native SOC was
evaluated using a two C-pool model consisting of pool F, in
which decomposition is rapid, and pool S, with a slower rate of
decomposition (Jenkinson, 1988).
Annual C inputs (A) enter pool F where labile C is rapidly
decomposed and respired as CO2 (mineralization) and where a
fraction, h (the humification rate constant), enters pool S each
year. A fraction, k (decay rate constant), of SOC in pool S is also
decomposed each year. The change in SOC over time t is:
dCs =dt ¼ hA  kCs ð1Þ
where Cs is the SOC in pool S in the year 2003, and A is the
average annual C input between the year 1994 and 2003.
Solving Eq. (1) for Cs = C0 when t = 0 gives:
Cs ¼ hA=k þ ðC0  hA=k Þekt ð2Þ
where C0 is the initial SOC in pool S in the year 1994.
The h was calculated through optimization of parameter. The
k value of our soil was known as 0.001 (Vennila, 2003). The
predicted Cs was calculated from the Eq. (2) by using the values
of C0, h, k, A and t. Carbon inputs required to maintain C0 (AE)
was also estimated:
AE ¼ kC0 =h
 T.J. Purakayastha et al. / Geoderma 144 (2008) 370–378 373

As it was reported that the passive pool of C like humic acid rates of fertilizer (i.e., 100% N, 100% NP and 50% NPK) had
and fulvic acids of the long-term fertility experiments in India increased SOC by 2−3 Mg ha− 1 by this time, while 100% NPK
were not affected (Manna et al., 2006), we assumed that h and k had increased it by 4 Mg ha− 1, the 150% NPK rate by 9 Mg
were similar in all the treatments laid out in similar soil, climate, ha− 1, and the 100% NPK + FYM by 13.4 Mg ha− 1. A good
cropping system and cultivation practices. The relationship NPK fertility program helps sequester atmospheric CO2 into
between observed and predicted values for Cs was also SOC by increased plant growth and subsequently, the return of
developed through regressions. organic C to the soil for storage as soil organic matter. The
influence of only N fertility program on SOC sequestration was
2.6. Statistical analysis reported by others (Halvorson et al., 1999; Liebig et al., 2002;
Russell et al., 2005). However in 100% NPK + FYM treatments
The data for SOC, POC and KMnO4-C were analyzed using not only the root biomass but also FYM as a source of organic
a two factor (manuring practice and year) Randomized Block matter contributed tremendously for enhancing SOC content.
Design (RBD) with Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at Similar effects of manure and inorganic fertilizers on SOC have
5% level of significance for separation of means. The ANOVA also been reported mainly from temperate climate (Jenkinson,
is based on four replicate plots per treatment. The data for C 1991, Campbell et al., 1996; Potter et al., 1998).
sequestration rate, average annual root biomass yield, average After a further 10 years SOC even in the control had
annual C inputs, changes in SOC and its fractions between 1994 increased significantly (P b 0.05) in the 0−45 cm depth by
and 2003, and CSE were analyzed in one factor RBD by using 3.8 Mg ha− 1 (Table 1). This might possibly be due to increased
DMRT at 5% level of significance for separation of means. crop productivity in this treatment over the past years due to
Statistical analysis was performed by DOS based MSTATC change in climatic parameters (Swarup and Wanjari, 2000). Soil
version C program developed by S. P. Eisensmith. In C mod- organic C increased significantly during 10 year period in the
eling, h was estimated by ‘solver parameters’ with iterations order: NPK + FYM N 150% NPK N 100% NPK = 100%
100, precision 0.000001, tolerance 5% and convergence 0.0001 NP = 100% N = 50% NPK = Control. For example, the 100%
in WINDOW based MSEXCEL program. The h value was ad- N, 100% NP, 50% NPK and 100% NPK treatments increased
justed for obtaining minimum sum of square deviations between SOC by about 4−5 Mg ha− 1 in this period, while 150% NPK
observed and predicted SOC in the year 2003. Regressions and 100% NPK + FYM treatments increased SOC by 9.4 and
between observed and predicted SOC were developed in 13.8 Mg ha− 1, respectively. Thus the rate of increase in SOC
WINDOW based MSEXCEL program. The relationship due to fertilizer application alone varied between 58 and 553 kg
between estimated return of C with total SOC and its fractions ha− 1 yr− 1, while for fertilizer plus FYM the rate of increase was
were developed in the same program. 997 kg ha− 1 yr− 1 (Table 4). In the semi-arid prairies of south-
west Saskatchewan, Canada, Campbell et al. (2005) reported
3. Results and discussion that the rates of SOC increase due to fertilization of continuous
wheat after a decade of good growing conditions was 570 kg
3.1. Soil organic C ha− 1, i.e., much lower rate than we obtained in the tropics. We
emphasize that the variations in C sequestration rate in different
Soil organic C contents changed positively across the treatments of the present study were primarily due to differential
fertilizer treatments and year (Table 1). By 1994, SOC in the C inputs from left over root biomass. A larger proportion of the
0−45 cm depth of the control was 44.9 Mg ha− 1. The lower higher C content or C sequestration in FYM treated plots might
have resulted from slower break down rate. The higher C
sequestration in 100% NPK + FYM treated plots have greater
Table 1 implications in regional level particularly in semi-arid sub-
Soil organic C (SOC), changes in SOC and C sequestration rate in 0–45 cm soil tropical India by offsetting the adverse effects of green house
layer in a long-term fertilizer experiment
gas emissions. The agricultural land under semi-arid sub-
Treatments SOC (Mg ha− 1) Changes in SOC (Mg ha− 1) tropical India accounts for 7% of agricultural land in India (Lal,
Year 2005). The application of FYM along with NPK fertilizer is not
1994 2003 wide-spread in this region. Therefore, the shift in high fertility
treatment (100% NPK + FYM) in maize−wheat−cowpea crop-
50% NPK 47.1g§ 51.5e§ 4.41c¶
100% NPK 49.0f 54.1d 5.18c ping system in this region may sequester 1.83 Tg C yr− 1 which
150% NPK 54.1d 63.5b 9.36b corresponds to about 1% of the fossil fuel emissions (292.2 Tg
100% NP 47.9fg 53.0cde 5.03c C yr− 1) by India (Lal, 2005).
100% N 47.1g 52.0e 4.84c
100% NPK + FYM 58.3c 72.1a 13.8a
3.2. Particulate organic C
Control 44.9h 48.7f 3.83c
§ Values in the same column or row in SOC measurements followed by different The fertility and year greatly influenced the POC contents in
lower case letters are significantly different at P = 0.05 according to Duncan's
Multiple Range Test. 0−45 cm soil depth (Table 2). By 1994, POC of the control
¶ Values in the same column followed by different lower case letters (a–c) are treatment was 3.57 Mg ha− 1. The lower rates of fertilizer (i.e.,
significantly different at P = 0.05 according to Duncan's Multiple Range Test. 100% N, 100% NP and 50% NPK) had increased POC by 0.21−
374 T.J. Purakayastha et al. / Geoderma 144 (2008) 370–378

Table 2 Table 3
Particulate organic C (POC), changes in POC and C sequestration rate in POC in Potassium permanganate oxidizable C (KMnO4-C), changes in KMnO4-C and C
0–45 cm soil layer in a long-term fertilizer experiment sequestration rate in KMnO4-C in 0–45 cm soil layer in a long-term fertilizer
experiment
Treatments POC (Mg ha− 1) Changes in POC (Mg ha− 1)
Treatments KMnO4-C (Mg ha− 1) Changes in KMnO4-C
Year
(Mg ha− 1)
1994 2003 Year
50% NPK 3.78i§ 4.22f§ 0.44cd¶ 1994 2003
100% NPK 4.10g 4.65d 0.55c
50% NPK 8.20ij§ 8.76e§ 0.56cd¶
150% NPK 4.45e 5.16c 0.71b
100% NPK 8.36hi 9.22d 0.86b
100% NP 4.02gh 4.55de 0.53c
150% NPK 8.55fg 9.58c 1.02a
100% N 4.06g 4.54de 0.48cd
100% NP 8.03j 8.70ef 0.67c
100% NPK + FYM 5.30b 6.33a 1.04a
100% N 7.77k 8.41gh 0.64c
Control 3.57j 3.91h 0.34d
100% NPK + FYM 10.05b 11.2a 1.15a
§ Values in the same column or row in POC measurements followed by different Control 7.16l 7.63k 0.48d
lower case letters (a–j) are significantly different at P = 0.05 according to
§ Values in the same column or row in KMnO4-C measurements followed by
Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
different lower case letters (a–l) are significantly different at P = 0.05 according
¶ Values in the same column followed by different lower case letters (a–d) are
to Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
significantly different at P = 0.05 according to Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
¶ Values in the same column followed by different lower case letters (a–d) are
significantly different at P = 0.05 according to Duncan's Multiple Range Test.

0.49 Mg ha− 1, while 100% NPK had increased it by 0.53 Mg

ha− 1, the 150% NPK rate by 0.88 Mg ha− 1, and the 100% NPK + 3.3. KMnO4 oxidizable C
FYM by 1.73 Mg ha− 1. In a long-term fertilizer experiments in an
Inceptisol with rice–wheat–jute cropping system from India The fertility and year significantly increased the stock of
similar treatment effects was also observed by Manna et al. KMnO4-C in 0–45 cm soil layer. In 1994 the graded doses of
(2006). Malhi et al. (2003) reported that N fertilization increased NPK from 50% to 150% showed KMnO4-C in the range of 8.2
POM content in a loamy soil but not in a sandy soil. to 8.6 Mg ha− 1 (Table 3). The lower rates of fertilizer (i.e.,
After a period of 10 years POC even in the control had 100% N, 100% NP and 50% NPK) had increased KMnO4-C by
increased significantly (P b 0.05) in the 0−45 cm depth by 0.61−1.04 Mg ha− 1 by this time, while 100% NPK had
0.34 Mg ha− 1 (Table 2). All fertility treatments also increased increased it by 1.20 Mg ha− 1, the 150% NPK rate by 1.39 Mg
POC during this 10 year period. For example, the 100% N, ha− 1, and the 100% NPK + FYM by 2.89 Mg ha− 1. Our values
100% NP, 50% NPK and 100% NPK treatments increased POC for KMnO4-C conforms the values reported by Contech et al.
in 0−45 cm depth by about 0.44−0.53 Mg ha− 1 in this period, (1997). They also reported a higher KMnO4-C in wheat grown
while 150% NPK and 100% NPK + FYM treatments increased with fertilizers.
POC by 0.71 and 1.04 Mg ha− 1, respectively. The lower doses After 10 years KMnO4-C contents in all the treatments
of fertilizer (100% N, 100% NP and 50% NPK) showed less significantly increased. In the case of low fertility treatments the
POC sequestration (10–70 kg ha− 1 yr− 1), while that in 100% increase was less, while in high fertility treatments the extent of
NPK + FYM (70 kg C ha− 1 yr− 1) and 150% NPK (37 kg C increase was more (Table 3). As for example in 50% NPK, 100%
ha− 1 yr− 1) treated soils had higher POC sequestration over N and 100% NP the increase ranged between 0.56−0.67 Mg
other treatments (Table 4). The higher NPK dose (150%) ha− 1, while 100% NPK had increased it by 0.86 Mg ha− 1, the
showed higher POC sequestration rate than lower dose (50% 150% NPK by 1.03 Mg ha− 1 and 100% NPK + FYM by
NPK, 100% NPK). The increase in POC even in control plot 1.15 Mg ha− 1. High fertility treatments in multiple cropping
was mainly being due to increased yield trend in this treatment systems significantly enhanced root biomass yield which might
over past years. Particulate organic C makes up a large portion be responsible for increased labile C in soil. Nevertheless roots
of the light fractions of SOC (Camberdella and Elliott, 1992). are also reported to exude C compounds that are labile in nature
The POM is often separated densimetrically and is comprised of
plant residues as well as microbial and micro faunal debris Table 4
including fungal hyphae and spores (Janzen et al., 1992). Amount of C sequestered in soil organic C (SOC), particulate organic C (POC)
Therefore, POC is composed of a large proportion of relatively and potassium permanganate oxidizable C (KMnO4-C) in 0–45 cm profile in a
labile organic materials, often of recent origin. The main source long-term fertilizer experiment
of POC in this study was mainly the left over root biomass and Treatments Organic C sequestered (kg ha− 1 yr− 1)
increased microbial biomass debris. It is suggested that the SOC POC KMnO4-C
greater biochemical recalcitrance of root litter (Puget and
50% NPK 58 10 16
Drinkwater, 2001) might have also increased the POC contents 100% NPK 135 21 46
in soil depending upon the root biomass produced. The 150% NPK 553 37 62
additional amounts of organic C input from FYM in 100% 100% NP 120 19 27
NPK + FYM treatment further enhanced the POC contents in 100% N 101 14 24
100% NPK + FYM 997 70 76
this treatment.
 T.J. Purakayastha et al. / Geoderma 144 (2008) 370–378 375

Table 5
Root biomass yield, estimated return of C, C sequestration efficiency, predicted SOC and C input to maintain the SOC level in a long-term fertility experiment
Treatments Average annual root biomass yield Estimated return of C C sequestration efficiency (%)
(Mg ha− 1 yr− 1) (Mg ha− 1 yr− 1)
SOC POC KMnO4-C
50% NPK 4.80e¶ 2.16e¶ 20.4c¶ 2.04a¶ 2.57c¶
100% NPK 5.47c 2.46c 21.0c 2.21a 3.48ab
150% NPK 6.05b 2.72b 34.0b 2.58a 3.72a
100% NP 4.94d 2.22d 22.5bc 2.39a 3.00bc
100% N 4.63f 2.09f 23.1bc 2.38a 3.03bc
100% NPK + FYM 6.27a 8.07a§ 17.1c 1.28b 1.42d
Control 2.95g 1.33g 28.5ab 2.55a 3.55b
¶ Values in the same column followed by different lower case letters are significantly different at P = 0.05 according to Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
§ Includes 5250 kg organic C input through manure.

(Contech et al., 1997). The C sequestration rate in KMnO4
oxidizable fraction of SOC in different fertility treatments
varied between 16 and 76 kg C ha− 1 yr− 1 (Table 4). The
100% NPK + FYM treatment showed the highest C seques-
tration rate(76 kg C ha− 1 yr− 1 ) followed by 150% NPK
(62 kg C ha − 1 yr− 1 ) in KMnO4-C fraction. The KMnO4-C
sequestration rate in low fertility treatment was lower than
that in high fertility treatment.
3.4. Root biomass yield, estimated return of C and C sequestration
efficiency
The average annual root biomass yield between the year
1994 and 2003 was highest in 100% NPK + FYM treatment
(Table 5). It followed the trend: 100% NPK + FYM N 150%
NPK N 100% NPK N 100% NP N 50% NPK N 100% N N control.
This sequence of root biomass yield matched with the above
ground (shoot + grain) biomass production (data not presented)
as it was assumed that the former was proportional to the latter
particularly in nutrient sufficient condition. The above trend
indicates the response of maize–wheat–cowpea cropping
sequence to balanced applications of NPK and NPK + FYM in
a semi-arid soil. Farmyard manure, besides being a source of
essential plant nutrients also influenced crop productivity
through creation of favorable physical and biological environ-
ments in soil.
Significant differences in estimated return of C (ERC) input
to soil occurred in various fertility treatments (Table 5). The low
fertility treatments (50% NPK, 100% N, 100% NP) showed
ERC which ranged between 2.09 and 2.22 Mg ha− 1 yr− 1, while
ERC in 100% NPK, 150% NPK and 100% NPK + FYM were
2.46, 2.72 and 8.07 Mg C Mg ha− 1 yr− 1, respectively. Apart
from FYM's own contribution (5.24 Mg C ha− 1 yr− 1); an
additional gain of 370 kg C ha− 1 yr− 1 occurred from 100%
NPK + FYM compared to 100% NPK treatment. A higher C
input (shoot + root) has been reported for annual cropping
systems in the Corn Belt (Buyanovsky and Wagner, 1986;
Huggins et al., 1998a, 1998b). Our values are low because the
only input of C was through left over root biomass in soil.
Linear relationships between SOC and ERC input occurred for
all fertility treatments (Fig. 1). The regression equations
developed between ERC versus SOC and its fractions are as
follows: SOC = 0.33 ERC + 46.5 (R2 = 0.81), KMnO4-C = 0.05
ERC + 7.70 (R2 = 0.85), POC = 0.03 ERC + 3.78 (R2 = 0.89). The
slope parameter was maximum for SOC (0.33) followed by
KMnO4-C (0.05) and POC (0.03). A higher slope of 0.33
indicates higher C humification in SOC while, the lower slope
in KMnO4-C and POC indicate low humification in these
fractions.
Carbon sequestration efficiency (CSE) measures the effi-
ciency of conversion of residue C to SOC. The efficiencies,
based on measured SOC gains, ranged between 17 and 34%
(Table 5). However, Campbell et al. (2000) reported efficiencies
which ranged between 9 and 29% for frequently fallowed
system and continuously cropped systems in Brown Chernozem
from Canada. Carbon sequestration efficiency in SOC pool was
significantly higher in 150% NPK over other treatments. Even
the control treatment with least C input showed CSE
comparable with 150% NPK treatment. The increased C input
in the control treatment in past several years coupled with low
SOC in this treatment might have enhanced the CSE value. The
100% NPK + FYM, in spite of adding highest C input showed
CSE comparable to other low fertility and 100% NPK
treatment. This can be explained by the fact that every soil
has its own C carrying capacity, therefore in spite of addition of
large amount of C might not increase C proportionately. Thus
100% NPK + FYM being highest in C input showed lowest
CSE.
Fig. 1. Relationships between estimated return of C (ERC) versus soil organic
C (SOC), particulate organic C (POC) and potassium permanganate oxidizable
C (KMnO4-C) in a long-term fertilizer experiment.
376 T.J. Purakayastha et al. / Geoderma 144 (2008) 370–378

Carbon sequestration efficiency in POC fraction did not

change much except 100% NPK + FYM which showed
significantly lower CSE than others (Table 5). It is worth to
note that POC fraction across various fertility treatments though
varied significantly in individual year, but the difference in POC
contents in various treatments between the year 1994 and 2003
did not vary much. This was mainly being due to non-protection
of POC in conventionally tilled soils of the present study which
is otherwise reported to be well protected in aggregates of no
tilled soil (Camberdella and Elliot, 1992).
On the contrary, C sequestration in KMnO4-C pool varied
significantly among different fertility treatments (Table 5). The
greatest CSE in this pool was observed with 150% NPK (jointly Fig. 2. Relationship between observed and predicted soil organic C (SOC) in a
with 100% NPK). The treatment 100% NPK + FYM showed the long-term fertilizer experiment, R2 = coefficient of determination.
lowest CSE in this fraction. As KMnO4-C, being a labile C
fraction accumulated differentially over the years mainly because root biomass in all the treatments except the control and 100%
of differential C accumulation. However, there is a serious gap in NPK + FYM treatment varied between 9.3 and 10.5 times higher
research knowledge concerning the mass of belowground residue than the AE. In control and 100% NPK + FYM treatments these
C produced by plant roots from various crops. This information is values were 6.2 and 29.0 times higher that AE, respectively. In
extremely important when addressing the effects of fertility general the lower AE across various treatments is probably
practices on C sequestration as it is related to concerns about being due to lower decay of native SOC.
global climate change.
4. Conclusions
3.5. Carbon modeling
The positive effects of balanced fertilization with N, P and K
The humification rate constant, h was estimated to be on SOC were clearly demonstrated in this long-term fertilizer
0.21 yr− 1 (Table 6).The h was close to 0.20 yr− 1 as reported experiment, cultivated intensively with maize–wheat–cowpea
from other cultivated system (Larson et al., 1972; Paustian et al., in semi-arid tropic of India for thirty two years. But it should be
1997; Huggins et al., 1998b). The lower k value (0.001 yr− 1) in kept in mind that the total energy and C budget, and the C cost
our study indicated that C loss from native SOC during 10 years of producing the mineral fertilizer will reduce the sequestration
of cultivation was 0.1% of the SOC content in the year 1994. In potential. This increase was spectacular when FYM was
a long-term fertilizer experiments, Kundu et al. (2006) also conjointly applied with 100% NPK; thus this treatment was
reported a low k value (0.0018 yr− 1) in a Typic Haplaquept of the most significant management system in sequestering SOC
Indian Himalayas. (997 kg C ha− 1 y− 1). A large amount of C was also sequestered
We also estimated predicted SOC contents in 2003. The in soil with the same cropping system under 150% NPK treat-
observed and predicted values for SOC were very much closely ment (553 kg C ha− 1 y− 1). The lower C sequestration rate and C
associated (Table 6 & Fig. 2). The predicted SOC is expressed by sequestration efficiency in POC and KMnO4-C fractions
the equation y = 1.07 x −4.92 with very high R2 value of 0.96. suggested that these had less potential to offset greenhouse
From the C model the annual C inputs required to maintain gas emissions compared to SOC. From the relationship of C
C0 (AE) was estimated (Table 6). The AE was observed highest addition and storage, it was observed that (i) there was greater C
with 100% NPK + FYM followed by 150% NPK treatment. The aggradations in SOC than in POC and KMnO4-C fractions,
low fertility treatments required lesser C inputs than the high (ii) the data of this study could well be used in Jenkinson's
fertility treatments to maintain the SOC level of respective equation for predicting SOC storage in the year 2003, (iii)
treatment in the year 1994. The present level of C input through annual loss of C during ten years of cultivation was 0.1% of
native SOC content in the year 1994 and (iv) the amount of C
addition through root biomass in various fertility treatments was
Table 6 enough to maintain SOC at equilibrium. In semi-arid sub-
Observed and predicted SOC in 2003, annual C inputs required to maintain SOC
in 1994 (AE), h − 0.20, k − 0.001
tropical India the shift in high fertility treatment (100% NPK +
FYM) in maize–wheat–cowpea cropping system might seques-
Treatments Predicted SOC Observed SOC AE
ter 1.83 Tg C yr− 1 which corresponds to about 1% of the fossil
(Mg ha− 1) (Mg ha− 1) (kg ha− 1 yr− 1)
fuel emissions by India.
50% NPK 51.1 51.5 225.0
100% NPK 53.6 54.1 234.0
150% NPK 59.2 63.5 258.0 Acknowledgement
100% NP 52.0 53.0 229.0
100% N 51.0 52.0 225.0 The authors are grateful to the Director, Indian Agricultural
100% NPK+ FYM 74.5 72.1 278.0 Research Institute, New Delhi for providing the necessary
Control 47.2 48.7 214.0
financial support to carry out this work.
 T.J. Purakayastha et al. / Geoderma 144 (2008) 370–378
References
Blair, G.J., Lefroy, R.D.B., Lisle, L., 1995. Soil carbon fraction based on their
degree of oxidation and the development of a carbon management index for
agricultural systems. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 46, 1456–1466.
Buyanovsky, G.A., Wagner, G.H., 1986. Post-harvest residue input to cropland.
Plant Soil 93, 57–65.
Camberdella, C.A., Elliott, E.T., 1992. Particulate soil organic matter across
grassland cultivation sequence. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56, 777–783.
Campbell, C.A., McConkey, B.G., Zenter, R.P., Selles, F., Curtain, D., 1996. Long-
term effects of tillage and crop rotation on soil organic carbon and total N in a
clay soil in South Western Saskatchewan. Can. J. Soil Sci. 76, 395–401.
Campbell, C.A., Janzen, H.H., Juma, N.G., 1997. Case studies of soil quality in
the Canadian prairies: long-term field experiments. In: Gregorich, E.G.,
Carter, M.R. (Eds.), Soil quality for crop production. Elsevier Science
Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 351–397.
Campbell, C.A., Zenter, R.P., Selles, F., Biederbeck, V.O., McConkey, B.G.,
Blomert, B., Jefferson, P.G., 2000. Quantifying short-term effects of crop
rotations on soil organic carbon in southwestern Saskatchewan, Cand. J. Soil
Sci. 80, 193–202.
Campbell, C.A., Janzen, H.H., Paustian, K., Gregorich, E.G., Sherrod, L., Liang,
B.C., Zenter, R.P., 2005. Carbon storage in soils of the North American
Great Plains: effect of cropping frequency. Agron. J. 97, 349–363.
Contech, A., Lefroy, R.D.B., Blair, G.J., 1997. Dynamics of organic matter in
soils as determined by variation in 13C/12C isotopic ratio and fractionation by
ease of oxidation. Aust. J. Soil Res. 35, 881–890.
Dumanski, J., Desjardins, R.L., Tarnocai, C., Monreal, D., Gregorich, E.G.,
Kirkwood, V., Campbell, C.A., 1998. Possibilities for future carbon
sequestration in Canadian agriculture in relation to land use changes.
Climate Change 40, 81–103.
Goyal, S., Chander, K., Mundra, M.C., Kapoor, K.K., 1999. Influence of inorganic
fertilizers and organic amendments on soil organic matter and soil microbial
properties under tropical conditions. Biol. Fertil. Soils 29, 196–200.
Halvorson, A.D., Reule, C.A., Follett, R.F., 1999. Nitrogen fertilization effects
on soil carbon and nitrogen in a dryland cropping system. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
J. 63, 912–917.
Halvorson, A.D., Wienhold, B.J., Black, A.L., 2002. Tillage, nitrogen, and
cropping system effects on soil carbon sequestration. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.
66, 906–912.
Huggins, D.R., Buyanovsky, G.A., Wagner, G.H., Brown, J.R., Darmody, R.G.,
Peck, T.R., Lesoing, G.W., Vanotti, M.B., Bundy, L.G., 1998a. Soil organic
C in the tallgrass prairie-derived region of the corn belt: effects of long-term
crop management. Soil Tillage Res. 47, 219–234.
Huggins, D.R., Clapp, C.E., Allmaras, R.R., Lamb, J.A., Layese, M.F., 1998b.
Carbon dynamics in corn–soybean sequences as estimated from natural
carbon-13 abundance. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 62, 195–203.
Izaurralde, R.C., McGill, W.B., Robertson, J.A., Juma, N.G., Thurston, J.J.,
2001. Carbon balance of the Breton Classical Plots over half a century. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65, 431–441.
Janzen, H.H., Campbell, C.A., Brandt, S.A., Lafond, G.P., Townley-Smith, L.,
1992. Light fraction organic matter in soils from long-term crop rotations.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56, 1799–1806.
Janzen, H.H., Campbell, C.A., Gregorich, E.G., Ellert, B.H., 1997. Soil carbon
dynamics in Canadian agroecosystems. In: Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., Follett, R.F.,
Stewart, B.A. (Eds.), Soil processes and Carbon Cycle. CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, pp. 57–80.
Jenkinson, D.S., 1988. Soil organic matter and its dynamics. In: Wild, A. (Ed.),
Russell's soil conditions and plant growth. Longman Group, UK Limited,
pp. 564–607.
Jenkinson, D.S., 1991. The Rothamsted long-term experiments: are they still of
use? Agron. J. 83, 2–10.
Kanchikerimath, M., Singh, D., 2001. Soil organic matter and biological
properties after 26 years of maize–wheat–cowpea cropping as affected by
manure and fertilization in cambisol. in semiarid region of India. Agricul.
Ecosyst. Environ. 86, 155–162.
Kundu, S., Bhattacharyya, R., Prakash, V., Ghosh, B.N., Gupta, H.S., 2006.
Carbon sequestration and relationship between carbon addition and storage
377
under rainfed soybean–wheat rotation in a sandy loam soil of the Indian
Himalayas. Soil Tillage Res. (published online).
Lal, R., Kimble, J., Follett, R.F., 1998. Need for research and need for action. In:
Lal, R., et al. (Ed.), Management of Carbon Sequestration in Soil. Adv. Soil
Sci. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL., pp. 447–454.
Lal, R., 2002. Why carbon sequestration in soils. In: Kimble, J., et al. (Ed.),
Agricultural Practices and Policies for Carbon Sequestration in Soil. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL., pp. 21–30.
Lal, R., 2005. Carbon sequestration and climate change with specific reference
to India. Proc. Int. conf. on soil water and environmental quality-issues and
strategies. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. New Delhi, pp. 295–302.
Larson, W.E., Clapp, C.E., Pierre, W.H., Morachan, Y.B., 1972. Effects of
increasing amounts of organic residues on continuous corn: II. Organic
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. Agron. J. 64, 204–208.
Liebig, M.A., Varvel, G.E., Doran, J.W., Wienhold, B.J., 2002. Crop sequence
and nitrogen fertilization effects on soil properties in the Western Corn Belt.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66, 596–601.
Malhi, S.S., Harapiak, J.T., Noyborg, M., Gill, K.S., Monreal, C.M., Gregorich,
E.G., 2003. Total and light fraction organic C in a thick black Chernozemic
grassland soil as affected by 27 annual applications of six rates of fertilizer.
N. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 66, 33–41.
Manna, M.C., Swarup, A., Wanjari, R.H., Singh, V.V., Ghosh, P.K., Singh, K.N.,
Tripathi, A.K., Saha, M.N., 2006. Soil organic matter in a West Bengal
Inceptisol after 30 years of multiple cropping and fertilization. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 70, 121–129.
Nannipieri, P., Greco, S., Ceccanti, B., 1990. Ecological significance of the
biological activity in soil. In: Bollag, J.M., Stozky, G. (Eds.), Soil
Biochemistry, vol. 6. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 293–354.
Paul, E.A., Morris, S.J., Bohm, S., 2001. The Determination of Soil C Pool Sizes
and Turnover Rates: Biophysical Fractionation and Tracers. In: Lal, R. (Ed.),
Assessment Methods for Soil Carbon, Adv. Soil Sci., CRC Press, Lewis
Publ., Boca Raton, FL., pp. 193–206.
Paustian, K., Collins, H.P., Paul, E.A., 1997. Management controls on soil
carbon. In: Paul, E.A. (Ed.), Soil Organic Matter in Temperate Agroeco-
systems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 15–49.
Potter, K.N., Torbert, H.A., Jones, O.R., Matoch, J.E., Morrison, J.E., 1998.
Distribution and amount of soil organic carbon in long term management
systems in Texas. Soil Tillage Res. 47, 309–321.
Powlson, D.S., Jenkinson, D.S., 1981. A comparison of the organic matter,
adenosine triphosphate, and mineralizable nitrogen contents of ploughed
and direct-drilled soils. J. Agric. Sci. (Cambridge) 97, 713–721.
Puget, P., Drinkwater, L.E., 2001. Short-term dynamics of root-and shoot-derived
carbon from a leguminous green manure. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65, 771–779.
Purakayastha, T.J., Huggins, D.R., Smith, J.L., 2008. Carbon sequestration in
native prairie, perennial grass, no-tilled and cultivated Palouse silt loam. Soil
Sci. Soc. Am. J. 72.
Rochette, P., Gregorich, E.G., 1998. Dynamics of soil microbial biomass C,
soluble organic C, and CO2 evolution after three years of manure
application. Can. J. Soil Sci. 78, 283–290.
Rudrappa, L., Purakayastha, T.J., Singh, Dhyan, Bhadraray, S., 2006. Long-term
manuring and fertilization effects on soil organic carbon pools in a Typic
haplustept of semi-arid sub-tropical India. Soil Tillage Res. 88, 180–192.
Russell, A.E., Cambardella, C.A., Ewel, J.J., Parkin, T.B., 2004. Species,
rotation, and life-form diversity effects on soil carbon in experimental
tropical ecosystems. Ecol. Appl. 14, 47–60.
Russell, A.E., Laird, D.A., Parkin, T.B., Mallarino, A.P., 2005. Impact of
nitrogen fertilization and cropping system on carbon sequestration in
midwestern Mollisols. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 69, 413–422.
Sampson, R.N., Scholes, R.J., 2006. Additional human-induced activities—
article 3.4. In: Watson, et al. (Ed.), Land Use, Land-Use Change, and
Forestry: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Cambridge Univ. Press, NY, pp. 184–281.
Swarup, A., 1998. Emerging soil fertility management issues for sustainable
crop production in irrigated systems. In: Swarup, et al. (Ed.), Long-term Soil
Fertility Management through Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply. Indian
Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, India, pp. 54–68.
Swarup, A., Wanjari, R.H., 2000. Decades of all India coordinated research
project on long-term fertilizer experiments to study changes in soil quality.
378 T.J. Purakayastha et al. / Geoderma 144 (2008) 370–378
Crop Production and Sustainability. Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal,
India.
Swarup, A., Manna, M.C., Singh, G.B., 2000. Impact of land use and
management practiced on organic carbon dynamics in soils of India. In: Lal,
et al. (Ed.), Advances in Soil Science Global Climate Change and Tropical
Ecosystem. CRC-Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 261–281.
Snyder, D., Trofymow, J.A., 1984. Rapid accurate wet oxidation diffusion
procedure for determining organic and inorganic carbon in plant and soil
samples. Comm. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 15, 1587–1597.
Veihmeyer, F.J., Hendrickson, A.H., 1948. Soil density and root penetration.
Soil Sci. 65, 487–493.
Vennila, A. 2003. Nature and stability of clay–humus complexes in relation to
manures, clays and moisture regimes. Ph.D. Thesis, Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi, pp. 37–38.
West, T.O., Post, W.M., 2002. Soil organic carbon sequestration rates by tillage
and crop rotation: a global data analysis. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66,
1930–1946.
Young, L.M., 2003. Carbon sequestration in agriculture: the U.S. policy in
context. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 85, 1164–1170.