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Where are these assemblies used? Switchgear and control panels are found in power generating
stations, transformer stations, distribution substations, commercial and institutional buildings, industrial
plants and factories,refineries,paper mills, metal smelters and any other place where electric energy is
utilized or electric power is distributed to any number of zones. There are a few common types of
assemblies that cover almost any application. A broad classification according to the location of the
switchgear assemblies is whether the gear is installed indoor or outdoor. A further classification for the
indoor gear is standard ventilated indoor,indoor with drip hood, indoor for location in sprinklers area,
indoor in hazardous location, arcproof (type a, b or c) and indoor in corrosive environment. Outdoor
switchgear can also be further classified as whether it has an isle or not (walkin vs. nonwalkin types)
with or without a working area. Another method of classifying a gear is whether it is a bottom or top
entry, the power and control cables are entering from the bottom or the top of the gear. The switchgear
can contain as switching/interrupting device(s): a circuit breaker (c.b.), a switch/fuse combination, a
contactor/fuse combination (for motor switching), for low voltage(l.v.)assemblies: a switch or breaker in
series with a contactor (for motor switching). Certain configurations come only as nondraw out
construction, others as drawout. If special requirements for the gear are needed, the special property
can be used as a criteria for defining the gear, for example, if dust tight enclosure is required due to the
presence of dust (fine or course) in the atmosphere this gear is designated as dust tight. For switchgear
assemblies, as heat is generated from the high current flowing, a dust tight enclosure is almost
impossible thus a dust proof one is used, instead. The major standards that govern the design,
manufacture & testing of these assemblies are: CSA, ANSI, IEC, EEMAC, NEMA.
Switchgear assemblies & motor control centers (starters) lineups can be classified according to their
voltage classes. The l.v. equipment is rated in the range of 120/208V single or three phase to 750V AC.
The medium voltage ones are 2400/4160V to 44KV. The enclosures for all low voltage construction are
metal enclosed. Some constructions include partitions and barriers to give a safer operation over and
above the standard construction. For medium voltage gear both construction types, metal clad and metal
enclosed, are common.
In this section the major components of the switchgear assemblies, motor starters and associated
ancillaries will be given. For l.v. switchgear assemblies: molded case or power (air magnetic) circuit
breakers (drawout or fixed) complete with or without integral overcurrent protection device (thermal
magnetic, solid state or microprocessor based) with or without zone interlocking provision, cradle for
drawout versions only, fixed potential and control power transformers, current transformers, interframe
and back barriers, main bus bars, run backs, bus risers, cable lugs(compression or mechanical),
protective fuses for breaker control circuits, instrument compartments, breaker accessories, breaker
lifting devices (integral with gear), fused or unfused interrupter switches, protective/monitoring/
auxiliary relays, metering devices(ammeters, voltmeters, watthourmeters/wattmeters and digital
metering packages D.M.P.), control switches and indicating lights. For medium voltage switchgear
assemblies, the main components are: drawout circuit breakers (oil, air, SF6, vacuum), switching
device (load break or disconnect) with or w/o fuses (power current limiting or power expulsion type)
with or w/o blown fuse indicator/actuator, instrument transformers, capacitor tripping device, relays,
meters & instruments, main bus, control & indicating devices, jumpers, cable lugs, cable supports,
potheads, barriers, shutters, instrument compartments, test switches and breaker accessories.
For l.v. motor control centers the components are: combination motor starters, instrument
transformers, motor protection devices, main bus, cable entry compartments, vertical bus, control
cables, push buttons, pilot lights, breaker or switch handle, mounting pans and programmable logic
controllers plc (processor module, I/O, network interface and other associated modules).
For m.v. starters,the components are: contactors (vacuum & air), fused control transformer, overload
protection, current transformers, instrument compartments, meters, auxilliary relays, timers, control
devices, multifunction motor protection relays, indicating lights, power fuses and surge arresters.
There are a few distinct types of switchgear cubicles and are listed hereafter: incoming (main)
cubicles, transformer feeders, bus tie (sectionalization), generator exciter control, generator neutral
cubicles, induction motor control cubicle, synchronous motor switching board and potential transformer
cubicles (used in conjunction with isolated phase bus in generating stations).
Other components that could be seen attached or connected to switchgear lineups either or not to form
a unit substation are: power transformers, low voltage bus duct/medium voltage bus or cable duct runs.
If the transformers are close coupled and installed indoor, then dry type transformers are used. If they
are located outdoor and connected to the switchgear by nonsegregated bus duct or cable duct or by a
throat (with o/d switchgear) than they are of the oil filled type. Another type of transformers that can be
found indoors is the cast resin coil type. Other components that are needed for the proper operation of
the switchgear or control panel but not necessarily part of the installation or may be installed remotely
are: the batteries that supply control power for the proper operation of the circuit breakers, protection
devices, metering packages and control devices. They could be lead acid or nickel cadmium complete
with a charger system sized and rated to operate all loads under normal and power loss conditions.
The stationary battery is designed to serve as an auxiliary /standby source of power to all devices
connected to it. The battery is normally mounted on racks and is continuously charged except for
intermittent discharging intervals of varying times and power. Battery voltage gradually declines during
discharge and should not be permitted to drop below the minimum tolerated by the load plus the line
drop. To protect the battery against over discharge a low voltage relay (d.c.) is recommended as part of
the installation. The rate of voltage decline depends upon: the demand current of the load, duration of
the discharge, chemical design and type of cells, number and size of plates in each cell, battery state of
charge at beginning of discharge, age of battery cells and temperature of cells. The capacity of the
battery is basically its ability to supply a given current for a given period of time at a given cell
temperature without going below the minimum voltage (batteries are rated in amperehour at a given
discharge rate). Stationary batteries are usually rated for 8hour,3hour,1hour, 1 minute discharge. The
ampere hour rating is simply the product of the discharge in amperes multiplied by the given discharge
time period. In the next few paragraphs the types of plates and grid alloys for the lead acid and
alkaline(NiCad), the electrolyte properties, battery charging, battery safety and finally battery
maintenance will be covered.
For the lead acid battery, the positive plates available are: the pasted(Faure) plate which comprises of a
latticework metallic grid with the openings filled with lead oxide paste. The grid may be made up of
lead antimony or lead calcium, the properties of which will be given later. The second type is the
multitubular plates, which use porous plates to contain the lead oxide. The grid (lead antimony) is
basically a row of spines extending from the top bar to the bottom cap bar. Porous tubes filled with lead
oxide (powdered) with the grid forms the positive plate. This design form prvides more AH of capacity
per cubic foot of battery volume at moderate rates of discharge. The third and last type is the plante
type which is considered to have the longest life expectancy of all lead acid stationary battery designs.
The positive plate consists of a grid (lead antimony) of large area with thin layers of lead oxide. Such
plates have complex designs with circular openings where corrugated lead ribbons are rolled into spiral
ribbons.The negative plates irrelevant of the type of the positve plates are built with pasted plate design.
Metallic sponge lead is used on the negative plates. The negative grid for the multitubular and plante
(positive plates) is made of lead antimony, with the pasted plate, it is either lead calcium or lead
antimony. The grid of alloys, antimony or calcium, serves both purposes gives physical support and
strength to the soft lead and acts as an electric conductor. The grid achieves and retains a physical shape
and conducts the current to all parts of the material. Pasted plates with lead calcium alloy grids are used
in sealed maintenance free lead acid cells due to the fact that this type does not require watering during
its life time. Lead antimony is preferred for installations where elevated temperature and frequent
cycling is encountered. Lead calcium is also used for installations requiring longer intervals between
maintenance watering. The disadvantage of lead calcium is that under frequent cycling the life of he
battery is reduced significantly.
For the nickelalkaline batteries there are two types of plates, the pocket type and the sintered type.
The pocket type is used for both positive and negative plates. The active material (nickel hydrate
positive and cadmium sponge negative plus additives to help conductivity)is sandwiched between two
perforated strips (nickel plated steel). The strips are crimped together and this assembly is placed in a
U shape frame. After intermeshing the positive and negative the insulator pins are put in place, through
the frame and plates. These elements are than put in a container and the cell cover (with vent cap and
appropriate hole for terminal poles) is installed. There are three common ratings: high (discharge
shorter than 1 hour), medium rate (discharge shorter than 4 hrs) and low (the battery will supposedly
carry loads for up to 20 hrs).
For lead acid batteries: the electrolyte is a solution of diluted sulphuric acid. When the battery is fully
charged, the positive plate is lead peroxide and the negative one is sponge lead. The specific gravity of
the electrolyte is maximum at start of discharge, the reaction between the acid and the active material
produces lead sulphate and water the specific gravity gradually decreases. When the battery is placed
on charge the reverse takes place. The volume of acid in the electrolyte of a lead acid battery is
measured by specific gravity. Specific gravity for stationary batteries used for swgr, control and
emergency lighting is approximately 1.210 (the highest volume of acid as compared to other
applications but in lower concentration). To determine the state of charge of the battery, the gravity
reading is compared with the full charge value published and to the specific gravity drop of a particular
cell size at a specific discharge rate. The reading has to be corrected to the ambient temperature at time
of measurement if other than 25 deg C. For the NiCad, the electrolyte is a solution of potassium
hydroxide diluted in water with normal specific gravity of 1.16 to 1.19 at 25 deg C, additives are added
to improve its capacity. When the battery is fully charged the positive plate nickel hydrate is highly
oxidized and the negative plate is sponge metallic cadmium. After discharge takes place the positive
plate reduces to lower oxide while the metallic cadmium in the negative plate oxidizes. None of the
constituents of the alkaline electrolyte combine with the active material of the plates during charging or
discharging. The specific gravity of the electrolyte can not be used to indicate the state of charge of the
battery. The specific gravity readings will vary from normal rating when he electrolyte temperature is
lower or higher than 25 deg C, when the solution level drops below the normal, or the battery has been
in service for long time.
In this paragraph charging of both types of batteries will be covered. The lead acid stationary batteries
are continuously float charged while on a standby status and are charged with a high constant potential
currentlimited level after a discharge. The higher voltage value depends on the recharge time required
to recharge the battery. As the charging time is shortened the charger's cost increases. The charger is a
static rectifier(scr), its function is to change the single phase or three phase input (120, 208, 240, 480,
600V 60HZ)to a d.c. output suitable for charging the battery and maintaining a constant voltage
throughout the battery's load range. To prevent the self discharge phenomena (standing loss) the charger
maintains a float charge that continuously monitors and corrects for these internal losses. Batteries
equipped with lead calcium grids rather than lead antimony require a float charge per cell higher than
its counter part (eg.2.2 V vs. 2.15V). The fully charged battery (lead antimony alloy grid 1.210 sp.
gravity) will draw between .05 to 0.1 A per 100 ah of battery rated capacity at the eight hour discharge
rate. For lead calcium alloy grid 10% to 20% of an identical lead antimony alloy will be drawn. Current
drawn under different ambient temperature conditions is as follows: the higher the temperature the
higher the current drawn and vice versa. Chargers compensate, usually, for variations in floatcurrent
demands. The floating current is directly proportional to the cell (battery) voltage. The faster the rate of
change in voltage the higher he current drawn at the floating voltage. The charger should be able to
provide the floating voltage with a variation of no more than plus or minus 1% throughout its ampere
rating.
Chargers for NiCad batteries (stationary) are simillar to the ones used for lead acid, float charged while
on standby and a higher charge after a discharge (for a prolonged period) after which float charge level
is resumed until further discharge. The value of the higher charging current is at least 5% higher than
the 8hour discharge capacity. Float rate for NiCad batteries is about 1.4 to 1.45V per cell at 25 deg C.
After a discharge the higher charge is applied until voltage rises to 1.6 per cell (it is maintained for 15 to
30 hours). The size of the charger ampere rating is usually matched to the load demand plus the
maximum high charging rate required by the battery. The battery starts to discharge when the demand
exceeds the charger supply or when the a.c. supply to the charger is cut off. The data required for the
proper selection of a charger are: total current, voltage (d.c.), duty (continuous, standby, combination),
automatic control (recommended),voltage (ac) and number of phases. Standard components that are
found in a charger are: a.c. & d.c. fuse protection, d.c. ammeter and voltmeter, a.c. on pilot lamp,
reverse battery protection, a.c & d.c. surge protection, "high rate" on pilot light, automatic current limit
short circuit, float/high rate/current limit potentiometers, alarm circuits, high rate charge timer.
A storage battery is constantly live electrically and therefore a source of electrical shock. Tools should
never be laid on top of the battery as such an action can cause severe short circuits. Smoking is
forbidden in battery rooms. Hydrogen gas level should never exceed 4% by volume in the battery room
thus adequate ventilation is to be provided. Refer to the local electrical safety code (for example CSA
C22.1) for requirements of the method of connecting the batteries and of the battery room ventilation.
Electrolyte used in lead acid batteries is highly corrosive. If spilled on any object it has to be
neutralized through the use of 1 lb of bicarbonate soda & 1 lb water. Electrolyte used with alkaline
batteries, if spilled has to be neutralized by flooding the spill with solution of vinegar diluted with
water 50/50 proportion. It is highly recommended to use goggles (or face shield) and rubber gloves
when maintenance is performed on a battery.
Maintenance to a battery is the proper addition of water (tap or distilled) to correct the electrolyte
solution level and to keep a record sheet with pertinent information. Tap water can be used if the
impurity limits are not exceeded. It is important to keep the battery clean and dry, the connectors tight,
the electrolyte at the proper level, the electrolyte density according to the supplier recommendations.
Now coverage of distribution panels and switchboards will be presented including molded case circuit
breakers, safety switches, panelboards, multimetering equipment, ground fault circuit interrupters. Most
of the codes define a circuit breaker as a device designed to open and close a circuit automatically at a
predetermined overcurrent values (short circuit or overload) without injury to itself when properly
applied within its rating. A molded case circuit breaker irrelevant of the manufacturer comprises of:
the molded case(frame), operating mechanism, arc extinguishers, contacts, trip elements and the
terminals (connectors i.e. mechanical/ compression lugs or solid bar). The function of the molded case
is to provide an insulated housing to assemble and mount all of the circuit breaker components. The
cases are molded from phenolic material. It provides ruggedness and high dielectric strengh to the
breaker in a compact design. Maximum current, voltage and interrupting current determine the size and
strength of the molded case circuit breaker. Different manufacturers build breakers for the same rating
with different physical sizes i.e. noninterchangeable. The faceplate gives all the important data such as:
catalog number, serial number of breaker, interrupting ratings at different voltage classes, standards
registration numbers i.e. for the CSA or UL, calibration temperature for thermal magnetic units, lugs
data &size, electrical accessories, date of manufacturing. The function of the operating mechanism is to
provide a means of opening and closing the breaker. It is of the quickmake, quickbreak mechanism.
These breakers are also trip free i.e. if the breaker operating handle is pushed and hold in the on
position and there is a fault on the system (or the trip test button is pushed, if available) the breaker
would trip open & stay open.There are three distinct positions for the handle to settle in the ON, OFF,
TRIP (which is midway between the ON and OFF positions). The breaker has to be reset after tripping
by pushing the handle all the way to the OFF position and than pushing it to the ON position. The
function of the arc extinguisher is to confine, divide and extinguish the arc drawn between the breaker
contacts each time the breaker interrupts. The trip element provides the protection in case of prolonged
overloads or short circuits. It actuates the operating mechanism and trip the breaker open. This element
is made up of electromechanical or solid state components. The electromechanical element is referred
to as the thermal magnetic and it includes: the bimetallic element and the electomagnet. The
current(load) flows through or heats the bimetal. When a combination of high current level and a long
duration exists which is sufficient to deflect the bimetal far enough to physically push the trip bar and
unlatch the contacts, the breaker will trip open. There is no field adjustment available for the thermal
element. The magnetic trip action is achieved through the use of an electromagnet connected in series
with the load current. When the short circuit current passes through the coil this causes the
electromagnet to attract the armature (trip bar) and the unlatching action causes the breaker to trip
open. Magnetic trip is adjustable in 250A frame breaker and over. Two adjusting methods are available
one is the independent adjustment of each pole of the breaker thus three adjusting knobs versus one
knob to adjust all poles simultaneously. Thermal magnetic trip elements are temperature sensitive thus
a modified unit to compensate for variations in ambient temperature (with a modified design) can be
applied under specific conditions. An ambient compensated overload trip unit can be used whenever the
breaker (protecting a cable or a down stream device) is located in a different place with different
ambient temperature than the protected device or conductor, thus derating or uprating of breakers
becomes unnecessary. Ambient compensation is obtained by using an additional compensating bimetal
which counteracts the effect of ambient temperature changes on the overload bimetal. There are
various methods of connecting the line and load sides of a circuit breaker: bus bars, panelboard straps,
rear connected studs, plugin adapters, terminals (cable lugs for single or multiconductors for copper
only or copper/aluminum ones). The tripping unit can be made up of solid state components or
microprocessor based elements. These components replace the bimetallic & magnetic elements in a
conventional molded case c.b. Internal current transformers in the breaker are required to feed in the
S.S. trip unit. Each frame size can accomodate a set of rating plugs, these plugs set the rated continuous
current of the breaker. Some types of rating plugs are adjustable between 70100% or 50100% of the
rated current of the plug itself. The breaker characteristic curves are similar to the thermal magnetic trip
curves except that the different tripping actions are more clearly defined and can be adjusted. The
distinct portions of the ch/cs curve are: the long time ampere rating & the long time delay (simulates
the thermal section of a thermal magnetic c.b.) the short time pickup & the short time delay (I2t in or
out), the instantaneous pick up (simulates the magnetic portion in a thermal magnetic curve). These
breakers can come with a builtin ground fault protection (for solid effectivegrounded neutral only)
with adjustment of ground fault pickup and time delay. The timecurrent ch/cs curves for current
limiting type c.b. have basically the same shape as conventional c.b. The only difference is the current
limiting action displayed at higher fault levels. A total interruption time of from 1/4 to 1/2 cycle is
consistent with the current limiting operation. The electromagnetic repulsion created by closely spaced
parallel contact arms carrying current in opposite directions intensified by an O shaped magnet
surrounding the contact arm causes the contacts to blow open in an extremely short period of time.
Circuits which produce high fault currents typically are associated with low short circuit power factors
(i.e. high X/R ratios). The high speed contact separation enhances the ability of the c.b. to limit both the
peak current and the let through energy. The integral current limiting breaker is similar to the standard
thermal magnetic except that it incorporates a current limiting device. This device consists of 3 current
limiters specially designed to coordinate with the breaker of which they are an integral part. All
normal overloads and s.c. faults are interrupted by the thermal magnetic portion of the c.b. When a
large fault occurs the trigger type current limiters will blow and operate the trip bar to open the breaker,
thus preventing single phasing.
The standard molded case switch, which is a more compact design than the conventional disconnect
switch, has no trip unit. It consists of the standard breaker contacts, bussing and lugs for the highest
ampere rating in each frame size and is manually operated only.
The safety switches can be single throw or double throw. All switches to have visible blades and safety
handles (interlock bypass lever, cross bar and operating spring). There are two types of switch contacts
the butt and the knifeblade/jaw construction. In the former, only one of the blades contact surface is
held in tension against the conducting path, electromagnetic forces due to high current faults will tend
to force the contacts apart therefore arcing and contact burning may be the result. In the latter the jaws
distribute a uniform clamping pressure on both sides of the blade contact surfaces, the electromagnetic
forces due to the high s.c. currents will tend to squeeze the 2 sides of the jaw together onto the blade.
The action of the blade moving in and out of the jaws aids in cleaning the contact surfaces. The
contacts are made of copper and the current carrying parts of the switch are plated, to reduce heating.
Fused switches will have fuse clips/holders plated and either spring reinforced or not, the classes found
on these switches are J, R, or L for 800A and over. The molded case switches and the safety switches
are installed in a variety of enclosures to meet practically all applications. The enclosures are
designated according to Nema standards(1,3R,4,4X,5,...etc.) or CSA(1,2,3,..etc) all the enclosures have
to go through a set of qualifying tests before been given such a designation.
Now,we shall cover panelboards. These types of boards can be classified, broadly,into two categories:
lighting and distribution/ power. Another method of classification is whether the board contains
breakers, switches (fused or unfused) or a combination thereof. The panelboards can also be classified
according to the main, accepting the incoming cable, whether it is a breaker a switch or just a set of
lugs. The rating ranges, for single phase (three wire) or three phase (three or four wire) lighting panels,
from 120/240V to 600V 50A 800A main breaker or main lug. The ratings range for single phase (two
or three wire) or three phase (three or four wire) power panels from 120/240V through 600V a.c or
250V d.c., main breaker or switch or lugs, up to 1200A. The major components of the breaker
panelboards are the boxwhich comes in standard dimensions, the interior which holds the breakers
and comes in standard current carrying capacity & mounting spaces, the solid neutral which is a bare
conducting bar with lugs, the trim either flush or surface which covers the gutters and has the door
that covers the branch/main breakers, finally the breakers plug on or bolted type. For the fusible
panels the components are: the fusible switch unit, the interior assembly, the enclosure the box and the
front trim parts, the cover plates (blanks)and the neutral.
There are metering equipment (centres or sockets) that are used for single phase and three phase
systems. They are units that act as the point of placement for the P.U. to place its detachable meter
(watthour). The single phase 120/240V,3wire units are used in conjunction with the load centre which
is located inside the single family resident. There are three types of meter sockets: the noncircuit
closing, automatic circuit closing and the manual circuit closing. The first means when the watthour
meter is removed the service to the down stream load is interrupted, the second means that a
mechanism to short the line to the load jaws of the socket when the meter is detached is provided, the
third offers the ability of shorting the line to the load jaws of the socket manually through the use of a
slider or lever before removing the meter. All these mechanisms are meant for temporarily shorting the
socket and usually rated 50% of the continuous current carrying capacity of the socket. The jumper bars
are not to be used to make/break current. The 4 jaw meter socket is used on 120/240V a.c.,1 phase, 3
wire. The 5jaw used with single phase loads fed from 3 phase ,4w 120/208V ac system. For 3 phase, 4
wire systems the 7jaw meter socket is used with the proper meter to measure the energy consumption
of the connected loads. The type of socket trim will suit the type of socket installed. These meter
sockets can be assembled together in one lineup to meter different loads in one location like shopping
centers, apartment buildings,...etc. They are built for indoor or outdoor installations.
In this paragraph people protection rather than equipment protection from ground faults will be
discussed. The device used is known as ground fault interrupter (GFI). The hand to hand resistance of
an adult lies between 1000 to 4000 ohms function of voltage, moisture levels and muscular structure.
The effect of a 60 c/s shock on a normal adult are as follows: over 5 ma painful shock, over 15 ma is
sufficient to cause freezing, over 30 ma causes difficulty in breathing that can lead to suffocation, 50
100 ma possible ventricular fibrillation, 100200 ma definite ventricular fibrillation, over 200 ma severe
burns & muscle contractions. A standard overcurrent device will never sense such low levels of current
despite the fact that it is dangerous to the human being. Ground fault circuit interrupters are covered in
the UL standard 943 and the CSA C22.2 no.144. The GFI should trip when the ground current reaches
6 ma or more, the time it should take to trip= [20/ground fault current]1.43. This device should not trip
below 4 ma, it also contains a means of testing the ground fault circuitry. The standards classify the GFI
into class A (which is briefly covered above), portable and non classified ones. The GFI sensing
components are the zero sequence current sensor that monitors the balance of the current in either the
single phase 2 wire circuit (the hot and neutral wires) or the single phase 3 wire i.e. 2 pole breakers (the
2 hot and the neutral wires). When the sensor detects an unbalance, as low as 6 ma, it will send a signal
to the control circuitry. This will initiate a trip of the breaker feeding the faulty circuit (having the
leakage current to ground). The rules that govern the application and use of the GFI are given in the
local applicable code, eg. CSA C22.1.