Pollution Project

I INTRODUCTION

Pollution, contamination of the environment by man-made substances or energy that have

adverse effects on living or non-living matter. This contamination of air, water, or soil materials
interferes with human health, the quality of life, or the natural functioning of ecosystems. In
simple terms, pollution can be seen as the wrong substance in the wrong place in the wrong
quantities at the wrong time. This implies that harm is caused to the environment, and if the
same substance is present at levels too low to cause harm, then it can be considered as
contamination. Many substances that can be pollutants also occur naturally, in which case they
are not classified as pollution. However, other pollutants result entirely from human activity,
such as most toxic organic compounds and artificial forms of radioactivity, particularly from
nuclear waste.

II TYPES OF POLLUTION

Pollution can be categorized according to the medium in which it occurs: atmospheric pollution
(see Air Pollution), freshwater and sea pollution (see Water Pollution), or land pollution (see
Solid Waste Disposal). However, transfers can occur in both directions between the
atmosphere, water, and the land, with consequences for both the spread of pollution and its
effects. For example, the emission of sulphur dioxide—caused by the combustion of fossil fuels
such as gas, petroleum, and coal—into the air can result in the acidification of soils and lakes
when it reaches the Earth’s surface (see Acid Rain). Pollution can also be classified on the basis
of the type of pollutant, such as pesticides (see Pest Control) and other persistent toxic organic
compounds, heavy metals, radioactivity, human and animal effluent, and toxic gases. The
most familiar forms of pollution result from the chemical properties of the substances
concerned, but the physical properties may also be important, for example ionizing radiation,
noise pollution, and excessive heat.

Water pollution arises from the discharge of industrial, agricultural, and human wastes into
freshwaters, estuaries, and seas. This may result in the poisoning of aquatic organisms or the
depletion of oxygen owing to excessive growth of micro-organisms (anthropogenic
eutrophication), which makes less of the water habitable for fish. Metal pollution and toxic
organic compounds are of concern for human and environmental health as a result of
discharges to water, air, and the terrestrial environment. Air pollution can result in adverse
effects on health, crops, natural ecosystems, materials, and visibility. The major concerns over
air pollution are acidification of soils and waters with its detrimental affects on animal and
plant life, and the impact of traffic-derived pollutants on health in cities (see Traffic Pollution).
On a global scale air pollution probably represents the greatest problem of all, with greenhouse
gases (such as carbon dioxide) resulting in global warming and synthetic chlorine compounds
(chlorofluorocarbons) depleting the stratospheric ozone layer. Nuclear waste is a further
modern environmental concern, which poses a problem not just for the present generation, but
for future generations as the waste remains radioactive for thousands of years.

III TRENDS IN POLLUTION

Trends in pollution are difficult to determine accurately, particularly on a world scale. The best-
documented trend is the global increase in carbon dioxide at a rate of about 0.5 per cent per
year. Overall, there is a trend for decreasing levels of pollutants in the developed world, but
the opposite in many developing countries as they rapidly industrialize. For example, it has
been predicted that sulphur dioxide emissions will fall by 63 per cent in Europe from 1990 to
2010, while they will rise in China by 118 per cent. The reductions in the developed world
result largely from environmental legislation, which has led to the introduction of control
measures and cleaner technology. Examples are the introduction of more advanced waste-
water treatment processes, shifts to cleaner fuels, and the recycling of potential contaminants.

Air Pollution

I INTRODUCTION

Air Pollution, contamination of the atmosphere by gaseous, liquid, or solid wastes or by-
products that can endanger human health and the health and welfare of plants and animals, or
can attack materials, reduce visibility, or produce undesirable odours. Among air pollutants
emitted by natural sources, only the radioactive gas radon is recognized as a widespread
major health threat, although gases and particles from volcanic eruptions can cause serious
more localized problems. A by-product of the radioactive decay of uranium minerals in certain
kinds of rock, radon seeps into the basements of homes built on these rocks, posing a risk of
lung cancer to residents.

Each year industrially developed countries generate billions of tons of pollutants. The most
prevalent and widely dispersed air pollutants are described in the accompanying table. The
level is usually given in terms of atmospheric concentrations (micrograms of pollutants per
cubic metre of air) or, for gases, in terms of parts per million, that is, millilitres of gas per
thousand litres of air. Many come from directly identifiable sources; sulphur dioxide, for
example, comes from electric power plants burning coal or oil. Others are formed through the
action of sunlight on previously emitted reactive materials (called precursors). For example,
ozone, a dangerous pollutant in smog, is produced by the interaction of hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides under the influence of sunlight. Ozone also causes serious crop damage. On
the other hand, the discovery in the 1980s that air pollutants such as fluorocarbons are
causing a loss of ozone from the Earth's protective ozone layer has caused the phasing out of
these materials. A further category of air pollution is heavy metals, present as particulates and
arising from many industrial processes.

II METEOROLOGY AND HEALTH EFFECTS

Pollutant concentration is reduced by atmospheric mixing, which depends on such weather

conditions as temperature, wind speed, and the movement of high and low pressure systems
and their interaction with the local topography, for example, mountains and valleys. Normally,
temperature decreases with altitude. But when a colder layer of air settles under a warm layer,
producing a temperature or thermal inversion, atmospheric mixing is retarded and pollutants
may accumulate near the ground. Inversions can become sustained under a stationary high-
pressure system coupled with low wind speeds.

Periods of only three days of poor atmospheric mixing can lead to high concentrations of
hazardous materials in high-pollution areas and, under severe conditions, can result in injury
and even death. An inversion over Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1948 caused respiratory illness in
over 6,000 people and led to the deaths of 20. Severe pollution in London took 3,500 to 4,000
lives in 1952 and another 700 in 1962. Release of methyl isocyanate into the air during a
temperature inversion caused the disaster at Bhopal, India, in December 1984, with at least
3,300 deaths and more than 20,000 illnesses. The effects of long-term exposure to low
concentrations are not well defined; however, those most at risk are the very young, the
elderly, smokers, workers whose jobs expose them to toxic materials, and people with heart or
lung disease. Other adverse effects of air pollution are injury to livestock and crops.

Often, the first noticeable effects of pollution are aesthetic and may not necessarily be
dangerous. These include visibility reduction due to tiny particles suspended in air, or bad
odours, such as the rotten egg smell produced by hydrogen sulphide emanating from pulp and
paper mills.

III SOURCES AND CONTROL

The combustion of coal, oil, and petrol accounts for much of the airborne pollutants. About 60
per cent of the sulphur dioxide and 20 per cent of the nitrogen oxides emitted into the
atmosphere in the United Kingdom are produced by fossil-fuel-fired electric power plants.
About 70 per cent of the carbon monoxide and 50 per cent of the nitrogen oxides come from
burning petrol and diesel in cars and lorries. Other major pollution sources include iron and
steel mills; smelters; municipal incinerators; oil refineries; cement plants; and nitric and
sulphuric acid plants.
Potential pollutants may exist in the materials entering a chemical or combustion process
(such as sulphur in coal), or they may be produced as a result of the process itself. Carbon
monoxide, for example, is a typical product of internal-combustion engines. Methods for
controlling air pollution include removing the hazardous material before it is used, removing
the pollutant after it is formed, or altering the process so that the pollutant is not formed or
occurs only at very low levels. Car exhaust pollutants can be controlled by burning the fuel as
completely as possible, by recirculating fumes from fuel tank, carburettor, and crankcase, and
by changing the engine exhaust to harmless substances in catalytic converters. Industrially
emitted particulates may be trapped in cyclones, electrostatic precipitators, and filters.
Pollutant gases can be collected in liquids or on solids, or incinerated into harmless
substances.

IV LARGE-SCALE EFFECTS

The tall smokestacks used by industries and utilities do not remove pollutants but simply boost
them higher into the atmosphere, thereby reducing their concentration at the site. These
pollutants may then be transported over large distances and produce adverse effects in areas
far from the site of the original emission. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from
Britain and other industrialized countries of Western and Central Europe have caused acid rain
in Norway and Sweden. The pH level, or relative acidity, of many freshwater lakes has been
altered so dramatically by acid rain that entire fish populations have been destroyed. Sulphur
dioxide emissions and the subsequent formation of sulphuric acid can also be responsible for
the attack on limestone and marble at large distances from the source. There are also claims
that acid rain has caused widespread damage to forests in Europe, but the precise role is
unclear and earlier predictions of large-scale forest death are unfounded.

The worldwide increase in the burning of coal and oil since the late 1940s has led to ever-
increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide. The resulting “greenhouse effect”, which allows
solar energy to enter the atmosphere but reduces the reemission of infrared radiation from the
Earth, may well lead to a warming trend that might affect the global climate and lead to a
partial melting of the polar ice-caps. Possibly an increase in cloud cover or absorption of excess
carbon dioxide by the oceans (in the so-called carbon cycle) would check the greenhouse
effect before it reached the stage of polar melting. Nevertheless, many research reports
released during the 1990s have indicated that the greenhouse effect is definitely under way
and that the nations of the world should be taking immediate steps to deal with it. In June 1999
a massive cloud of air pollution, roughly the size of the United States, was discovered 1 km to
3 km ( mi to 2 mi) above the Indian Ocean. The thick brown haze included soot, sulphates,
nitrates, mineral dust, and significant amounts of gases such as carbon monoxide and sulphur
dioxide. Scientists believe it was created by human activities, especially the burning of fossil
fuels, and could have a significant impact on the regional and global climate, as well as plant
and animal life.

V ACTION BY GOVERNMENTS

Various countries have set standards in legislation in the form of concentration levels that are
believed to be low enough to protect public health. Source emission standards are also
specified to limit the discharge of pollutants into the air so that air-quality standards will be
achieved. However, the nature of the problem requires the implementation of international
environmental treaties, and to this end 49 countries agreed in March 1985 on a United Nations
convention to protect the ozone layer. This “Montreal Protocol”, which was renegotiated in
1990 and 1992, called for the phaseout of certain chlorocarbons and fluorocarbons by the end
of the century and provides aid to developing countries in making this transition. In addition,
several international protocols have been aimed specifically at reducing the incidence of acid
rain. In December 1999 the Montreal Protocol announced that almost all production and
consumption of virgin ozone depleting substances had been phased out in the developed
world. Similar control measures were introduced for developing countries in July 1999, and it
was anticipated that all developing countries would be able to meet their freeze targets and
subsequent obligations under the protocol.

Concern over trans-boundary air pollution, including acid rain, in Europe has led to the United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) developing air quality guidelines, called
Critical Loads and Levels, which represent thresholds below which it is believed that damage
will not occur to different ecological systems. Critical Loads are based on the amount of acidity
that an ecosystem can tolerate being deposited indefinitely. Critical Levels are concentrations
of ozone, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides over different averaging times and applicable to
different categories of vegetation. Massive cuts are being made in emissions in Europe in order
to move towards these thresholds. In contrast, in many developing countries, pollutant
concentrations are rising very rapidly due to increased industrialization and motor traffic;
concern in such places is primarily with impacts on human health in cities. The World Health
Organization has published air quality guidelines designed to protect health.

Air Pollutants
Sources of major air pollutants include individual actions, such as driving a car, and industrial activities,
such as manufacturing products or generating electricity. The World Health Organization (WHO) is one of a
number of bodies which publish recommended limits for human exposure to pollutants. Note: 1 cubic
metre (1m3) is equal to 35.3 cu ft; 1 milligram (1 mg) is equal to 0.00004 oz; 1 microgram (1µg) is equal to
0.00000004 oz.

POLLUTANT MAJOR SOURCES COMMENTS/WHO GUIDELINES

Carbon monoxide (CO) Motor-vehicle exhaust; some Health guidelines: 10 mg/m3 (10 ppm) over 8
industrial processes hr; 30 mg/m3 over 1 hr (30 ppm)
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Heat and power generation Health guidelines: 125 µg/m-3 (0.044 ppm)
facilities that use oil or coal over 24 hr; 500 µg/m3 over 10 min (0.175
containing sulphur; sulphuric ppm)
acid plants; smelters
PM10 particulate matter Motor-vehicle exhaust; industrial Health guideline: 70 µg/m3 over 24 hr;
processes; refuse incineration; composed of carbon, nitrates, sulphates, and
heat and power generation; many metals including lead, copper, iron, and
reaction of pollution gases in the zinc
atmosphere
Lead (Pb) Motor-vehicle exhaust; lead Health guideline: 0.5 µg/m-3 over a year
smelters; battery plants
Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2) Motor-vehicle exhaust; heat and Health guideline: 40-50 µg-3 (0.02-0.08 ppm)
power generation; nitric acid; over 1 year; 200 µg/m3 over 1 hr (0.11 ppm)
explosives; fertilizer plants for NO2; react with hydrocarbons and sunlight
to form photochemical oxidants
Photochemical oxidants Formed in the atmosphere by Health guideline: 120 µg/m-3 (0.006 ppm) over
(primarily ozone [O3]; also reaction of nitrogen oxides, 8 hr; 100-120 µg/m3 over 3 hr (0.05-0.06 ppm)
peroxyacetyl nitrate [PAN] hydrocarbons, and sunlight
and aldehydes)
Non-methane Motor-vehicle emissions; solvent React with nitrogen oxides and sunlight to form
hydrocarbons (includes evaporation; industrial photochemical oxidants
ethane, ethylene, processes; solid waste disposal;
propane, butanes, fuel combustion
pentanes, acetylene)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) All combustion sources Possibly injurious to health at concentrations
greater than 5,000 ppm over 2-8 hr;
atmospheric levels have increased from about
280 ppm a century ago to over 350 ppm at
present; this trend is contributing to the
greenhouse effect
Note: 1 cubic metre (1 m3) is equal to 35.3 cu ft; 1 milligram (1 mg) is equal to 0.00004 oz; 1 microgram (1 µg)
is equal to 0.00000004 oz; while ppm is parts per million.

Noise Pollution

I INTRODUCTION

Noise Pollution, adverse effects of noise in our living and working environment. Noise is, by
definition, unwanted sound. It may be annoying, it may interfere with speech communication,
leisure, or relaxation, and, at very high levels which may occur at work or during certain noisy
leisure activities, it may result in hearing loss by causing damage to the hair-cells in the
cochlea in the inner ear. Rather than leading to significant adverse physiological responses,
however, noise is more often a major problem in terms of quality of human life in specific
localities.
II REACTIONS TO NOISE

“Annoyance” tends to be used to describe the general feeling of aggravation or vexation

caused by noise nuisance. It is the end of the noise/disturbance/annoyance chain. General
long-term annoyance is the most convenient and relevant measure of the impact of noise on
the community. It takes account of all the adverse effects of noise such as disturbance.

Studies have been carried out to examine the relationship between exposure to noise from
specific sources (the noise dose) and the annoyance caused (the response). Even though there
is a wide variation in the annoyance reactions of individuals, the information can be used to
define the “average” dose-response relationship, or the percentage of the population likely to
display a specific degree of annoyance to a defined level of noise. When the noise is at a
sufficiently high level the opinions may be clear-cut; the noise is the main factor in determining
annoyance. At lower levels of noise, the general attitudes of the community as a whole, or of
individual members of the community, towards the noise source, may assume greater
importance. The degree of annoyance may be influenced by the length of time to which a
community or an individual has been exposed to noise, and by the time of occurrence.

A Sleep Disturbance

Research has shown that many factors affect sleep quality. About 20 per cent of the population
have sleeping difficulties which are totally unrelated to noise. Age, sex, attitudes, and health
factors override the impact of noise-induced sleep disturbance. Background noise levels,
habituation, bedroom location, time of night, and the character of any intruding noise also
influence sleep quality. Bearing this in mind, it is unrealistic and often impractical to set noise
limits to ensure that sleep will not be affected in any way.
III DESCRIBING NOISE

The level of environmental noise is normally measured with a Sound Level Meter using the A-
weighted decibel scale (dB(A)). The decibel (dB) is the scale which is used to describe the
sound-pressure level of the sound. It is the logarithm of the ratio of the measured sound
pressure (which is what the eardrum detects) relative to a reference value, which is a very
small sound pressure which automatically acquires the value 0dB. For every ten-fold increase
in sound pressure, the sound-pressure level increases by 20dB. The term “A-weighting” means
that the signal is filtered in a way that approximates to the frequency sensitivity of the human
ear.

However, the level of noise originating from a source is not the only consideration affecting its
impact; duration is also important. Sometimes the noise is intermittent (for example, aircraft or
train noise), while sometimes it is more or less continuous (such as motorway or factory noise).
So, where separate noise events are clearly distinguishable, the important factors are the
maximum level and duration of each event and the number of events in a given period, while
continuous noise is averaged in some way over the exposure duration. Different methods have
been devised to describe the varying temporal characteristics of different sources, but the
most widely used descriptive standard for environmental noise is the Equivalent Continuous
Noise Level (LAeq). LAeq describes the noise (in dB(A)) in terms of the A-weighted acoustical
energy of the noise averaged over a specific time period, and is defined as the level of
continuous noise that would have the same acoustical energy as the actual noise over the
same time period.

However, equal values of LAeq for different sources do not necessarily elicit the same
community reaction. The different characteristics of the noise, both temporal and spectral, are
factors which play an important role in determining response, which cannot be adequately
described by a measure of the noise alone. These differences are normally taken into account
when defining standards and in noise guidelines such as the UK Planning Policy Guidance PPG
24.

IV NOISE STANDARDS

It is possible to estimate the proportion of the population exposed to specific environmental

noise levels. Taken together with information from studies of dose-response relationships, it is
then possible to identify the impact of noise on the community as a whole, in terms of the
proportion of the population likely to be adversely affected by noise. This information is
essential when planners, lawyers, technical experts, and economists have to define noise
targets and goals. The targets, taking costs and benefits into account, may range from “ideal
long-term” to “practicably achievable in the shorter term”. These targets, in turn, influence
noise emission (source noise level) and immission (environmental noise exposure) standards
and legislation, such as the United Kingdom Environmental Protection Act 1990.
For example, a report published by Stockholm University for the World Health Organization in
1995 has concluded that noise levels outside dwellings should not exceed 55dB(A) to protect
the majority of people from being seriously annoyed, and that 50dB(A) should be considered
the maximum desirable. These levels can be considered as ideal targets, but because of
technical, financial, and practical considerations, exposure levels higher than these will remain
commonplace in the developed world for some time to come, and noise-exposure standards
will be set at higher levels, although efforts will continue to be made to reduce them.

International noise-emission standards are designed to control the noise emitted by specific
machines, such as aircraft, cars, or industrial equipment. Environmental noise exposure
standards and legislation are, on the other hand, normally devised by national or local
authorities to provide an acceptable noise environment for their specific conditions. Noise
immission levels depend not only on the noise emitted by particular sources, but also the
distance from the source, and the use of noise attenuation measures such as noise barriers or
double glazing which may be required to meet national or local noise immission standards. In
order to ensure that noise levels can be predicted to an acceptable degree of accuracy and in a
consistent manner, most countries have published official methods for calculating noise
exposure for road traffic, aircraft, railways, and other types of noise source.

V NOISE IN THE COMMUNITY

The main sources of noise pollution in the community are transport sources such as aircraft
taking off and landing, road traffic, and railways; fixed industrial and commercial installations;
construction activities; and (increasingly) leisure activities. Noise from neighbours (stereo
systems, late-night comings and goings, children, barking dogs) now causes more reported
complaints than any other source, but quantifying the offending noise level is often a part of
this type of problem, which is more a question of considerate behaviour than noise limits. The
noise level is also dependent on the building’s construction and the attenuation it provides
between dwellings.

A Road Traffic

Road traffic noise is the most widespread noise source in developed countries. A study carried
out for the European Commission by the French institution INRETS in 1994 estimated that
some 200 million people in the European Union (60 per cent of the population) were exposed
to levels of road traffic noise exceeding 55dB(A), and some 132 million (39 per cent) to
60dB(A). In order to reduce exposure, noise emission limits have been defined for all new
vehicle types. The limits have been progressively lowered over the years, so that the noise
emitted by new vehicles at the beginning of the 21st century was some 8 to 10 dB lower than
25 years before. Most of this effort has reduced the noise from car engines and ancillary
equipment so much that tyre noise, even on urban roads, is becoming the dominant source,
and “quiet” road surfaces are now being used for some new roads, and quieter tyre designs
being considered. However, despite these efforts, the report predicted that traffic-noise
exposure levels would increase, particularly in the quieter areas, for the subsequent 10 to 20
years because of the growth in the number of vehicles.

B Railways

Although railways are generally seen as the safest, most economical, and most
environmentally friendly of all conventional transport systems, many countries are now
reappraising the cost of new railways in terms of environmental impact. This has been
particularly true with high-speed railways.

The latest high-speed trains have been designed to be no noisier than the older and slower
conventional trains, but careful planning of new routes and provision of noise abatement
procedures are still needed to meet environmental standards. However, trains create a less
extensive noise burden than road traffic, so that, overall, the noise environment may improve.

C Aircraft

Concern about aircraft noise grew rapidly after World War II and, by the mid-1960s, it had
reached such a level that aviation authorities and manufacturers realized that noise from the
early jet engines needed to be controlled and reduced in order to create a more acceptable
environment.

The predominant source of noise from both jet and propeller-driven aircraft is the power plant
itself. The pressures from environmental lobbies have driven authorities to establish legislation
to control aircraft noise by certification and the manufacturers have made great strides to
reduce noise from the engines themselves. Noise levels have fallen by about 20dB since the
days of the early jet aircraft, which, even though they are now larger and carry more
passengers, have become far more fuel-efficient and less noisy. Whereas the early jet engine
was dominated by the jet noise and compressor whine, the latest high-bypass ratio engine is
characterized by fan noise both to the front and rear of the engine and the relatively low level
of jet noise.

While much of the work which has resulted in lower noise emission levels from jet aircraft was
driven by the need to comply with noise certification requirements, public concern about the
noise around airports led to the introduction of noise exposure standards or limits which are
generally based on LAeq.

Noise exposure contours, normally computer generated, are used to give an indication of the
likely noise impact at any particular location in the vicinity of an airport. Computer modelling
can also be used to evaluate the impact of any changes, such as modifications to arrival or
departure routes, or the replacement of older, noisier aircraft with newer, quieter ones.
However, it must always be borne in mind that noise exposure contours will never give a
precise prediction of community response.

D Industry

Most manufacturing and industrial operations create noise. In many cases this may be limited
to the plant’s interior, while in others it will affect the communities in the neighbourhood.
Although the community noise problem was formerly restricted mainly to heavy manufacturing
industry, this is not necessarily the case today, and small manufacturing or service businesses
which create noise may be located close to residential properties. The introduction of improved
ventilation and heating systems has resulted in the installation of powerful fans located in the
walls and roofs of buildings which can, if badly positioned, lead to significant noise levels in the
neighbourhood, especially at night.

E Construction

Construction activities are noisy and have the potential to cause disturbance in the
surrounding communities. Some sources will generate continuous steady levels (such as fans,
extractors, or compressors), some will be intermittent (such as sawing or drilling), while others
will be impulsive (such as piling). Environmental noise assessments take the short-term nature
of most construction activities into account by allowing higher levels than would normally be
considered appropriate for long-term noise exposure.

F Social Noise

Neighbours make noise; in fact, noise from the living and social habits of our neighbours is
generating more complaints than any other single source of noise. Sources include domestic
equipment, stereo and TV, animals and children, do-it-yourself activities, and lawn mowers.
Many of these complaints may be a consequence of poor insulation between multi-occupier
dwellings—which could be improved at the design stage, but not after construction.
Unreasonable and antisocial behaviour causes a great deal of noise nuisance, but it is
essentially a social rather than an engineering issue. The UK Noise and Statutory Nuisance Act
1993 now provides powers to authorities to seize noisy equipment such as stereo systems if
the owner does not comply with an order to reduce the noise level.

The growing sophistication of leisure activities over the past few years has led to an increase in
noise levels in recreational areas, with an associated increased potential for nuisance to
nearby residents and other visitors. Sources include power boats, microlight aircraft, motor
cycles, motor racing, clay pigeon shooting, pop concerts, and model aircraft flying. Codes of
practice and planning regulations are used by the activity organizers and local authorities in
order to minimize the disturbance to residents and other non-participating users of recreational
areas.

G Military Sources

Noise from military sources is generally limited to noise from military aircraft and from practice
firing ranges. Low-flying aircraft cause considerable disturbance en route from air bases to
exercise areas, which are usually remote and often recreational areas (such as the Lake District
in England); the noise is likely to startle people as the aircraft fly at high speed and at low
altitude. Military helicopters may also exercise in the vicinity of their bases.

Practice firing ranges are used for rifle firing, large artillery, tanks, and sometimes by air-to-
ground missiles. Although operations may be fairly limited, the high levels of explosive noise
cause a great deal of concern about both noise and vibration in the surrounding communities.
Good public relations can help to minimize the adverse impact in these communities.

H Low-Frequency Sources

A small percentage of the population appears to be highly sensitive to certain types of low-
frequency noise, which is “sensed” rather than heard. In some instances complaints cannot be
related to any identifiable source, but on occasions they can be traced to specific sources
which may be some distance from the complainant. Once the source is positively identified, it
is sometimes possible to reduce the offending noise quite simply. Examples of sources which
can produce this type of noise include furnaces, burners, and fans, which might under certain
circumstances set up low-frequency resonances within buildings, although these will normally
be at low levels.

Contributed By:
John G. Walker

Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights

reserved.

Water Pollution
I INTRODUCTION

Water Pollution, contamination of water by foreign matter such as micro-organisms, chemicals,

industrial or other wastes, or sewage. Such matter deteriorates the quality of the water and
renders it unfit for its intended uses.
II MAJOR POLLUTANTS

The major pollutants of water are the following:

• Sewage and other oxygen-demanding wastes (largely carbonaceous organic material, the
decomposition of which leads to oxygen depletion).
• Infectious agents.
• Plant nutrients that can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, which then interfere with
water uses and, when decaying, deplete the dissolved oxygen and produce disagreeable
odours.
• Exotic organic chemicals, including pesticides, various industrial products, surface-active
substances in detergents, and the decomposition products of other organic compounds.
• Petroleum, especially from oil spills.
• Inorganic minerals and chemical compounds.
• Sediments consisting of soil and mineral particles washed by storms and floodwater from
croplands, unprotected soils, mine workings, roads, and bulldozed urban areas.
• Radioactive substances from the wastes of uranium and thorium mining and refining, from
nuclear power plants, and from the industrial, medical, and scientific use of radioactive
materials.
Heat may also be considered a pollutant when increased temperatures in bodies of water
result from the discharge of cooling water by factories and power plants.

III EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

Notable effects of water pollution include those involved in human health. Nitrates (the salts of
nitric acid) in drinking water can cause a disease in infants that sometimes results in death.
Cadmium in sludge-derived fertilizer can be absorbed by crops; if ingested in sufficient
amounts, the metal can cause an acute diarrhoeal disorder and liver and kidney damage. The
hazardous nature of inorganic substances such as mercury, arsenic, and lead has long been
known or strongly suspected.

Lakes are especially vulnerable to pollution. One problem, eutrophication, occurs when lake
water becomes artificially enriched with nutrients, causing abnormal plant growth. Run-off of
chemical fertilizer from cultivated fields may trigger this. The process of eutrophication can
produce aesthetic problems such as bad tastes and odours and unsightly green scums of
algae, as well as dense growth of rooted plants, oxygen depletion in the deeper waters and
bottom sediments of lakes, and other chemical changes such as precipitation of calcium
carbonate in hard waters. Another problem, of growing concern in recent years, is acid rain,
which has left many lakes in northern and eastern Europe and north-eastern North America
totally devoid of life.

IV SOURCES AND CONTROL

The major sources of water pollution can be classified as municipal, industrial, and agricultural.

Municipal water pollution consists of wastewater from homes and commercial establishments.
For many years, the main goal of municipal sewage disposal was simply to reduce its content
of suspended solids, oxygen-demanding materials, dissolved inorganic compounds (particularly
compounds of phosphorus and nitrogen), and harmful bacteria. In recent years, however, more
stress has been placed on improving the means of disposal of the solid residues from municipal
treatment processes. The basic methods of treating municipal wastewater fall into three
stages: primary treatment, including grit removal, screening, grinding, flocculation
(aggregation of the solids), and sedimentation; secondary treatment, which entails oxidation of
dissolved organic matter by means of biologically active sludge, which is then filtered off; and
tertiary treatment, in which advanced biological methods of nitrogen removal and chemical
and physical methods such as granular filtration and activated carbon adsorption are
employed. The handling and disposal of solid residues can account for 25 to 50 per cent of the
capital and operational costs of a treatment plant.

The characteristics of industrial wastewaters can differ markedly both within and among
industries. The impact of industrial discharges depends not only on their collective
characteristics, such as biochemical oxygen demand and the amount of suspended solids, but
also on their content of specific inorganic and organic substances. Three options (which are not
mutually exclusive) are available in controlling industrial wastewater. Control can take place at
the point of generation within the plant; wastewater can be pretreated for discharge to
municipal treatment systems; or wastewater can be treated completely at the plant and either
reused or discharged directly into receiving waters.

Agriculture, including commercial livestock and poultry farming, is the source of many organic
and inorganic pollutants in surface waters and groundwater. These contaminants include both
sediment from the erosion of cropland and compounds of phosphorus and nitrogen that partly
originate in animal wastes and commercial fertilizers. Animal wastes are high in oxygen-
demanding material, nitrogen, and phosphorus, and they often harbour pathogenic organisms.
Wastes from commercial feeders are contained and disposed of on land; their main threat to
natural waters, therefore, is via run-off and leaching. Control may involve settling basins for
liquids, limited biological treatment in aerobic or anaerobic lagoons, and a variety of other
methods.

V MARINE POLLUTION

Wastes that are discharged directly into United States marine waters are estimated
conservatively to exceed 45 million tonnes per year. About 80 per cent of this amount is waste
produced by dredging, 10 per cent is industrial waste, and 9 per cent is sewage sludge. The
presence of toxic substances, the rapid uptake of contaminants by marine organisms, heavy
deposits of materials on the bottom environment near the shore, and excessive growth of
undesirable organisms—the combination of all these aspects has very serious consequences.
In the United Kingdom, dumping of industrial waste in coastal waters finished at the end of
1992. Of the remaining types of waste dumped at sea, the average annual amount in the
period 1981 to 1994 was estimated at 39,676,000 tonnes. Of this, sewage sludge represented
22 per cent, and dredging (mainly from ports and estuaries) 78 per cent (gravel and mud
comprising 14 per cent, and sand and silt 64 per cent). The dumping of sewage sludge by the
United Kingdom finished in the late 1990s.

VI OIL SPILLS

Large-scale accidental discharges of liquid petroleum products are an important cause of

pollution along shorelines. The most spectacular cases of oil pollution involve the supertankers
used for its transport, but many other ships also spill oil, and offshore drilling operations
contribute a large share of the pollution. One estimate is that of every million tonnes of oil
shipped, one tonne is spilled. Some of the largest spills thus far recorded involve the tanker
Amoco Cadiz off the French coast in 1978 (1.6 million barrels of crude oil) and the Ixtoc I oil
well in the Gulf of Mexico in 1979 (3.3 million barrels). The spill of 240,000 barrels by the
tanker Exxon Valdez in Prince William Sound, Gulf of Alaska, in March 1989, caused within a
week a 6,700-sq-km (2,600-sq-mi) slick that endangered wildlife and fisheries in the entire gulf
area. On the other hand, the spill of 680,000 barrels from the Braer on the coast of the
Shetland Islands in January 1993 was broken up by the wave action of exceptionally severe
storms and had mostly dispersed within a few days.
The oil spills in the Persian Gulf in 1983, during the Iran-Iraq conflict, and in 1991, during the
Gulf War, when up to 8 million barrels were released, resulted in enormous damage to the
entire area, especially to the marine life.

See also Environment; Sewage Disposal; Water Supply and Waterworks.

Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights

reserved.

II REACTIONS TO NOISE

“Annoyance” tends to be used to describe the general feeling of aggravation or vexation

caused by noise nuisance. It is the end of the noise/disturbance/annoyance chain. General
long-term annoyance is the most convenient and relevant measure of the impact of noise on
the community. It takes account of all the adverse effects of noise such as disturbance.

Studies have been carried out to examine the relationship between exposure to noise from
specific sources (the noise dose) and the annoyance caused (the response). Even though there
is a wide variation in the annoyance reactions of individuals, the information can be used to
define the “average” dose-response relationship, or the percentage of the population likely to
display a specific degree of annoyance to a defined level of noise. When the noise is at a
sufficiently high level the opinions may be clear-cut; the noise is the main factor in determining
annoyance. At lower levels of noise, the general attitudes of the community as a whole, or of
individual members of the community, towards the noise source, may assume greater
importance. The degree of annoyance may be influenced by the length of time to which a
community or an individual has been exposed to noise, and by the time of occurrence.

A Sleep Disturbance

Research has shown that many factors affect sleep quality. About 20 per cent of the population
have sleeping difficulties which are totally unrelated to noise. Age, sex, attitudes, and health
factors override the impact of noise-induced sleep disturbance. Background noise levels,
habituation, bedroom location, time of night, and the character of any intruding noise also
influence sleep quality. Bearing this in mind, it is unrealistic and often impractical to set noise
limits to ensure that sleep will not be affected in any way.

III DESCRIBING NOISE

The level of environmental noise is normally measured with a Sound Level Meter using the A-
weighted decibel scale (dB(A)). The decibel (dB) is the scale which is used to describe the
sound-pressure level of the sound. It is the logarithm of the ratio of the measured sound
pressure (which is what the eardrum detects) relative to a reference value, which is a very
small sound pressure which automatically acquires the value 0dB. For every ten-fold increase
in sound pressure, the sound-pressure level increases by 20dB. The term “A-weighting” means
that the signal is filtered in a way that approximates to the frequency sensitivity of the human
ear.

However, the level of noise originating from a source is not the only consideration affecting its
impact; duration is also important. Sometimes the noise is intermittent (for example, aircraft or
train noise), while sometimes it is more or less continuous (such as motorway or factory noise).
So, where separate noise events are clearly distinguishable, the important factors are the
maximum level and duration of each event and the number of events in a given period, while
continuous noise is averaged in some way over the exposure duration. Different methods have
been devised to describe the varying temporal characteristics of different sources, but the
most widely used descriptive standard for environmental noise is the Equivalent Continuous
Noise Level (LAeq). LAeq describes the noise (in dB(A)) in terms of the A-weighted acoustical
energy of the noise averaged over a specific time period, and is defined as the level of
continuous noise that would have the same acoustical energy as the actual noise over the
same time period.

However, equal values of LAeq for different sources do not necessarily elicit the same
community reaction. The different characteristics of the noise, both temporal and spectral, are
factors which play an important role in determining response, which cannot be adequately
described by a measure of the noise alone. These differences are normally taken into account
when defining standards and in noise guidelines such as the UK Planning Policy Guidance PPG
24.

IV NOISE STANDARDS

It is possible to estimate the proportion of the population exposed to specific environmental

noise levels. Taken together with information from studies of dose-response relationships, it is
then possible to identify the impact of noise on the community as a whole, in terms of the
proportion of the population likely to be adversely affected by noise. This information is
essential when planners, lawyers, technical experts, and economists have to define noise
targets and goals. The targets, taking costs and benefits into account, may range from “ideal
long-term” to “practicably achievable in the shorter term”. These targets, in turn, influence
noise emission (source noise level) and immission (environmental noise exposure) standards
and legislation, such as the United Kingdom Environmental Protection Act 1990.

For example, a report published by Stockholm University for the World Health Organization in
1995 has concluded that noise levels outside dwellings should not exceed 55dB(A) to protect
the majority of people from being seriously annoyed, and that 50dB(A) should be considered
the maximum desirable. These levels can be considered as ideal targets, but because of
technical, financial, and practical considerations, exposure levels higher than these will remain
commonplace in the developed world for some time to come, and noise-exposure standards
will be set at higher levels, although efforts will continue to be made to reduce them.

International noise-emission standards are designed to control the noise emitted by specific
machines, such as aircraft, cars, or industrial equipment. Environmental noise exposure
standards and legislation are, on the other hand, normally devised by national or local
authorities to provide an acceptable noise environment for their specific conditions. Noise
immission levels depend not only on the noise emitted by particular sources, but also the
distance from the source, and the use of noise attenuation measures such as noise barriers or
double glazing which may be required to meet national or local noise immission standards. In
order to ensure that noise levels can be predicted to an acceptable degree of accuracy and in a
consistent manner, most countries have published official methods for calculating noise
exposure for road traffic, aircraft, railways, and other types of noise source.

V NOISE IN THE COMMUNITY

The main sources of noise pollution in the community are transport sources such as aircraft
taking off and landing, road traffic, and railways; fixed industrial and commercial installations;
construction activities; and (increasingly) leisure activities. Noise from neighbours (stereo
systems, late-night comings and goings, children, barking dogs) now causes more reported
complaints than any other source, but quantifying the offending noise level is often a part of
this type of problem, which is more a question of considerate behaviour than noise limits. The
noise level is also dependent on the building’s construction and the attenuation it provides
between dwellings.

A Road Traffic

Road traffic noise is the most widespread noise source in developed countries. A study carried
out for the European Commission by the French institution INRETS in 1994 estimated that
some 200 million people in the European Union (60 per cent of the population) were exposed
to levels of road traffic noise exceeding 55dB(A), and some 132 million (39 per cent) to
60dB(A). In order to reduce exposure, noise emission limits have been defined for all new
vehicle types. The limits have been progressively lowered over the years, so that the noise
emitted by new vehicles at the beginning of the 21st century was some 8 to 10 dB lower than
25 years before. Most of this effort has reduced the noise from car engines and ancillary
equipment so much that tyre noise, even on urban roads, is becoming the dominant source,
and “quiet” road surfaces are now being used for some new roads, and quieter tyre designs
being considered. However, despite these efforts, the report predicted that traffic-noise
exposure levels would increase, particularly in the quieter areas, for the subsequent 10 to 20
years because of the growth in the number of vehicles.
B Railways

Although railways are generally seen as the safest, most economical, and most
environmentally friendly of all conventional transport systems, many countries are now
reappraising the cost of new railways in terms of environmental impact. This has been
particularly true with high-speed railways.

The latest high-speed trains have been designed to be no noisier than the older and slower
conventional trains, but careful planning of new routes and provision of noise abatement
procedures are still needed to meet environmental standards. However, trains create a less
extensive noise burden than road traffic, so that, overall, the noise environment may improve.

C Aircraft

Concern about aircraft noise grew rapidly after World War II and, by the mid-1960s, it had
reached such a level that aviation authorities and manufacturers realized that noise from the
early jet engines needed to be controlled and reduced in order to create a more acceptable
environment.

The predominant source of noise from both jet and propeller-driven aircraft is the power plant
itself. The pressures from environmental lobbies have driven authorities to establish legislation
to control aircraft noise by certification and the manufacturers have made great strides to
reduce noise from the engines themselves. Noise levels have fallen by about 20dB since the
days of the early jet aircraft, which, even though they are now larger and carry more
passengers, have become far more fuel-efficient and less noisy. Whereas the early jet engine
was dominated by the jet noise and compressor whine, the latest high-bypass ratio engine is
characterized by fan noise both to the front and rear of the engine and the relatively low level
of jet noise.

While much of the work which has resulted in lower noise emission levels from jet aircraft was
driven by the need to comply with noise certification requirements, public concern about the
noise around airports led to the introduction of noise exposure standards or limits which are
generally based on LAeq.

Noise exposure contours, normally computer generated, are used to give an indication of the
likely noise impact at any particular location in the vicinity of an airport. Computer modelling
can also be used to evaluate the impact of any changes, such as modifications to arrival or
departure routes, or the replacement of older, noisier aircraft with newer, quieter ones.
However, it must always be borne in mind that noise exposure contours will never give a
precise prediction of community response.
D Industry

Most manufacturing and industrial operations create noise. In many cases this may be limited
to the plant’s interior, while in others it will affect the communities in the neighbourhood.
Although the community noise problem was formerly restricted mainly to heavy manufacturing
industry, this is not necessarily the case today, and small manufacturing or service businesses
which create noise may be located close to residential properties. The introduction of improved
ventilation and heating systems has resulted in the installation of powerful fans located in the
walls and roofs of buildings which can, if badly positioned, lead to significant noise levels in the
neighbourhood, especially at night.

E Construction

Construction activities are noisy and have the potential to cause disturbance in the
surrounding communities. Some sources will generate continuous steady levels (such as fans,
extractors, or compressors), some will be intermittent (such as sawing or drilling), while others
will be impulsive (such as piling). Environmental noise assessments take the short-term nature
of most construction activities into account by allowing higher levels than would normally be
considered appropriate for long-term noise exposure.

F Social Noise

Neighbours make noise; in fact, noise from the living and social habits of our neighbours is
generating more complaints than any other single source of noise. Sources include domestic
equipment, stereo and TV, animals and children, do-it-yourself activities, and lawn mowers.
Many of these complaints may be a consequence of poor insulation between multi-occupier
dwellings—which could be improved at the design stage, but not after construction.
Unreasonable and antisocial behaviour causes a great deal of noise nuisance, but it is
essentially a social rather than an engineering issue. The UK Noise and Statutory Nuisance Act
1993 now provides powers to authorities to seize noisy equipment such as stereo systems if
the owner does not comply with an order to reduce the noise level.

The growing sophistication of leisure activities over the past few years has led to an increase in
noise levels in recreational areas, with an associated increased potential for nuisance to
nearby residents and other visitors. Sources include power boats, microlight aircraft, motor
cycles, motor racing, clay pigeon shooting, pop concerts, and model aircraft flying. Codes of
practice and planning regulations are used by the activity organizers and local authorities in
order to minimize the disturbance to residents and other non-participating users of recreational
areas.

G Military Sources
Noise from military sources is generally limited to noise from military aircraft and from practice
firing ranges. Low-flying aircraft cause considerable disturbance en route from air bases to
exercise areas, which are usually remote and often recreational areas (such as the Lake District
in England); the noise is likely to startle people as the aircraft fly at high speed and at low
altitude. Military helicopters may also exercise in the vicinity of their bases.

Practice firing ranges are used for rifle firing, large artillery, tanks, and sometimes by air-to-
ground missiles. Although operations may be fairly limited, the high levels of explosive noise
cause a great deal of concern about both noise and vibration in the surrounding communities.
Good public relations can help to minimize the adverse impact in these communities.

H Low-Frequency Sources

A small percentage of the population appears to be highly sensitive to certain types of low-
frequency noise, which is “sensed” rather than heard. In some instances complaints cannot be
related to any identifiable source, but on occasions they can be traced to specific sources
which may be some distance from the complainant. Once the source is positively identified, it
is sometimes possible to reduce the offending noise quite simply. Examples of sources which
can produce this type of noise include furnaces, burners, and fans, which might under certain
circumstances set up low-frequency resonances within buildings, although these will normally
be at low levels.