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Introduction
The basic laws that govern the operation of the electric machines are Faraday's law of induction,
Kirchoff's law of the electric circuit, Ampere's law of the magnetic field, Biot Savart law of force on a
conductor in a magnetic field and the law that governs the force exerted between two current carrying
conductors. Electric motors are classified into single phase or threephase ones, also into low voltage
and medium voltage (7.2KV for example). They are also classified according to principle of operation
i.e. d.c. motors, induction and synchronous motors, the first can further be classified according to its
type of excitation; series, shunt or compound, the second into squirrel cage or wound rotor, the latter
either with salient pole rotor or cylindrical one. All motors are classified into integral or fractional
horsepower motors. From the energy consumption view, motors will have standard efficiency or high
efficiency. The Nema standard classifies induction motors into Nema A, B, C, D and F each
classification defines the following parameters of an induction motor: starting toque, pullout torque,
starting current and rated slip. For the synchronous motors the classification is accordingly: general
purpose motors (unity power factor and .8 p.f.), large high speed motors (unity p.f. and 0.8 p.f.) and low
speed motors (unity and .8 p.f.). The parameters expressed for each of these motor types are: the speed,
the starting torque, the pullin torque, the pullout torque and the starting current at full voltage. The
enclosure of the motor can be used to classify motors: open drip proof (ODP), totally enclosed fan
cooled (TEFC), splash proof, explosion proof,..etc. The major components of any motor are the
windings (field and armature), the rotor, the stator, the shaft/bearing, the enclosure, the connection box
and the base plate. The classification of the insulation system as used with the windings of electrical
motors are: class A (105 deg C), class B (130 C), class F (155 C), class H (180 C), N (200C), R (220), S
(240 C) and C (>240 C). The insulation material is given any of the above designations when by test or
experience, it is proven that the material can endure the limiting temperature specified (for each type)
without failure. A.C. armature windings can be single or polyphase. Polyphase armature windings are
usually 2 layer. The rotors of small wound rotor induction motors are of the single layer type, the stator
is of the 2layer. The armature winding is of the lap or wave type. D.C. armature windings have the
same classification as above. D.C. windings are wound continuously and closed (due to the use of the
commutatorto transform the a.c. inside the machine to d.c. outside the machine). Polyphase armature
windings are arranged in groups of two or more single coils (the number of groups is function of the
number of poles and number of phases). Medium and large size wound rotor induction motors use wave
type polyphase windings on the rotors.
The winding
The definition of pole pitch is given by T=3.14D/P; where T is the pole pitch, D is the diameter of the
armature, P is the number of poles. In order that both sides of a coil to lie in flux densities of the same
strength, the coil span as measured by an arc must be equal to the pole pitch. The two conductors of
each turn has to lie under poles of different polarities, so that the induced emf in the two conductors
add. The number of single coils in a group is determined by the number of slots per pole per phase. The
number of groups in a winding are determined by the product of the number of poles and the number of
phases. An example, if the motor is 3 phase with 2 poles, the number of groups in an armature winding
is 6, 2 groups per phase. If the total slots are 12, the number of coils in a group = the number of slots
per pole per phase = 2. For polyphase lap windings, the beginning's (as well as the ends) of the three
phases must be displaced from each other by 120 electrical degrees. A 2pole machine corresponds to
360 electrical degrees. If the number of slots in an armature is 12 the slot pitch is 360/12=30 electrical
degrees. The beginnings of the three phases must be displaced from each other by (120/30=) 4 slots. If
slot 1 is taken as the part of phase I, then phase II should start in slot (1+4=) 5 and phase III at (5+4=)
9. If in the above example the armature is wound in 2 layers, phase 1 will occupy slot 1,2,7 and 8, phase
II 5,6,11 and 12 and phase III 3,4,9 and 10. The upper coil side in slot one will have its lower coil side
in slot 7, the distance between both coil sides the coil span is (71=) 6 slot pitches. The coil span is
equal the pole pitch and this is termed full pitch (not chorded). In a 2layer windings, all coils have the
same coil span. The coil may consist of one or more turns. The distance between the beginnings of two
consecutive turns is called the winding pitch. The distance which correspond to the two steps necessary
to follow from the beginning of a turn to the beginning of the next (following) turn are termed back
pitch and front pitch. In a lap winding, the winding pitch = back pitch front pitch; in a wave winding,
it is equal back pitch + front one. Chording (fraction pitch) has an advantage that the shape of the emf
induced in the winding and the mmf produced by the winding is closer in shape to a sinusoidal one than
with full pitch winding. When wave windings are compared to lap ones, the following differences will
be obvious: fewer end connections for the first, the diamond lap winding has loops on both ends of the
coil and the wave has one loop on the end with no connections. The single phase windings will be
covered in a later issue.
The stator & the rotor
The stator is made up of a stack of laminations with slots, the same for the rotor, the primary winding
(armature) of the induction motor is connected to a source of power and is placed in the stator slots. It is
completely insulated (function of the supply voltage eg. 600 V, 2.4KV, etc.). The secondary winding
is placed in the slots of the rotor. This winding is not connected to any source, but it gets its power by
induction from the flux produced by the stator winding. The squirrel cage winding consists of bare bars
put in the slots and connected together at each end by a ring. The slots can be shallow and semiopen
(the definite speed torque characteristics are produced). If the slots and bars are narrow and located
much deeper, the characteristics will change. Skewing the slots will reduce the noise and produce better
starting performance. Double cage induction motors i.e. two squirrel cages in the same rotor, are used
to achieve certain operating characteristics.
The performance
The six parameters of the induction motors are: r1, x1, r2',x2', rm (or gm) and Xm (or bm), the stator
winding resistance, the leakage reactance, the rotor winding resistance which is function of the slip, the
rotor leakage reactance, the main flux resistance (or main flux conductance), the main flux reactance
(or susceptance). These parameters are determined by the two tests: no load and the locked rotor. The
performance of an induction motor is determined by the following: heating of the windings and iron,
efficiency, power factor, pullout torque, inrush starting current and the starting torque. The heating of
the windings and iron depends on the I2r and the iron losses. The current (I) is function of the load, if
the maximum possible winding material is used in the available space, r1 and r2' will be as low as
possible and this will reduce the copper losses. To produce a high starting torque r2' has to be high
(large enough). The iron losses due to the main flux can be maintained low by reducing the main flux.
The torque is function of the rotor current and the main flux, thus to achieve the required pullout
(maximum) torque the main flux cannot be reduced below a certain level, the rotational iron losses are
to be kept to absolute minimum. The efficiency is determined by the total losses of the motor. The
lower the losses at a given load, the higher is the efficiency. For high power factor, a low reactive
current is necessary ie. small leakage reactances and low reactive component of magnetizing current.
The small air gap and the low flux achieve a low reactive component of magnetizing current. Reducing
the leakage reactances increase the inrush current and reducing the flux too much will affect the pull
out torque beyond acceptable limits. The lower the primary losses I12r1 (copper), the higher the pull
out torque. The torque is determined by the power transferred by the rotating flux to the rotor and the
higher the primary losses for a given power input, the smaller is the power transferred by the rotating
flux. At large slips, the magnitude of the primary current is determined mainly by the stator and rotor
leakage reactances,
slip=(speed of rotating flux i.e.synchronous speed rotor speed)/synchronous speed
The lower the leakage reactances of the rotor and stator the higher the pullout torque. The secondary
resistance r2' has no influence on the magnitude of the pullout torque. A high starting current is not
desirable because of voltage drop caused on the supply lines (limits are established for starting currents
in appropriate standards). This means that leakage reactances have to be maintained at certain levels, to
achieve an acceptable inrush currents, but this will affect negatively the power factor and the pullout
torque (reduce them). At standstill the torque is directly proportional to M1I2'2r2'. This means it is
proportional to the copper losses in the rotor. At standstill the rotor current as referred to the stator is
equal the locked rotor current, approximately. This current is limited by the leakage reactances, which
must be high to limit the inrush current, thus for a high starting torque the rotor resistance must be high.
A high rotor resistance (under normal running conditions) contradicts the requirements for a high
efficiency. There are certain slot arrangements for the rotor that help achieving a high resistance during
starting and a low resistance during running. These rotor slot arrangements are: deepbar rotors and
double cage (boucherot) rotors. The operation of these rotors is based upon the skineffect phenomena.
At higher frequencies current is allowed to flow only at the top part of the conductor (in the case of the
deep bar designs) and in the upper conductor (with the double cage rotors). At stand still, in relation to
running at full load, the frequency is considered higher (is equal to the line frequency), the rotor current
flows only in one part of the rotor conductor and the resistance of the rotor, r2', appears high. At full
load, the whole crosssection of the rotor conductor is effective and the rotor resistance is small. The
rotor leakage reactance varies from the lowest at high slips (starting) to highest at full speed its change
with slip is opposites to that of the resistance. The leakage reactances x1 and x2 are practically constant
between noload and overload, as long as the stator and rotor currents are not too high. At larger slips
and specially at standstill, these currents are high and saturation of the leakage flux path is possible.
Leakage reactance at starting is 75 to 85% that of running with full load. The balance of power in a
polyphase induction motor can be expressed as follows:
the input power to the stator is equal the sum of the following: the stator copper loss, the iron loss due
to the main flux, the rotating field power transferred to the rotor. The rotating field power transferred to
the rotor is divided into power consumed by the rotor (copper loss), and the mechanical power
developed which further divided into mechanical power delivered at the shaft plus mechanical losses
(bearing friction and windage losses, losses due to the slot openings and losses due to the flux
harmonics). The developed torque of the polyphase induction motor is given by (7.04 M1I2'2r2')/n