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Journal of Food Engineering 86 (2008) 465474 www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Review

Bread baking A review

Arpita Mondal, A.K. Datta *
Agricultural and Food Engineering Department, IIT, Kharagpur 721 302, India Received 23 May 2007; received in revised form 10 October 2007; accepted 19 November 2007 Available online 23 November 2007

Abstract Bread is a basic dietary item dating back to the Neolithic era, which is prepared by baking that is carried out in oven. Control of the production and distribution of bread has been used as a means of exercising political inuence over the populace for at least the last two millennia. Several experimental and mathematical models are developed for clear understanding of baking. This article presents a review of published literatures on experimental and mathematical studies on bread baking during the last two decades. Baking technology, evolution of baking ingredients, thermophysical properties of bread as functions of moisture content and baking time are reviewed. Experimental and simulative studies on proling of temperature, moisture content, pore volume, expansion ratio during baking are also reviewed. 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Bread; Experimental; Mathematical models; Crust

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic ingredients of bread. . . . . Baking technology . . . . . . . . . . Properties of bread . . . . . . . . . Experimental studies on baking. Studies on crust . . . . . . . . . . . . Mathematical modeling . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 466 467 467 469 470 471 472 473

1. Introduction Bread is a basic dietary item dating back to the Neolithic era, which is prepared by baking that is carried out in oven.
*

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 3222 283118. E-mail address: akd@agfe.iitkgp.ernet.in (A.K. Datta).

The rst bread was made around 10,000 years BC or over 12,000 years in the past, which may have been developed by deliberate experimentation with water and grain our. Egyptians are the pioneers who make the art of bread making popular throughout the world. Control of the production and distribution of bread has been used as a means of exercising political inuence over the populace for at least

0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.11.014

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Nomenclature cp C De Dvc Dw h H0 Ht Ic Iv k M n r p R S t T Ta Tair Tc Tr Ts T0 u specic heat capacity, J/kg K molar density of gas mixture, mol/m3 eective diusivity, m2/s standard binary diusivity between vapor and CO2, m2/s diusion coecient for liquid water, m/s2 surface heat transfer coecient, W/m K initial height, m height at time t, m CO2 production rate, kg/m3 s evaporation rate, kg/m3 s conductivity parameters, W/m K; permeability, m/s total moisture content, kg water/kg dry material normal direction when without subscripts, mass ux when with subscripts, kg/s the heat of evaporation, J/kg partial pressure, Pa universal gas constant, 8.314 J/mol K water saturation, % time, s temperature, K oven temperature, K temperature of the surrounding air, K collapse temperature, K temperature of the radiation source, K temperature of the surface, K initial temperature of the sample, K displacement increment vector, m v the volume of bubble collapse per unit uncollapsed bubble volume, dimensionless; velocity, m/s volume, m3 the liquid water content in kg water/kg product space coordinate, m; molar fraction with subscript height of the product, m

V W x xL

Greek symbols q apparent density in kg/m3 qm density of gas free dough, kg/m3 q0 collapse density, kg/m3 e porosity, % a thermal diusivity, m2/s s relaxation time, s /0 porosity at the start of baking, % n0 bubble diameter distribution, m k latent heat, J/kg Subscripts c CO2 c convection g gas, including air and other gaseous components i dummy indices r radiation s solid v water vapor w liquid water

the last 2000 years. Even today, a shortage of bread is synonymous with hard times, while the promise of its service is used as rallying call for better life (Scanlon and Zghal, 2001). Currently there are around twenty periodicals devoted to the studies of cereal science and technology. This attests to the research eort applied to studies of factors which aect bread quality. Therefore, the signicance of the commodity itself, and the desire for good quality in the bread, does seem to warrant thorough attention by the research community. Although people have practiced baking for a long time, the understanding of the whole process is not very clear. One of the possible reasons for this is that several fundamental complex physical processes are coupled during baking like evaporation of water, volume expansion, gelatinization of starch, denaturation of protein, crust formation etc. Several experimental and mathematical models are developed for clear understanding of baking. The objective of this article is to critically review the published literature of the last two decades on experimental and mathematical studies of bread baking to identify the scopes of further investigation into various aspects of bread

baking with particular reference to the application of production of crustless bread which has been marketed by certain industrial concerns (http://www.ironkids.com; http:// en.wikipedia.org). The stress is on recently published articles as comprehensive compilation on earlier publication on bread baking is available in bound form (Cauvain, 2003). 2. Basic ingredients of bread Water and our are the most signicant ingredients in a bread recipe, as they aect texture and crumb the most. Flour (14.5% moisture, 13% protein, 0.55% ash, pH 5.7 6.1, Zanoni et al., 1993) is always 100%, and the rest of the ingredients are a percent of that amount by weight. Approximately 50% water results in a nely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60% to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles, and a coarser bread crumb. According to 100% our rest of the ingredients will be in following measurements like leavening agent yeast 2%, sugar 4%, salt 2% and shortening agent (ghee or mar-

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garine) 3%. Bread is a dierent food compared to some other common food items as it is a leavened product obtained from fermentation of wheat our sugars liberated from starch by the action of natural our enzymes. Fermentation is caused by bakers yeast which is the trade name of the organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Due to fermentation sugar is converted to moisture and CO2. As water vapor and CO2 expand due to high temperature, they act as an insulating agent preventing high rate of temperature rise of bread crumb and the possibility of excessive moisture evaporation. Sugar is added for initiation of fermentation. Salt is added to strengthen the gluten and to convert the action of yeast for controlled expansion of the dough. Shortening (ghee or margarine) is added to increase the machinability or specically slicability. As soon as the dough is properly baked into bread, a product with superior quality and sensory features occurs. Fresh bread usually presents an appealing brownish and crunchy crust, a pleasant aroma, ne slicing characteristics, a soft and elastic crumb texture, and a moist mouthfeel (Giannou et al., 2003). Nowadays mechanization, large scale production and increased consumer demand for high quality, convenience and longer shelf life have created the need for functional food additives such as emulsiers and antistaling agents in bread to achieve those desired quality (Stampi and Nersten, 1995). Addition of emulsiers is particularly important for large scale, industrial bread baking as these impart greater dough strength to withstand machine handling, improve rate of hydration, improve crumb structure, improve slicing characteristic, improve gas holding capacity and extend shelf life. 3. Baking technology Bakery industry has seen a revolution over the past 150 years. The small artisan bakeries, which were present in every village, made way for high technological bakery industry. Industrial mono-production took over from the high variety bakeries as bread could be produced in a more ecient way. Productivity became the key of success. Different baking technologies were developed to respond better to new market demands (Decock and Cappelle, 2005). New materials and ingredients were introduced in bread composition while research generated a constant and impressive progress in bread making. Continuous improvement in baking technology is worth investigating primarily for better quality product, development of nutritionally superior product and economic consideration. Bakery products dier from other products in that they are leavened or raised to yield baked goods of low density. It is a yeast-raised product. Leavening is done by CO2 produced from yeast fermentation. Leavening is produced only if the gas trapped in a system that will hold it and expand along with it. Therefore much of baking technology is the engineering of food structures through formation of correct dough and batter to trap leavening gases and the xing of these structures by the application of heat (Balaji, 1991).

Bakery products are produced mainly according to three methods. First method is the straight dough method where mixing of ingredients is performed in one step. According to manufacturers choice and available equipment, ingredients of the dough may dier. Sponge and dough method is the second one where mixing of ingredients is performed in two steps. Leavening agent is prepared during the rst step. Yeast and certain quantity of water and our are mixed together. The mixture is left to develop for few hours and afterwards it is mixed with the rest of the ingredients. Chorleywood method is the third method where all the ingredients are mixed in an ultrahigh mixer for few minutes (Giannou et al., 2003). Proper investigation into these three methods may reveal more information like optimum bread quality, energy utilization eciency, volume expansion etc. With the introduction of automation in bakery industry the rst fermentation step, the bulk proof was reduced or even excluded during the mechanization of the bakery. Dried sourdoughs were also used from specialized companies to start the baking process. Currently this process has given way to cooling the dough to 2 C the day before and automatic warming of the dough on the day of baking. By the end of the 1990s improver technology was introduced for the production of preproofed frozen dough. Here the prefermented frozen dough is fermented prior to freezing. Freezer to oven, ready to bake and freezer to bake are marketing concepts which are tting well with this technology. The quality of the product is not compromised. However, the price of the product has increased (Decock and Cappelle, 2005). As fresh bread has short shelf life and a number of chemical and physical changes commonly known as staling occurs, techniques like freezing of dough etc. to improve the preservation of bakery products has been analysed. Bread making procedure from frozen dough involves the following steps like dough preparation, freezing, thawing and baking (Giannou et al., 2003). Eect of freezing and thawing on bread quality can be studied objectively to develop relationships between temperatures, durations of holding and shelf life after baking. 4. Properties of bread A dramatic change of physical and chemical property of dough takes place during baking. Scanlon and Zghal (2001) gave a qualitative description of mechanical properties such as stress, strain and modulas of elasticity of bread. Material properties which changes with temperature and moisture content are not readily available. Unklesbay et al. (1981) determined the thermal conductivity of white bread during heat processing in forced air convection and analyzed the relationship among thermal conductivity and selected physical properties like moisture, volume, bulk density and porosity. They showed that thermal conductivity values were indirectly linearly dependent, p < 0.05 on volume and porosity and directly linearly dependent on bulk density and moisture loss. Dierent thermophysical

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properties of bread such as apparent density, specic heat, thermal conductivity, thermal diusivity have been given by Rask (1989). Later Zanoni et al. (1995b) determined thermal diusivity and apparent density of bread crust and crumb as a function of porosity. Results of their experiment showed that the apparent density q (kg/m3) of the crumb and the crust follows a linear trend as a function of porosity e (%) Forthecrumb : q 979 9:90e Forthecrust : q 895 9:0e 1 2

However, this result is questionable as crust is generally found to be heavier than crumb due to reduction of pores and moisture. The thermal diusivity a (m2/s) follows an exponential trend as a function of porosity Forthecrumb : a exp0:01e 15:25 Forthecrust : a exp0:0062 15:30e 3 4

Permeability of dough is related to structure such as pore size and connectivity. Zhang and Datta (2006) used intrinsic permeability value of 2.5 1012 m2 such that internal pressure can be formed to cause deformation and 1011 m2 for crumb as crumb region has much larger pore size and better connectivity. Overall permeability was the product of intrinsic and relative permeability values based on fraction saturation. However, the saturation transition selected was quite arbitrary. Rheological properties of dough are also important for both product quality and process eciency. Rheological properties of dough can be related to bakery products specic volume and textural attributes. Phan-Thien and Safari-Ardi (1998) gave some rheological properties like results of storage relaxation and loss moduli over wide range of strain, frequency and time. Water content was used as independent variable for analysis of storage modulas but other modulli were not as function of water content. All the data of their experiment were used to construct relaxation spectra and to test various linear viscoelastic relations. Finally an excellent agreement was found between relaxation spectra and between the derived data and original data which conrmed the consistent testing procedure and high quality data. Relaxation time is one of the important rheological properties, which is related with disappearance of free liquid water at certain temperature. Following relation of relaxation time as a function of temperature is obtained from Zhang and Datta (2006)     2 T 65 s9 arctan 1 2 5 p 2 However, eect of moisture content on relaxation time is lacking. Farinograph is the most frequently used equipment for empirical rheological measurements (Razmi-Rad et al., 2007). They used articial neural network (ANN) technology for predicting the correlation between farinographic

properties of wheat our dough like water absorption, dough development time, dough stability time, degree of dough softening with its chemical composition like protein content, wet gluten, sedimentation value and falling number etc. Since the approach of ANN analysis is a black box simulation, this type of study fails to reveal the physical understanding behind established correlations, even though these might be excellent. The texture and density of baked products such as bread and cakes are controlled by the way their rheology and vapor content change during the baking process. Dobraszczyk and Morgenstern (2003) reviewed the rhological properties of gluten polymers of wheat our which in tern aects the rhological properties of bread. This is a review where viscosity is shown to be a function of time without extending the concept to viscoelastic parametric determinations under static and dynamic conditions. Thermal conductivity of multiphase porous material like dough and diusivity of water vapor in CO2 in pores are obtained from Zhang and Datta (2006) where
1n nS n1S kw kg Thermal conductivity k k s

6
4=3

And mass diffusivity Deff ;g Dvc 1 1:11S n

Jury et al. (2007) used line heat source method in unsteady conditions to measure thermal conductivities of bread during thawing and baking of the dough. Their experimental results of thermal conductivity of bread dough as function of freezing and baking temperatures were successfully tted to parallel model where air, solid, ice and water were considered to be forming parallel layers of resistances. Whole wheat contains signicant amounts of avour pigments such as tricin and xanthophylls. But it lacks carotene which adds to yellow colour. Colour development is a function of moisture content, baking time and baking temperature. There is large scope of studying these variables as they aect the colour of the baked dough. Recognizing the importance of quantitative evaluation of physicochemical changes, Zanoni et al. (1995c) developed the kinetic models for starch gelatinization and surface browning of bread during baking. Since starch gelatinization is one of the critical factors that determines the baking time and extent of gelatinization in the bread crumb, it may be taken as a minimum baking index. They baked the dough in a pilot forced convection electric oven at 250 C. Type J thermocouple was used to measure crumb temperature at a depth of 22 mm in axial position and bread was extracted at dierent crumb temperatures. They used a dierential scanning calorimeter to determine the extent of starch gelatinization and a tristimulus calorimeter was used for the measurement of surface colour. The extent of starch gelatinization and colour dierence followed the rst order kinetics and were modeled using the Arrhenius equation. Therdthai et al. (2002) developed a quadratic model to describe the eect of baking temperature and time on the bread quality attributes including crust colour, crumb temperature and weight loss.

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Staling of bread is another complex phenomenon, which is not yet fully understood. During storage time a large physico-chemical alteration occurs which leads to crumb rming, avour changes and crust cracking loss. Crumb rming is one of the important parameters, which is generally used to evaluate staling development. It is believed that bread staling is closely associated with starch retrogradation. Amylose retrogradation occurs during rst hour after baking and this amylopectin retrogradation is the major phenomena involved in bread rming (Ribotta and Bail, 2007). However, there is no experimental evidence presented to quantify these ndings. 5. Experimental studies on baking Baking is the last but most important step in bread making procedure. A series of physical, chemical and biological changes such as evaporation of water, formation of porous structure, volume expansion, protein denaturation, starch gelatinization, crust formation etc. take place during bread baking. Crumb structure of cereal products like bread is a very important factor determining the sensorial quality as may be quantied for example as texture or crispness as well as storage and staling properties. Besides the overall porosity, which can be measured by gas pycnometric and density measurements, the pore size distribution plays a prominent role. Together with the geometrical arrangement of the pores, it is also determining the surface-to-volume ratio as well as the pore connectivity, both strongly inuencing the velocity of (undesirable) changes during storage whereas the pore size distribution may be estimated by analysis of 2-dimensional (2D) images by optical scanning, magnetic resonance imaging and Monte Carlo Simulation (Regier et al., 2007). The authors used these techniques on breakfast cereals. Similar attempts can be made on breads baked by various combinations of temperatures, durations and moisture levels. Temperature is the dominating factor in various physicochemical changes during baking. To reduce energy consumption and to improve product quality, optimization of oven operating condition is required. To achieve optimal baking, the common industrial practice is to bake bread in the oven controlled at a constant temperature. The prediction of baking performance of wheat sample is a dicult task as mechanism of baking is not fully understood. Bread volume is one of the important measurements of wheat quality. Protein and lipid contents are also very important factors for baking properties. Andersson et al. (1994) investigated the quality and stability of models for predicting baking performance, based on grain and our composition, including analysis of the non-starch polysaccharides and dough property parameters. Wong et al. (2007) applied a two dimensional (2D) computational uid dynamics (CFD) model to design process controller for an industrial continuous bread-baking oven. The authors developed a multiple inputmultiple output (MIMO) controller system based on temperature sensing and ame control. The quality and

shelf life of baked product is aected by the time and temperature of the baking process. Patel et al. (2005) investigated moisture loss, rmness, enthalpy, amylase content and viscosity as functions of heating rates. The extent of starch granule hydration, swelling, dispersion, and the extent of reassociation were aected by the heating rates during baking. However, this study fails to establish the change in properties of baked products as functions of time during baking. Heating rate should not be a factor in commercial baking as ovens are preset at baking temperature. It is expected that increased temperature would promote the formation of protein cross links, causing setting of loaf during baking. Singh (2005) studied molecular changes of wheat protein during bread baking using SE-HPLC. His work conrmed the earlier ndings of the researchers that polymeric proteins tend to decrease while low molecular weight proteins tend to increase during bread baking. This work also conrmed that intra and inter molecular disulde bonds of gluten proteins are important in forming the gluten matrix in dough. Decrease in protein solubility due to aggregation or cross-linking was observed with time of baking. Size exclusion HPLC also revealed that bmercaptoethanol was able to reduce most of the proteins which indicated that disulde bonds are mainly responsible for protein insolubility. Caballero et al. (2007) analyzed the individual and synergistic eects of some gluten-crosslinking enzymes (transglutaminase, glucose oxidase, laccase, pentosanase and protease), along with polysaccharide and gluten degrading enzymes (alpha-amylase, xylanase and protease) on dynamic viscoelastic properties of dough. Among all gluten cross linking enzymes analysed, dynamic rheological test only showed a signicant single eect of transglutaminase. Protease decreased dynamic modulli at all studied resting periods while polysaccharide-degrading enzymes modied dough rheology after 180 min of incubation. Bread quality parameters of doughs were signicantly aected by individual enzyme addition, except when laccase was used. The physical properties of wheat our undergoes a series of changing procedure known as gelatinization during baking. This gelatinized starch results in an amorphous structure in nal bread (Primo-Martin et al., 2006). Confocal scanning laser microscopy of the structure of bread crust revealed a continuous protein phase and a discontinuous non-gelatinized starch phase in the outer crust. In contrast, the crumb and inner crust showed a gelatinized starch network associated with a protein network. The role of the protein phase of the outer crust in determining crispness has been studied by the same author. Opportunity exists for developing reaction kinetics for denaturation of gluten and gelatinization of starch as functions of crust and crumb temperatures. The denaturation of protein and gelatinization of starch both aect the diusion of water by releasing and absorbing water. These two phenomena occur during the same temperature interval of 6085 C and contribute to the change from dough to crumb. Higher temperature of surface of the dough and heat transport towards the center

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of the dough results in water content rise in the center of a loaf due to evaporation and condensation. There was no method to study the changes in local water content during processing without interrupting the process and destroying the material. Thorvaldson and Skjoldebrnd (1998) developed a process to study continuous heat and water transport in bread during baking using a ber optic NIR instrument and thermocouples which is described in detail by Thorvaldson and Skjoldebrnd (1996). Their experiment showed that water appeared to be moving towards the coldest region and not towards the geometrical center. Heat and mass transfer phenomena are taking place simultaneously during bread baking which causes physical, chemical and structural transformation (Sablani et al., 1998). There are four phases in transport process, i.e., solid, liquid water, water vapor and CO2 (Zhang and Datta, 2005). To know the baking process in detail it is necessary to know all these processes together. The rising temperature during baking causes thermal expansion of vapor and raises the saturation pressure of water within the dough. This leads to a local expansion but at the same time forces compression and higher densities elsewhere. Gandikota and MacRitchie (2005) developed an instrument for measuring the expansion capacity of dough based on the application of a known negative pressure and measurement of the height reached by the dough using a dough height tracker as baking does not appear to inuence expansion. CO2 also plays an important role in the expansion of bubbles during bread baking. It is also released from the bread when the bubble walls start to break under pressure, making the porous structure more continuous and open to the outside of the bread. However, repeatability of these ndings is not very well documented. Dixon and Kell (1989) reviewed how the temperature and the humidity inside the leavening chamber inuence the rate of generation of CO2 in the dough. They cite colourimetric and amperometric techniques to measure CO2 concentrations. Lucas et al. (2007) proposed a method for correcting CO2 measurement from the air replacement-taking place in ventilated ovens using infrared detection and gas chromatography techniques. Their ndings show near normal distribution of CO2 evolved over baking duration. It is known that one reason for the cessation of dough expansion during baking is the resistance of the dough to extension (Zhang et al., 2007). Depending on the rheological properties like elasticity and viscosity, the closed cell membranes in the dough may resist expansion. Starch gelatinization in the cell membranes occurs above 65 C, increases dough viscosity and impairs the extensibility of the dough, which results in increased pressure in closed gas cells leading to rupture of the cell membranes. As a result, the gas molecules will exchange between adjacent cells and ultimately be transported to the outside of the dough, resulting in a loss of gas and presumably limited capacity for expansion. This article gives a good explanation of physical interrelationship between gas expansion,

dough expansion, starch gelatinization and rheological parameters. Lagrain et al. (2006) used the BiotAllerd model of elastic wave propagation in uid saturated porous media using non-contact ultrasound waves between 40 kHz and 1 MHz to measure open porosity, tortuosity, viscous and thermal characteristic lengths. Their results were validated by use of digital image analysis of ne and coarse grain breads. Results of phase velocity and absorption coecient as functions of frequency matched with model analysis. But attenuation results at high frequency did not produce good agreement with the model. 6. Studies on crust During baking crust forms as maximum evaporation takes place there (Therdthai et al., 2002). Crust formation is one of the limiting factors, which restricts the expansion of the dough (Zhang et al., 2007). Zanoni et al. (1994) suggested that crust could restrict water vapor ow from pore to the dough surface. The constraints developed by crust on the crumb structure have rarely been studied. Zhang et al. (2007) designed articial covers to study the eects of crust constraints on bread expansion and gas released during baking. Dierent cover levels were set at 45 mm, 50 mm and at 55 mm as the maximum height reached under that condition was 60 mm. MRI images evaluated porosity kinetics which showed that dierent cover levels result densication within the crumb structure like later the cover encounter the dough, deeper the dense crumb. An infrared detector was used to monitor CO2 release, which showed that lower the cover level shorter was the induction time. The formation of crust and browning during baking appear to be primary contributors to the formation of bread avour. The browning is mainly the result of a Maillard type browning reaction rather than of caramelization. Crust browning occurs when the temperature is greater than 110 C and it showed an experimental correlation with weight loss during baking and with oven temperature. Zanoni et al. (1995a) developed a kinetic model for browning kinetics of bread crust by instant heating of dehydrated and milled bread crumb on contact with a refractory plate at 140, 150, 165, 185, 210, 235 and 250 C when colour was measured with a tristimulus colourimeter. The model which followed rst order kinetics and which was dependent on surface temperature predicted crust browning during bread baking at 200 and 250 C under forced convection. But the results were acceptable at 250 C. Surface colour is another important characteristic of baked products which may be considered as a critical index of baking (Zanoni et al., 1995a). The Maillard reaction is important for the formation of colour and aroma in the bread crust, but may also be associated with the formation of toxic compounds such as acrylamide which is carcinogenic. Brathen and Knutsen (2005) examined the eect of baking time and temperature on the formation of acrylamide in bread, at bread, dry starch system and

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dried rye-based at bread. Up to 10 g/kg acrylamide formation was reported. This opens up the possibility of signicant alteration in baking process so that crust formation is minimized. Ahrne et al. (2007) determined the eect of crust temperature and water content on acrylamide formation in bread crust. According to their ndings relatively lower value of acrylamide was observed in the case of high temperature baking and low water content but that is unacceptable from a consumer stand point as the bread is too dark and other sensory attributes of the bread are unacceptable. So they introduced steam and falling temperature baking that can produce bread with an acceptable crust colour and signicantly reduced acrylamide content. Applying to dierent baking techniques like traditional and highly convective at low temperature Wahlby and Skjoldebrand (2002) determined buns surface colour using a food analyzer, which calculates the amount of reected light through a black and white photo of the surface. Finally the authors concluded that development of crust browning depends mainly on oven temperature and has an experimental correlation with the weight loss during baking and crust is not a thermal insulation layer rather it acts like a barrier towards weight loss as weight loss is a good representation of moisture variation at product surface during baking. Purlis and Salvadori (2007) proposed a model to predict the development of browning during baking by measuring surface colour and weight loss variation under natural and forced convection at three temperatures 180, 200 and 220 C. Dierent thermal properties like eective thermal conductivity, specic heat and density are very much inuenced by the water content and oven temperature. These properties play a role between pressurization, setting and brusting, and the consequent nal porosity and density of the loaf. Jeerson et al. (2007) developed a model for the heat transport and density evolution for predicting the nal density variation near the surface of the loaf based on collapse mechanism. The model was based on the simple idea of dough movement due to bubble collapse coupled with heat equations with a temperature dependent thermal conductivity in the wet part of the dough and a vaporization boundary governed by a Stefan condition. Jeerson et al. (2006) gave a collapsed density and bubble diameter distribution at the bread surface, which were obtained from model parameters. The expression for collapse density is q0 qm 1 /0 =1 /0 v0 where v0 vn0 and bubble diameter distribution is n0 T k 1 ek 2Te =hT a T c 9 8

Sommier et al. (2005) constructed a conventional pilot static oven to study traditional French bread baking. Vapor injection and temperature settings were controlled while the main variables such as temperature, moisture content, internal pressure and dough section were measured. These variables were observed as functions of macroscopic changes such as dough expansion, scars opening and crust formation. They clearly distinguished three stages in bread baking which are expansion, crut formation and crust setting accompanied with loaf shrinkage. 7. Mathematical modeling Baking involves temperature, moisture content and volume changes that are strongly coupled. Lots of modeling has been developed on baking considering individual phenomena taking place during baking. Some researchers proposed detailed mathematical models based on the physical properties of the ingredients involved in the leavening process. For instance, the model proposed by De Cindio and Correra (1995) studied the process of gas bubble expansion in leavened general goods and can predict accurately the softness, rmness (water content) and acidity of the leavened product. A mathematical model for dough expansion during the subsequent oven rise has also been introduced by Fan et al. (1999). Their model showed that dough volume increase almost linearly with time up to 65 C, after then it expands at a reduced rate. The model also indicated that bubble growth is controlled by the partition of CO2 and water between aqueous and bubble phases during initial baking stages and continuously increasing viscosity increased the resistance to bubble growth. Sometime moisture change is treated as simple diusion process but in reality water evaporation and pressure driven ow coexists (Zanoni et al., 1994). It is very well known that thermophysical and dielectric properties of food depends very strongly on moisture content and temperature, especially for hygroscopic materials. Based on these fundamentals Tong and Lund (1993) developed a computer model to predict temperature and moisture content during microwave heating of baked dough using CrankNicholson nite-dierence method. But they only considered transport phenomena and neglected the deformation that takes place during baking. This work can very surely be extended to include volume expansion. Similarly studies of Itaya et al. (1995) considered only deformation assuming transport phenomena can be solved independently. They simulated heat and moisture transfer and hygrostress formation for the layered bricks which are made by hydrates of starch powders and of starch powderssucrose 3:1 mixture subjected to forced air drying. Simulated results agreed with the experimental results. Both the results agreed that layer arrangement has strong inuence on moisture transfer and stress formation and less inuence on heat transfer. But it is important to study these processes altogether. Zanoni and Peri (1993) developed a phenomenological hypothesis

But their experimental result suggested that interaction between model parameters were relatively weak and also their result showed that crust thickness was sensitive to bubble collapsed temperature and doughs vapor pressure but relatively insensitive to preoven dough conditions and properties of dry crust.

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of bread baking showing that variation in temperature and moisture of bread baking are determined by the formation of an evaporation front at 100 C, the progressive advancing of which towards the inside causes increase in crust thickness. They determined temperature, moisture and volume during the baking process of a leavened bread sample. They measured volume of bread during baking according to Hoseney (1985) who pointed out that the volume varies linearly as function of time until reaching a maximum value and then decreased linearly until completion of experiment. Zanoni and Peri (1993) expressed the relative height of the sample by the following relationships Ht 1:07 9:2 104 t when t 6 1140 s H0 Ht 2:61 4:5 104 t when t > 1140 s H0 10 11

Zhang and Datta (2006) developed a model considering heat and moisture transport that is fully coupled with large volume change. The authors developed governing equations for multiphase transport in a porous medium based on the conservation of energy and three mass species of liquid water, water vapor and CO2 gas as follows: For energy conservation P o qi cpi T X qi cpi r vi T r k rT kI v 12 ot for liquid water conservation: oM qM or u qs r nw I v ot ot for water vapor conservation: e1 S opv M v =RT 1 S qv or u ot ot r nv I v opc M c =RT 1 S qc or u ot ot r nc I c 13

Opportunity exists for these coupled equations to be solved using nite dierence or nite element methods by applying initial and boundary conditions. Similarly, most diusion simulation models for the drying of food consider liquid water and water vapor diusion as a single phenomenon. They developed an apparent diffusion coecient which is a function of concentration gradient as a result of the decreasing water content at the surface. Thorvaldsson and Janestad (1999) suggested that concentration gradient occurs not only because of the drying of surface but also as a result of diusion of water vapor towards the centre. They correlated the diusion with temperature by the saturated partial water vapor pressure. They developed a mathematical model based on Fouriers and Ficks law to determine the temperature using the heat transfer equations following:     oT 1 o oT 1 oW k k ot qcp ox ox c p ot xL 19 when 0 < x < ; t > 0 2 The following boundary conditions were applied ! ! oT oW k hr T r T s hc T air T s kqw Dw 20 ox ox x0 ! x0 oT 0; T x; 0 T 0 x; 0 6 x 6 xL =2 21 ox xxL =2 8. Conclusion Review of published literatures revealed records of quite advanced studies on experimental, analytical, instrumental and numerical analysis of bread baking. Experimental studies are mainly concentrated on measurements of temperature, volume expansion and moisture content at various stages of baking. Analytical studies are based mainly on estimation of energy requirement and rheological properties of bread during baking process. Colourimetric analysis of bread baking has also been reported to indicate the end point of baking. Reaction kinetics of enzyme catalyzed process of dough development was also reported. Total CO2 evolution during baking, increase in porosity of bread crumb and bubble collapse phenomena have been analyzed by a few researchers. Microwave baking of bread has also been modeled by Zhang and Datta (2006). Presence of acrylamide, which is carcinogen, in bread crust is reported by Brathen and Knutsen (2005) and Ahrne et al. (2007). As pointed out throughout the text of this article, there are enough opportunities for Food Engineers to take up the challenges of investigating deeper into the process of bread baking. Besides, the baking process itself can withstand improvement to produce better quality product, retain more of the nutrients and economize energy utilization. This particular review brings to light the recent technological applications in the eld of bread baking. As was mentioned earlier bread baking is an art that has existed for

14

for CO2 conservation: e1 S

15

the vapor ux nv and CO2 ux nc are due to total pressure gradient and binary diusion. nv qv kg rpv rpc M v CDeff ;g rxv lg kg nc qc rpv rpc M a CDeff ;g rxc lg 16 17

Liquid water transport is due to water pressure gradient and can be described using Darcys Law. nw qw kw kw rpw qw rpv pc qw Dw rM lw lw 18

They also carried out sensitivity analysis for certain material properties to show their relative inuences on baking.

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over 12,000 years. But recent scientic, technological and instrumental breakthroughs can nd wide applications in baking industry leading to better quality product at reduced cost. References
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