Chinese Language

The Chinese language is often considered a language family rather than a singular language in of itself. This is because the language, which was originally spoken by the Han Chinese, features many varieties. Though the native speakers of the language often consider the different varieties as only dialects within the larger Chinese language linguists and sinologists consider this simplified differentiation inappropriate due to the large fluctuation in the varieties. Chinese is categorized as being a part of the Sino-Tibetan language family. It is spoken as a primary language by over one billion people, or one-fifth of the worlds total population. Depending on the exact internal classifications that are being used for differentiation, there are between 7 and 13 varieties, generally divided by region. The predominant of these regional groups is Mandarin, which is spoken as the primary language by approximately 850 million people worldwide. This is followed by the Wu variation which is spoken by 90 million, then Cantonese (or Yue depending on the person making the differentiation) which is spoken by 70 million, and then Min which is spoken by another 50 million. The intelligibility among these groups is varied, with the majority of them being unintelligible though sharing a few terms or usages. To accommodate these differences a dialect of Mandarin Chinese dating back to 19th Century Beijing has been used to create a standardized form of the Chinese language, referred to simply as Standard Chinese. This is considered the official language of PRC, the Peoples Republic of China, and is one of the six official languages used by the United Nations. The roots of this language are found in a core language referred to as Proto-Sino-Tibetan. It is from this language that the languages within the Sino-Tibetan language family descended. There has been great effort dedicated to recreating the original core language by understanding the links between the different languages that were developed from it. The language identifiable as Chinese originated during the Zhou Dynasty and is known as either Old Chinese or Archaic Chinese. Though not fully reconstructed, Old Chinese has been linked to the development of Middle Chinese during the Southern and Northern Dynasties. This transition, as well as that from Middle Chinese and the variations present at the same time, to the variations of modern Chinese as well as Standard Chinese has been complex. This is largely due to the reluctance of different groups of people to adapt to different varieties of the language than those that they were using for their day to day activities. Chinese Characters Chinese uses a writing system made up of characters which are known in Chinese as [] (hnzi). Chinese is famed for its tens of thousands of characters, with some dictionaries containing more than 50,000 words as entries. However, the good news for Chinese learners is that a large number of the characters are rarely used variants. Studies carried out in China have shown that workable literacy in the Chinese language only requires a knowledge of between three to four thousand characters. While Chinese characters are often thought of as very complex, in fact they are all derived from a couple hundred simple pictographs and ideographs, and are usually quite logical and easy to remember. Elements of a Chinese Character The first Chinese characters were created to depict simple objects like human, hand, mountain, sun, moon and tree. What came next were logical combinations of these simple characters. Some of these simple characters and logical combinations still remain clear enough within the character to reveal what they depict. Such simple and basic characters, when used to construct more complex characters, are called radicals. Looking at a page of Chinese characters may seem overwhelming; however once you start to delve into them you will see that all characters are made up of combinations of these smaller picture elements. Some of these smaller pictures within the character give a hint as to meaning and pronunciation (though not always).

Earliest Records of Chinese Characters Most linguists believe that writing was invented in China during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, BC. The earliest recognizable examples of written Chinese date from 1500-950 BC (Shang dynasty), and are found mainly on oracle bones. These bones were instruments used for divination. The bones were heated; and the resulting cracks were inspected to determine answers to questions about hunting, warfare, the weather, and the selection of auspicious days for ceremonies. The bones were then inscribed with details of the questions and the answers. Chinese characters are also used in the Japanese written language, to some extent in Korean, and formerly in Vietnamese. Traditional vs. Simplified Characters The traditional form of Chinese characters was widely used up until the mid-20th century. Most of the simplified Chinese characters in use today are the product of simplifications made by the government of China in the 1950s and 60s. The simplified characters have fewer strokes, and certain parts of some characters were completely eliminated. The simplified characters are the official written language of Mainland China, and are also used in Singapore. Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau and Malaysia still use the traditional characters. Composition of Chinese Words Chinese verbs and adjectives generally consist of one character (syllable) but nouns often consist of two, three or more characters (syllables). When written on the page, each character is given exactly the same amount of space, no matter how complex it is. There are no spaces between characters and the characters which make up compound words are not grouped together. This means that when reading Chinese, you not only have to work out what the characters mean and how to pronounce them, but also which characters belong together. Phonetics So how does one learn to pronounce all these characters? Pinyin is a phonetic system used to teach standard pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese, to spell Chinese names in foreign publications, and to enter Chinese characters on computers. It is a system that uses the Romanized alphabet to represent the sounds of Mandarin. Pinyin can easily be mastered with a few hours of study and practice. For help, check out ChineseClass101s pinyin chart; it shows all the possible pronunciations of Chinese words in pinyin, and has corresponding audio files; just click, listen, and imitate the native speakers pronunciation. Introduction to China China is one of the worlds oldest continuous civilizations, and the people of China are very proud of their 6,000 years of history. For centuries China was a leading civilization in the world, far ahead of many other nations in the arts and sciences. However, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, civil unrest, major famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation all contributed to take their toll on these aspects of Chinese civilization. The word for China in Chinese is (Zhnggu). Literally translated, this term means center nation or, as it is commonly translated, middle kingdom. This concept gives insight into the strong identity of the Chinese people, and the tenacity that enabled them to ultimately survive as an intact nation, in spite of the challenges placed in their path. The people of ancient China were resourceful and industrious, as are the Chinese of today. The Chinese are credited with several major inventions including paper, the compass, gunpowder, and printing. Another invention the Chinese take credit for is the humble noodle (though this claim is somewhat disputed by another noodleloving nation.)

As China grows in influence on the world scene, a new China emerges; a mixture of old value systems and new, modern ideas; an integration of the traditional and modern; a migration from rural to urban life. The everadaptable Chinese continue to innovate and prosper along with their newfound circumstances, once again making their indelible mark on human civilization. The People Hundreds of ethnic groups have existed in China throughout its history. The Peoples Republic of China (PRC) officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups today, the largest of which are the Han Chinese, who constitute about 91.9% of the total population. Ethnic groups receive certain preferential treatment; one notable perk being that, due to their small numbers, ethnic minority groups are exempt from the population growth controls of the One-Child Policy. These minority groups often have their own distinct traditional dress, culture, language, food and art forms. Culture Confucianism has been the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial Chinas history, and Chinas traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism. With the rise of Western economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained some proponents in China. In essence, the history of 20th-century China has been one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization. These systems have evolved, and continue to develop, integrating and redefining of the identity of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse. Geography China is the third largest country in the World, behind Russia and Canada. As of 2008, the population of China is estimated to be just over 1.3 billion. This is about one-fifth of the worlds population. A diverse land with a varied terrain, Chinas geography encompasses everything from deserts to mountains, fertile river basins to highland plateaus. The climate, likewise, is one of extremes. From the bitter winters of frigid Northern China to the hot and humid monsoon seasons of the south, the climate is varied and extreme. Five of Chinas largest cities are referred to as the fiery furnaces. Much of Western China is mountainous, with the Himalaya, Tian and Pamir ranges dominating. Western China also has a large desert, the famous Gobi. Central China consists of mountainous regions. Rivers also play a major role in China, both for transportation and for irrigation. Religion The official faith observed by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the last dynasty centered on worship of Heaven or Shangdi (literally the Emperor Above) as an omnipotent force. Its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, but some of its concepts remained and were incorporated into later religions of China. Taoism is a religion indigenous to China, and can be traced back to the composition of Lao Zis Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Its Virtues). Buddhism was first introduced to China from India and Central Asia during the Han dynasty and became very popular among Chinese; it was particularly embraced by commoners. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China, however many Chinese identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist. Ancestor worship is a theme that transcends all the Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture values filial pietya deep love and respect for ones parents and ancestors. Many Chinese people will offer prayers and food, light incense, and make burnt paper offerings for their ancestors. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, a temple, or household shrine.

Sports Beyond the fanfare of todays ping pong tournaments, basketball stars, and the fervor of the Olympics, the roots of sport in China run deep. Chinese traditional sports include dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing. In Tibet, archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals. Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common to see the elderly practicing Tai Chi and qigong in parks in the early morning hours. Economy Chinas economy is ranked number three in the world and is strong in manufacturing, and is sometimes given the nickname, the worlds workshop. Almost every major multi-national company has an office in China; and most deem China as vital to their global corporate strategies. Though foreign companies account for a lot of business in China, State-owned companies continue to dominate the list of the biggest companies in China, occupying all of the top ten spots. With an economy now ranked third largest in the world after the US and Japan, and with a nominal GDP of US$3.5 trillion in 2007, for over a quarter of a century China has been one of the fastest growing economies. Its average annual GDP growth rate is more than 10%. Chinas per capita income has grown at an average annual rate of more than 8% over the last three decades. This has brought a drastic reduction in poverty, but rising income inequalities, with the gap between the rich and the poor ever-widening. Language Spoken Chinese is distinguished by its high level of internal diversity, there are thousands of dialects within greater China. Those many of the dialects are mutually unintelligible, they are all tonal and some may share common terms and some degree of intelligibility. The standardized form of spoken Chinese is Standard Mandarin, known in Chinese as (ptnghu). It is based on the Beijing dialect. Standard Mandarin is the official language of the Peoples Republic of China A lot of words in Mandarin are formed by aggregating words according to their meaning. For example, the word for typewriter is (dzj). The first syllable of the word is a character that means to strike. The second syllable or character means character or word, and the third means machine. So the word for typewriter in Chinese literally means hit word machine. Words and names in foreign languages may be given their place in the Chinese language by combining Chinese characters in an attempt to approximate the pronunciation of the foreign term. Chinese names of public figures and famous places are often transliterations of their renderings in the original language. With the variety of accents and dialects of Chinese, even within the country people at times may have difficulty understanding one another. All television is subtitled in Chinese characters, and, when necessary for clarity, Chinese people will trace out which character they are referring to on the palm of their hand. Writing System The characters of written Chinese are the worlds longest continuously used written language system. Chinese characters have varied in style and appearance over the course of Chinese history, however there are still tens of thousands of ancient artifacts with ancient characters inscribed on them; from oracle bones to Qing edicts. Historically, calligraphy was viewed as a higher form of art than painting or drama.

Chinese Pronunciation
Though the title of this article implies that we will only be introducing you to Chinese pronunciation, you can rest assured that our introduction will be extensive enough to set you well on your way. The most basic rule you need to learn is that each individual Chinese character makes up one syllable in a word. Just as in the English language, these words can consist of only one syllable, in which case they would be written using only one character. Another fact to know is that each of these syllables is comprised of both an initial and a final sound. There is a finite number of these sounds, and learning to pronounce them all will mean that you have essentially mastered the pronunciation of this language. In Chinese pronunciation, there is a system of letters that is used to help people learn to properly pronounce Chinese words. Most of the sounds represented by these letters are pronounced the same way in Chinese as they are in English. However, many of them are different. One such example pertains to the letter Z. In Chinese, this sound is made while your tongue is pressed up against the back of your teeth. That way, it comes out as more of a dz sound. The letter C represents a sound that is very similar, with the exception that air is allowed to escape from the mouth while the sound is being made. Of course, there are also lots of other sounds to learn in Chinese pronunciation, and one of them is the ZH sound. This sound is produced by raising the tip of your tongue against the back of your gum ridge. It sounds similar to the J sound in English, but its thicker. The CH sound is similar to its English counterpart, with the exception that your tongue will occupy the same position as when pronouncing ZH, again resulting in a much thicker sound. The same is true of the SH sound. To create the X sound in Chinese, you just raise your tongue up and let the air slip out. Of course, there are lots of other rules governing Chinese pronunciation as well. This may all seem more than a little confusing at first, but dont worry. In time, and with practice, youll get it for sure. Remember, practice makes perfect, so listen to native speakers and repeat the sounds they are making every chance you get.

Chinese Alphabet
While Chinese characters are often thought of as extremely complex, in fact they are all derived from a couple hundred simple pictographs and ideographs that are assembled in different combinations. Once you get the hang of them, they arent as difficult to remember as you may think. All Chinese characters are made up of smaller picture elements within the character. Some of these smaller pictures within the character give a hint as to meaning and Chinese pronunciation (though not always). The first Chinese characters were simple objects like human, hand, foot, mountain, sun, moon, and tree. Then logical combinations of the simple characters followed. Some of these simple characters and logical combinations within the character still remain clear enough to see what they depict. They also sometimes serve as the root of a more complex character, and are called radicals. Most linguists believe that writing was invented in China during the latter half of the second millennium B.C. The earliest recognizable examples of written Chinese date from 1500-950 B.C. (Shang dynasty). Characters were inscribed on bones and shells that were used for divination. The traditional form of Chinese characters was widely used up until the mid-twentieth century. Most of the simplified Chinese characters in use today were the result of simplifications made by the government of China in the 1950s and 60s. The simplified characters have a lot fewer strokes and certain parts of some characters were completely eliminated. The simplified characters are also used in Singapore, but in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau and Malaysia the traditional characters are still used. The Chinese language is famed for its huge number of characters, and some Chinese dictionaries contain more than 50,000 words as entries. But the good news is that a large number of those are rarely used variants, accumulated throughout history. This means that workable literacy in the Chinese language only requires knowledge of between three to four thousand characters.

Elements That Make Up a Chinese Word Chinese verbs and adjectives generally consist of one character (syllable) but nouns often consist of two, three, or more characters (syllables). When written on the page, each character is given exactly the same amount of space, no matter how complex it is or how many strokes it contains. There are no spaces between characters and the characters that make up compound words are not grouped together, so when reading Chinese, you have to figure out what the characters mean and how to pronounce them, and also which characters belong together. Pronunciation Pinyin is a phonetic system used to teach standard pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese, to spell Chinese names in foreign publications, and to enter Chinese characters on computers. Unlike in European languages, initials and finalsnot consonants and vowelsare the elements that make up a word in pinyin. Nearly every Chinese syllable is spelled with one initial sound followed by one final sound. Though pinyin uses the Roman alphabet, and some of the sounds are similar to their English counterparts, some of the letters and combinations of letters have pronunciations quite different from English. Pinyin cannot be read like English, even though it uses the Roman alphabet. There are only about four hundred different combinations of initials and finals in Chinese; therefore there are many homophones. Of course each Chinese character can also have four possible tones, so that adds to the amount of individual sounds.

Chinese Grammar
Some people might try to tell you that there is no such thing as Chinese grammar. In reality, nothing could be further from the truth. However, it is true that the grammar rules in Chinese are far simpler than those of many other languages. For example, you arent going to have to worry about verb conjugation, and you also arent going to have to worry about which words have which genders. Therefore, learning the grammar in Chinese isnt going to be nearly as difficult as learning the other aspects of this language, and for that you can be thankful. Just because the grammar is simple, doesnt mean we couldnt go into more detail, but our main purpose here is to tell you the most important facts first. That way, you can learn the language as quickly as possible. We mentioned a moment ago that Chinese grammar has no verb conjugation, and thats true. As hard as this may be to believe, regardless of the tense of any given verb in Chinese, its form doesnt change. Of course, without conjugation, you may be wondering how the Chinese language communicates the timing of the action in any given sentence. The solution here is that Chinese uses word order to communicate the information that would normally be communicated by conjugation in English. Another way that Chinese grammar lets us know the timing of a particular action is by adding time words. For example, the literal translation of a Chinese sentence might be, I go park. When did the person go to the park? If this sentence had been uttered with no additional words, then the answer would be that the speaker was intending to go to the park presently. Had they intended to communicate that they had gone to the park the day before, they would have said, I go park yesterday. Had they intended to communicate that they would be going to the park in the future, they would have said, I go park tomorrow. There are also some interesting facts about nouns and pronouns in Chinese grammar. For instance, when nouns become plural in Chinese, they usually remain unchanged. Pronouns, however, are just as complicated in Chinese as they are in English (but thankfully, not more so). There are both singular and plural pronouns in Chinese, and they exist in first, second, or third persons. As you can see, with a little persistence, you will find that Chinese grammar isnt as difficult to master as that of some other languages.

Chinese Verbs
Relative to many other languages, Chinese verbs are straight forward, though they are unique to the language and cannot be approached in the same way as verbs from other languages. This language has two verb forms that influence the meaning and context of the sentence in which they are found. The first is the stative form which indicates the state, while the other, the dynamic, indicates action. Like those used in other languages, Chinese verbs are manipulated using different constructions in order to convey greater meaning and context. A declarative sentence in Standard Chinese is very similar to one written in English. The structure is subject-verb-object and can often be translated exactly into other similar languages. Present Tense Conjugation of Chinese verbs is very different from that of most languages within the Indo-European linguistic family, such as Spanish or English. Unlike these languages that apply several forms to verbs depending on the number of subjects or tense, verbs in Chinese are not modified to express tense of person. This means that the sentence for I eat has the same verb as I ate and She eats or She ate. There are no suffixes to differentiate these different conditions. Past Tense Because the verbs within the language are not modified to express person or tense, the easiest way to indicate a time frame is contextually. Such words as yesterday or last year provide the context that expresses that particular action occurred in the past. Negation In order to negate a verb in Chinese the word bu is inserted into the sentence. Essentially this adds not before the verb, such as I not eat. The only exception to this is the verb to have which is negated by adding mei instead of bu, which turns the sentence into I do not have. Verb-Object Combination Usage The Chinese language is fairly limited in terms of phonotactics, which results in multiple homophones. Partially to compensate for the confusion that these like sounds create, many verbs are used in conjunction of objects to clarify context. In the Context of Questions When using Chinese verbs in the context of questions there are two forms: The first is the written construction which utilizes the particle ma at the end of an affirmative sentence to modify it into a Yes or No question. The second is the verb not verb construction which states the affirmative of an action followed by the negative of the same action, with bu in between. This essentially changes the statement You are eating into Are you eating?