A Note From The Author

Facilities & Workplace Design

An Illustrated Guide
First Edition
Engineering & Management Press Institute of Industrial Engineers Norcross Georgia, USA 1996

Free Copy Available At www.strategosinc.com

This book was originally published in 1996 and was quite popular. However, Engineering & Management Press terminated publishing operations and the book went out of print. Existing stocks are exhausted and it is now difficult to find, even on the used market. I have been writing a second edition with more Lean Manufacturing examples and terminology. However, progress has been painfully slow. Many people have requested either edition. Accordingly, I am making this special version of the First Edition available on a complimentary basis. This special edition is a scanned copy of the original in PDF format. Some figures did not scan well. In addition, there are original typesetting errors, particularly in the later chapters. If you find yourself confused, it may be due to a mislabeled or misplaced figure. I apologize for these lapses in quality. They are one reason why the book is free. However, the principles remain sound; examples are realistic; the approach is universal. It applies to Lean Manufacturing and, indeed, any Manufacturing Strategy. You will also find supplementary material on our website at www.strategosinc.com. A free preview of the Second Edition Chapter 4 is at www.strategosinc.com/facdes.htm. I hope this is helpful in your facilities planning work. Sincerely, Quarterman Lee President Strategos, Inc. Kansas City, Missouri, USA www.strategosinc.com

Facilities and Workplace Design

An lllustratedGuide
by QuartermanLee
with Arild EngAmundsen WilliamNelson HerbertTuttle

ENcrxeenrNc& MatacereNr Pness Institute of Industrial Engineers Norcross, Georgia, USA http:llwww.iieneLorg

@ 1997 Institute oflndustrial Engineers. All rights reserved. Published by the Institute of Industrial Engineers. Printeil in the United Statesof America. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the Publisher. The views and concepts presented are those of the contributors. Publication by the Institute of Industrial Engineers does not in any or approvalof the book s contents. way constitute endorsement No responsibility is assumedby the Publisher for any injury andlor damage to persons or ProPerry as a matter of product's liability' due to negligence or otherwise,or from any use or operation of any methods,Products,instructions, or ideascontainedin the material herein.

02 01 00 99 98 97

6 5 4 3 2 r

CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION Lee, Qrarterman.

DATA

Facilities and workplace design: an illustrated guide/by Qrarterman Lee; with Arild Eng Amundsen, William Nelson, Herbert Tuttle. series; 3) cm. -- (Engineersin business p. and index. Includes bibliographicalreferences ISBN 0-89806-166-0 1. Plant lzyout. 2. Plant engineering. 3. Office layout. 4. Work environment. I. Amundsen, Arild Eng. II. Nelson, William. Herbert. TSI78.L44 IV. Title. 1996 96-22972 CIP Director/Engineering & Management Press:Eric E. Torrey Editor: Forsyth Alexander Cover by Marty Benoit Printed by Edwards Brothers Inc. V. Series. III. Tuttle,

658.2'3--dc20

ISBN 0-89806-166-0 Engineering & Management Press 25 Technology Park Norcross,GA 30092

Table of Contents

Preface ............... v A c k n o w r e o g r " n t r . . . : : . : . . . . : . . . . . . : . : : . . : . : . : . . . : . : : . . : . . . . . : . . . . . . :".i.i. . . . : . . . . . . . . . Chapter 1 - Facilities in a Changing Environment............... 1 Working facilities in modernhistory ............... 3 Facilities in a changing environment .................................. 5 Approaches to facilities planning ..................... 9 The industrial engineer's role in facility planning .............t2 Chapter 2 - The Framework for Facilities Design.............13 The levels of spatial design........ ..................... 13 The phasingof space design .......2l The space plan elements ............... ................. 23 Space plan ................ 27 The design project........ ............... 28 Chapter 3 - The Macro-Space-Plan .................. 29 Introducing CosmosProducts .... 32 Planningthe project .................... 32 Information acquisition tasks .......... ................33 Identifyingphysical infrastructure..................................... 50 The strategic framework................ ................ 52 Key manufacturingtasksand focus opportunities.............54 Identi$'ingoperations strategy...... ..................58 Designing the space plan ........... .................... 65 Cosmoscell and process definition ................ 69 The space plan primitive ............. 88 Constraints ............... 88

Design of Experiments Designing macro-space-plans ..... 91, Identifyingkey materialhandlingissues ......... .................. 94 Decidingon the bestspace plan........... .......... 95 Evaluating the Cosmosspace plans ............... 99 Chapter 4 - Macro-Space-Planning

and WorkCellDesi9n................ Workcells ...........

... 109 ... 111

Interpretingterminology and conventions ............ ..........772 The micro-level tasks ................ 114 Selecting the products ................. The DiamondEquipmentCompany.............................. 119 Gator Steel Foundry.............. ....725 Designing the process ................128 Planning cellinfrastructure .......... .................136 Externalproductioncontrol .......138 Designing a space plan........... ....I49 Selecting the bestplan ........... ....157

Chapter5 - WorkstationDesign: the Sub-Micro-Space-Plan

Allocationof functions Motion economy Ergonomics The workstation space pIan............

t67
...............162 .... 165 ............ L66 .............. 774

Chapter 6 - Site Planning and Location............................ 183 Sitelocationand acquisition .............. .......... 184 Siteplanning ................ ............. 188

7 - OfficeSpacePlanning Chapter
Approachesto office planning The officelayoutteam .......... The layout project ChapterS -A Final Note

...................203
.. 204 .... 207 .. 207 ..................215

Gfossary
Bibliography .................. fn d e x Aboutthe authors

...........277
........227 ...............225 .......,.,.,.,.,.231

..232

Preface
Modern factorylayoutbeganmost notably at Highland Park, Michigan. There, Henry Ford and CharlesSorensen first put large-scale flow line production into place.Layout, the arrangement of equipmentwithin the building space, was the most striking featureof Ford production. The layout of Ford factorieswas so noticeable, it disguisedrhe more intangibleelements of Ford and Sorensen's highly integratedandwellthought-out manufacturing system. As a result,manyfactorymanagers, businessexecutives, and engineersstill try to replicate eady Ford layouts. Theseimitationsoften areill-suited to their business purposes. Evenwhen managers do not copyFord layouts, they continueto believe that layoul is the heart of efficient production. And so it is, but only as the culmination of a rational design process: aprocess that moves from globallocationto workstations, from policy to operations.It is a process that includesthe entire range of tangibleand intangibleelements. The resultis a designthat integrates products,service, people,information, and technology. Our facilitiesplanning approach buildson the pioneeringworkof RichardMuther andKnut Haganas, both ofwhom delelopedsystematic layoutplanning (SLP) and systematic (SHA). These handling analysis concepts remainvalid after almostthirty-five years. Our approach uses contemporarylanguageand examples.Data acquisition is stressed. Perhapsmost importantly, we integrate manufacturingstrategyand manufacturingfocus,concepts first put forth byWickham Skinnerand first recognized as connected by William Wrennall. This is more than a manufacturing book, however.The concepts originally developedfor industry now apply to services. Products and

Facilities Planning world. in today's enterprise meld togetherin almosteveryviable services "business all productivehuman activity. covers process" The conceptof Government, education, the professions,and industry are simply Therefore,the planning ofa government variationson a few centralideas. facility or an idea fzctory follows the sameprinciples and approach as the planning of an automotive factory.The planning of a hospital follows the samecourseas the planning of a textile mill. Under its for new strategies. A facility projectoften is the catalyst that bringstogetherthe debate mayopena strategic guise,management It canprovide of the enterprise. functionsand elements many disparate the then translates The project and discussion. the structurefor analysis a In this way, facilityplanning becomes resultsinto steeland concrete. in template project rather than an exercise reengineering large-scale shuffling. Our purposein writing this book is to help practicingindustrial engineersnew to facility planning. We intend it to be practicalwith are andvisualaids.Visualapproaches forms,diagrams, manyexamples, is usually mind human The planning. for facility important especially in avisualmode.Illustrations,graphs,andchartseffectively more creative that havemanylevelsof detail. complexspatialarrangements represent Also, data is more significantfor most of us when we can seeit. A plant layout is the product ofthousandsofdecisions,both past ofthe firm's manufacturing manifestation It is the physical andpresent. coverthe entire Thesedecisions whetherde factoor otherwise. strategy, product design, process' rangeof manufacturing-finance, personnel, and many, many other topics.We cannot possiblydo justice to all of to their We hope, however,to alert industrial engineers theseissues. and importance.We hope to point the way to more rational existence orientedfacility design. and strategically

Acknowledgments
t{e this_opportuniryto thank others who helped with this book. [e Margie and curtJennings producedmuch of the aitwork. sandraLee helped with research, data entry and proofing. Maura Reeves, Ellen snodgrass,Eric Torrey, Forslth Alex"nd.r, anJ the staffat the Institute of Industrial Engineershavesupportedus and helped make this final product readable.

Chapter 1 Facilities in a Environment Changing

"The dogmasof our quiet past are inadequate to the stormypresent. As our situationis new,we must think
anew.tt

Abraham Lincoln

Working facilities are the land, buildings, and equipment that provide the physical capability to add value. This book is about operational facilities used for a wide range of business,government, institutional, and charitable activities. It applies to offices, factories, and fast-food restaurants. It appliesto anyfacilitythat houses value-addingoperations. "business For convenience, terms such as facility" or"factory" are used, although the changing nature of work has blured many of these distinctions. The principles herein apply to a wide range of situations the industrial engineercommonly encounters. Facilities areboth durable and expensive, lasting for decades and sometimes even spanning centuries.A firm's facilities are among the most expensive of its possessions. They represent the largestasset item on most balancesheets. The durability of facilities, their cost, and their primary role in adding value make them an important strategic element. Just as gunpowder made the fortresses of medieval Europe indefensible, changesin technology, culture, and politics can quickly render today's industrial facilities obsolete. Conversely, facilities that adapt to the nature of their competitive environment can be a continuing sourceof advantagefor their owners.

Facilities Planning

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Facilities In A Changing Environment Figure 1.1 depicts the interaction of facilities, organization, products,and processes. The understanding, design,and development of thesevariedelements into a functioning business system arereferred to in variousterms.Among theseare:manufacfuring strategy, co{porate reengineering, and business architecture. The importanceof facilitiesdoesnot lie solelyin their cost and durability. They are also the most tangible element of the business system,the element to which everyone in everyareaof the business can relate.They can be a central,common reference for the restrucfuring/ reengineering/strategic debate. Working facilities in modern history Industrial facilities shops that servedthe needsof individual artisans were the industrial facilitiesof the Middle Ages.Thesewere small and centeredaround a singleskill suchasarmoryor saddlemaking. They had simpleand clear arrangements. Duringthe Industrial Revolution,powersources andthe movement of raw materials determined faciliry design. Textile mills required streams for water power, and cumbersome shaftsand belts dominated their arrangement. Eady iron andsteelmills werelocatedon waterways, railroads,or mining siteslcoal,iron ore, and limestonetransportation dominatedtheir design. Early large-scale production shopssuch as the pickering piano Factory @g, 1.2) developedin the nineteenth century. These large

Figure 1.2 - The Pickering Piono Factory, Boston, Moss, Circo | 870

Facilities Planning products.At one buildings turned out high numbersof manufacrured time, the Pickering factoryturned out 400 pianoseachday. ofmass-production century, the progression In the earlytwentieth technology required facilities that optimized material flow. The micro-division of labor made skill less important than efficient movementof product. In the secondhalf of this century,information and knowledge beganto dominate industrial production.The educationand skills of As a result, ofthe world increased. the worKorce in industrializedparts industrial facilities must now optimize the coordination of people, and products. processes, Government facilities In the Middle Ages, the most important governmentfacilitieswere Their primary mission was defenseagainst roving town fortresses. The fortified town of Rocroi,on the bandsand neighboringciry-states. Still largelyintact,it is a lasting northernplain of France,is an example. of thesefortresses. testimonyto the durability, cost,and obsolescence New With the adventofgunpowder,battletechnolory advanced. tactics evolvedand armiesbecamemore disciplined.These massive works drained the treasuries of many dukes and kings and became fortresses indefensibleand obsolete.By the time of the Renaissance, Their primary missionwas comfort for the had evolvedinto palaces. inhabitants, as well as the projection of power and prestige. The buildersofmany governmentalbuildings wanted to intimidate potential both foreign and domestic. enemies, Governments no longer can surviveonly through warfare or the threat of warfare.Their constituentsdemand addedvalue in a wide range of human activity. Accordingly, many governmental facilities rather than projection for efficient operations now arebeing designed of power. The United StatesPostalService providesan excellentexample. Post offices built in the early part of this century were architectural landmarks.Their mission was to display the power, stability, and Postalfacilitiesbuilt todayarenear prestigeof the federalgovernment. transportationcentersand optimize mail flow. Their primary mission is the efficient distribution of mail. Knowl e d g e - based fa ciI ities Facilities in which knowledgeis the primary meansof work have always beenmorevariedthan other types.The medievalmonastery, for example)was a primary depository of knowledge in its time.

Facilities In A Changing Environment The church used this knowledge to vie with governments for power and influence. During the Renaissance and Industrial Revolution, knowledge becamean important sourcefor commercialcompetitive advantage. Individual professionals such as doctors,lawyers,and financierswere primary keepers of knowledge.Other knowledgeresidedin libraries. Factories imbeddedit in their facilitiesand processes. PeterF. Drucker was among the first to rccognizethe increasingvalueofwhat he termed "knowledge work." He put forth theseideasin his landmarkwork, The Practiceof Management,in 1955. Knowledge work dependsprimarily on brainpower rather than manual skills or strength. In today's manufacturing environment, most work requiring pure strength of musclehas long been automatedaway.Much of the work that once required manual dexterity has been taken over by computerized equipmentsuchasnumericallycontrolledmachinetools or coordinate measuring machines. Therefore, knowledge andthe informationbehind it now havebecomeprimary sources ofvalue in their own right. Many organizationsexist for the solepurposeof processinginformation and distributing it. Their facilitiesshould reflect and enhancethis role.

Facilities in a changing environment

Facilitydesigners havealways workedwith materials, products,processes, information, andpeople. Theirtaskis to arrange workprocesses on land and in buildingsfor optimum performance. This hasnot changedand will not change,but rapid shifts in technology, politics, and culture require a more fundamental understandingand analysisfrom the facility designer.It no longer is sufficient (if it everwas) to copy an assembly line just because it was successful somewhere else. In addition to the long-term trend toward increased knowledgebased work, other trendsofa stretigicnatureareaffectingbusiness. The facility planner should catalyze or lead an organization'sadaptation to ever-changing surroundings. The environmental imperative Harmony with the environmentis an increasingly important business concern that will not go away.Population growth is a principal factor dictating this concern;the spreadof the suburbsthrough increased mobility is another. Organizafionsthat surviveand prosper in coming yearswill anticipateand lead with their environmentalpolicies. Location requirement changes Information is the raw material of the knowledge worker. With the

Planning Facilities

confluence of information processingand communication, the has opened.The ability to distribute vast information superhighway amountsof information makesit lessimportant for facilitiesto locate near the sourceof information. This is similar to the distribution of materialsin an earlier day. As material transportationbecamemore could locatefarther from their sources. efficient. manufacturers Knowledge-based facilitiesnow locatewhere their workerswish to live-often far from traditional industry. Industries that require manufacturers of in small areas: specialized knowledgeoften converge in Milwaukee,Wisconsin;Wichita, Kansas, overhead cranes congregate has a high concentrationofvinyl printers for decorativedecals;and "Silicon plants. Valley" in California is the home for many electronics These changesaffect global facilitiesplanning decisionssuch as site selectionand planning. The changing nature of work their knowledge component As products become more sophisticated, becomesmore important. It is no longer enough to manufacture a variety,frequentchange,and commodity product.Competition demands andknowledge. product,service, distribution systems that deliverphysical Today, individualsseldomwork The natureofworkhas changed. in product design, process alone. Knowledge teams are necessary finance,andevenlaw.Teams,by their nature,requireproximiry. design, Facilities can inhibit or promote teamwork. They can smooth the or they can operation of complex and etherealknowledgeprocesses communication. isolate and people prevent The socio-technical system have alwaysexisted,although few managers systems Socio-technical Managementthought was recognized the phenomenonuntil recently. werelike machines, that organizations caughtin the Newtonianconcept giant clockrvork mechanisms that ticked away in a predictable, the mechanical manner.Eric Trist ofthe TavistockInstitute developed socio-technicalidea in the early 1950s. Teamwork, total quality (TQ{), and other techniques involvement for employee management system(fiS. 1.3). havetheir roots in the conceptofthe socio-technical The social systemincludespeople and their habitual attitudes, values,behavioral styles,and relationships.It is the formal power strucfure depicted on otganization charts and the informal structure derivedfrom knowledgeand personalinfluence.The technicalsystem procedures, and their physical includes machinery, processes, (layout). arrangement

Facilities In A Changing Environment

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Planning Facilities To be effective, the social and technical systemsmust integrate and assistone another.Facilitiesplanning plays a major role in this large wherepeoplehaveisolatedworkstations, integration.Businesses inventory buffers, and few sequential processeshave difficulty implementing teamwork. A manufacturing work cell that requires teamworkwill not producein an environmentof suspicion, extensive individual rewards,and command-control. N on -h i e ra rchi caI org aniz ations Hierarchical organizationswith functional divisions of work evolved from the Roman Legions,the Catholic Church, and medievalguilds. Such organizations are ill-suited for today's work, where the work and where product requiresinput from many functional specialties is a primary requirement' coordinationbetweenspecialties While TqM emphasizescross-functional teamwork, more fundamental reengineering emphasizeselimination of functional structures in the organization This puts special demands on the must constantlychange facilitiesplanner.Non-hierarchicalorganizations volume and product life cycles. in business changes to accommodate In these organizationsthere is less division between traditional managementand labor functions. Many engineersand others who traditionally worked in office areas now have their desks in the manufacturing plant. Many of today's high-tech manufacturing and order than the traditional operationsdemand more cleanliness office. Therefore, facilities must be more open with few walls and changing to accommodate barriers.Theyrequire constantrearrangement work cells and changing team structures. Global business restructurtng reengineering, and facilities and Thanks in part to the changingnatureofwork, global economics, restructuringis occurringin many large-scale technologicaladvances, As a result,many facilitiesthat areno longer contributing organizatrons. to company missionswill close.Other facilitieswill be built. Many reengineered. more will haveproductsrealignedand processes project.It reengineering Facilitiesplanning is often a large-scale elements. well as suPPorting as is an opportunity to rethink processes canhelpmanagement the designers During a facilitiesplanningproject, clarifr missionsand rationalizeproduct lines. Layout is an integral part of reengineering and restructuring. in the layout. changes corresponding requires Meaningful restructuring for restructuring. Conversely,a layout redesigncanbe the catalyst architectureappearaslayout Many symptomsofinappropriate business

Facilities In A Changing Environment or materialhandlingissues. Factorylayoutcandemonstrate the needfor reengineering to an organizationreluctantto tearitselfapart and rebuild. Approaches to facility planning Those who plan and build facilitiestake many approaches. Some are highly organized; othersaread hoc. Examplesofapproaches (fig.7.4) are experiential,masterbuilding, cloning,bottom-up,systematic, and strategic. Experiential In this approach, peopleplan their facilitiesbasedon past experience, common sense,and instinct. In any organization, the experience of senior membersis valuablefor information on what has worked and what has not worked in the past. Otganizations, aswell asindividuals, need this experience to function. A faciliry designedfrom experience taps into the rich knowledge of those who have gone beforel however,experience-based facilities planninghaslimitations.Experience, bydefinition, is based on the past, and new technologyand organizationstructures can make it obsolete. In addition,planningby experience is usuallyunorganized. It frequently is the resultof the memories ofonlyone or a fewindividuals,and others mayhavehad additionalor contradictory experiences. Suchhindrances, aswell as forgotten details, haunt theseefforts. In planning a major facility, experience cannot be ignored but must be gatheredfrom the widest field of experience possibleand appliedwith judgment and discretion. Master building Master building focuseson consrruction and buildings. The final product is often impressive and sometimes a work of art, but it may not fit the operational needs ofthe enterprise. Master builderscanbe found at many levels in both large and small organizations: a company president building a new headquartersor a department manager focusing on technologicalimpressiveness rather than actual needs. Using a building to displayfinancial strength,technological prowess, or artistic accomplishment is a legitimateform of advertising. However, this purposeshould be balanced with other business needs. Cloning Cloning simply duplicates an existing facllity or portion of it. This approach is fast.Ifthe existingfaciliryis provenandifconditions arethe same, this type works well. McDonald's uses cloning to build its "factories" hamburger throughout theworld. For mostfacilities,however,

IO

Facilities Planning

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cloninghaslimited usebecause sites, processes, andpeoplearedifferent. Cloning should be appliedonly when appropriate. Bottom up The bottom-up approachstartswith the details.How many desks? How many and which machines? How many people?From them,

Facilities In A Changing Environment

11

departmentalunits and, eventually,the overall facility plan are built. It is a satisfactory approach if the derailsand how theywill be assembled into a largersystem areknown, ifthere is time, and ifthe details will not change.such conditions are often met for smallerfacilitiesin stable environments. Bottom-up planning does not lend itself to new operations strategies. Because all detailshaveto be worked out beforefinal design and construction,constructionlead times areoften too long. On large projects,the detailsbecomeso overwhelmingit is often difficult to maintain schedules. Systematic Systematic layout planning (SLP) usesprocedures, conventions,and phases.It helps layout plannersknow what to do at each step of a project. This provides layout planning with system and strucrure, savingtime and effort. However, many layoutscreatedwith systematic methodology are simply better versionsof what went before. The primaryconcernis how to arrange blocksof space. A morefundamental issueis what blocksof space should be arranged. Strategic The strategic approach is top-down. It sets policy first and arangesthe technology, organization, and facilities to support it. Starting with business and corporate strateg'y suchasglobalsitelocation,it movesto operations strate gy andfinishes with detailslike locarions of equipment and furniture. A strategic approach is direct and haspurpose. It allowseveryone involved in the project to follow a common direction. Used alone, however, strategic direction is insufficient. It does not tell faciliry designers and thosewho usethe facilitieswhat to do. FacPIan The FacPlanmethod combinesthe best of variousapproaches. It has systemand structureand adds strategicdimension. It taps into the experience and knowledgeof thosewho usethe facilities.It can work from detail to generaland vice versawhen appropriate. FacPlanusesa hierarchyof detail levels.It focuses on strategic issuesat the appropriatetime and minutiae at the appropriatetime, usinga modelprojectplanto guideandsrrucrure each project.Procedural flow chartsguiderheplannerthrough eachtaskand assistwithdecision making. Charts,forms, and designaidscontributeto the organization of information.

12

Facilities Planning

The industrial enginee/srole in facilityplanning

in a unique their designers role offacilitiesplaces The central,strategic position. Industrial engineerscan assumenarrow roles as technical and or they can take broaderroles as educators equipment arrangers gic debate. catalystsf or or gan\zationalstrate The latter requires more than skillsin layoutdesignand technical well-developedinterpersonalskills, procedure.Strategicperspective, are alsonecessary. patience,and understanding toolsindustrial This work provides insight into the basictechnical engineers need for facilitiesplanning. The broaderskills will reguire nce, insight, maturity, and education. experie

Chapter2 The Framework for Facilities Design

The completedesignof a facility requires work from many disciplines within an organization: sales and marketing, purchasing, human resource s, accounting, and more.More visibleis the work of architects, structuralengineers, process engineers, and management. Architects and structural engineerscheck soil conditions, building codes,and infrastructure, detailingthe structure,appearance, and internalsof the building andsite.Process engineers mayplantheproductionprocedures. To guide and coordinateall theseefforts, managementsetsstrategic policies. Industrial engineers alsoplay key roles.They often managerhe overallproject and report to top management, and they may perform someor all of the abovetasks.Most importantly, they plan the useof space. Thesespace plans,atvarious detaillevels, become the centerpiece for coordinatingthe entire project. The levels of spatial design Layout, or space planning, is the centralfocusof facilitiesdesignand dominatesthe thoughtsof most managers. But factoryor office layout is only one detail level. Ideally, a facility design proceeds from the generalto the particular-from global site location to workstation. Larger strategicissues are decidedfirst. It is useful to think of space planning in five levelsas shown in figure 2.1. Figures2.2 through 2.6 show qpical ourputsat eachlevel. These range from the global maps of site location to engineering drawingsof tools and workstations.

14

Planning Facilities

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The Framework For Facilities Design

15

Level I -Global site location During global location,the site location level,the firm decides where to locate facilities and determinestheir missions.A facility mission statement is a concise summary of products, processes, and key manufacfuring tasks.A facility rarely canperform more than two or threekey manufacturing tasks well. The missionstatement is therefore an important guide for facilitiesplannersand others as they consider variousdesigntrade-offs. Other outputsat this levelusually includea reportto management. For multiple sites,mapsshowing site locationsand customeiactivity are common. Figure 2.2 illustrates. The cost of spaceplanning at Level 1 is small. Global location usuallyinvolvesa few top executives and one or fwo industrial engineers or consultants.Each level below requires more and more people, analysis, and detailedengineering. Yet, the corporatebudget pro..r, frequentlydemands that all significantplanning be delayed urriil uft., a decision is madeto proceed with siteacquisition. Thoselevels with the

Proposed South American Plant Site Specification Contents 1 .O Mission 2.0 General Requirements 3.0 Land Features 4.O Building 5.O Transponation 6.0 l.ltilities 7,0 Labor 8.O Communlty 9.0 SupplleG 1O.O Environmental

Mission Statement Midwest Plant & Warehouse

Mission Statement Brussels Warehouse

Mission Statement Shenandoah Plant
The Shenandoah Facilitywill manufacture the Elite product line for high volume customers in the Eastern United States. lt will strive to be the primary supplier for our industry for high quality OEM material.

O Manufacturing I Distribution
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Figure 2.2 - Level | - Site Location

16

Planning Facilities

most strategicimpact and the lowest planning cost receivethe least with the most strategicimpact the decisions attention. Consequently, are sometimesmade with the least reliable knowledge. Overall businessstrategy is most important at the global level. Determining the number and location of sitesrequiresfar more than simply searchingfor the lowest labor rates and largest tax breaks. Available labor skiils and attitudes toward work, supporting services andpolitics,andsometimes suchastool productionandmaterialsupply, if a plant For example, considerations. be major must also geopolitics, is located in the wrong countr/r it may becomea geopoliticalpawn. Technologicalprowesscould then shift to other regions.If there is political instability locally, it can destroy a firm's ability to produce. Suchproblems or replaced. might be depleted Important raw materials are not easyto correct. Appropriate planning resultsin facilitiesoptimized for the markets and located near the most important resources-resources that, increasingly,involve knowledge, skills, and infrastructure rather than raw materials. Level 2-Supra-space plan At the supra-space plan level, site planning takesplace.This includes suchas number,size,and locationofbuildings, aswell asinfrastructure roads, water, gas, and rail. This plan should look ahead to plant and eventualsite saturation. expansions The documents from a site planning project almost always include a site drawing (fig. 2.3). Frequently, they involve a seriesof drawings showing past, present,and future configurations (there may be severaloptions for these).A major site study also might include and narrativeson site history and descriptionsof the considerations rationalefor the site plans. At this level, planning still has long-term and far-reaching Awell-designed infrastructuresupportsfuture expansion consequences. or conversionto new products.Proper location and building design in suitableincrements. provide for logical expansion Level 3-Macro-space plan At the macro-spaceplan level, a macro-layout (fig. 2.4) plans each building, structure, or other sub-unitof the site.Usuallythis is the most important level of planning, for it setsthe focus,or basicorganization, define and locateoperatingdepartments of the factory.The designers and determine overall material flow. may resultin new-productflexibility, Macro-space plan decisions

The FrameworkFor Facilities Design

17

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Figure 2.? - Level2, Site Plonning Master Site Plon, Shenondooh Plont, Stonewatl Corp.

lower costs, high quality,or a flexiblelabor.Fundamentalmacro-space plan decisions usually areeasier to correctthan site-level decisions. Still, a poorly plannedfacility canbring high handling costs,confusion,and inflexibility. These problems, in rurn, can causedifficulty in launching new products, erratic deliveries,and too much inventory. Correcting such problems may require a complete rearrangement with major investments in process equipmentand infrastructure. Level 4-Micro-space plan The location of specificequipmentand furniture is determinedin the micro-spaceplan. The emphasisshifts from gross material flow to personal spaceand communication. Socio-technicalconsiderations dominate.Ifproduction teamsareanimportant elementofthe operations stratery, the work at this level may inhibit or discourageteamwork. Figure 2.5 showsa space plan for an operatingdepartment.

18

Facilities Planning

O z e

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El e ctro nE n g i n e e ri n g C o rp. M a cro -L a yo uOp t ti o n A

Macro-Layout OptionB Macro-Layout OptionC

Figure 2.4 - Level 3, Mocro Loyout Project Report Mocro-Loyout ond Moteriol Hondling

Level 5-Sub-micro-space plan Individual workstations and workers are the concern of the fifth level. Here, workstations aredesignedfor efficiency,effectiveness, and safety. Ideally, the industrial engineerplans for the correct tools in the most appropriate places,using fixtures that properly hold the work piece. Materials are introduced at optimal locations and large items are providedwith appropriatematerial handling aids.Sometypical outputs are shown in figure 2.6.

TheFramework ForFacilities Design

19

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20

Facilities Planning

Workcell Operstions Plan

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The Framework For Facilities Design

2'l

Levels 4 and 5 are the more detailed levelsof spaceplanning; therefore,equipmentand issues aremore localized.When.h"rrg., "r" necessary, thereis usuallyless danger ofmajor productioninterruptions. The phasing of space design Ideally, design progresses from the global level to the sub-micro level in distinct, sequential phases. At the end of eachphase,the designis "frozen" by consensus. This seftlesthe more global issuesfirsiand allows smoothprogress without continuallyrevisiting unresolvedissues. It also preventsdetails from overwhelming the prolect. Figure 2.7(A) illustrates this logicalprogression and showsthe strategic impact ofthe work in eachphase.Strategicimpact affectsthe long-term ab1fityof the firm to competeand profit. Industrial engineers rarelyhavethe opportunityto design afacility . in accordance with the normal phasingshown in figure 2.7(A).There are several reasons for this. Sitesand buildings that haveevolvedover manyyears outlive technologies andtheir original purpose,and therefore must be rearranged. Another reasonmay be management's belief that the existingspace plan is simply not optimal. In both cases, planning

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Figure 2.7 - Time Phosing the Design Leyels

22

Planning Facilities

this. The plan level.Figure2.7(B) illustrates beginsat the macro-space in figure 2.7(B) alsooccurswhen management phasingdemonstrated without the benefit of adviceand decisions makesglobal and site-level planner(s). their facilities counselfrom plan The size and organizationstructureof cellsin a macro-space This areuntried. and strategies when processes may be indeterminable when firms makea transitionfrom functionalto cellular often happens to provethe concept Pilot cellsmust then be developed manufacruring. plan micro-space A cell or or technology.Figure 2.7(C) reflectsthis. (Level4) then becomes Upon completionof this pilot, the first phase. can shift Then the designer peoplecan agreeon the generalapproach. back to Level 3 and prepare a macro-spaceplan. The details of remaining cellsare definedin their optimal sequence. in figure 2.7(D) is common for large The phasingdemonstrated office layout projects. First, the details of workstation layout are and equipment space This may comefrom standardizing established. for example, Secretaries, in a hierarchy. position on eachperson's based workstation with filing spaceand word may get a 175-square-foot getsa 11O-square-foot while a GradeI engineer equipment, processing cubicle. From the cubicle and a supervisor,a 15O-square-foot for eachdepartment the space forecasts, and staffing organizationcharts At can then be developed. betweendepartments and the arrangement this point, the project movesupward in detail to the global or' more commonly, macro- level. and levelsis the ideal approach. the work into phases Separating the space plan there may be someoverlap.For example, Nevertheless, previouslydecided of a particularwork cell may not fit the boundaries in the macro phase.This may then require minor changesto the plan. For theseand upon macro-space and agreed previouslydesigned phasingshould be flexible. other reasons, of the in the earlieststages Proper phasingshouldbe considered and certainlybefore any project, perhapsafter the initial discussions guidelines: are some Here begins. work effort significant ' work from the most generalto the most specificlevel (highest to lowest)unlessspecialconditionsdictate otherwise; ' clearlycommunicatethe phasingplan to all participants; ' resistthe temptation to jump aheadbeforea particularphase is complete; ' obtain agreement beforemoving on on the plan for eachphase to the next phase;and ' rccognizethat there may be some overlap between phases.

The FrameworkFor Facilities Design

23

The spaceplan elements

Every spaceplan at eachlevel has four fundamentarelementsand two derived elements.The fundamental elementsare: space planning units and constraints. qPys): ffiniyies, spa-ce, When developinga spaci plan, ignersfi rst define andidenti$' SPUs.They th.r, .rrJrr"t. "ffi nities. the des using the affinities,theyjoin SPUsto form oneor morc afi ni ty diagrams. The affiniry, or configuration,diagramis the first ofthe derivei eleirerrts. Space addedto the configurationdiagramproduces aspace planprimitire, the second derived element. constraints applied io tit. space plan primitive producethe space plan. Figure 2.8 showsthis progression.

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Figure2.8 - Elementsof o Spoceplan

24

Planning Facilities

The conceptof fundamentaland derivedelementsis valid at all However,it is mostusefulanddirectat the macro-andsitelevels. levels. The chaptersthat follow explore its application. Space planning units At the macroplan designers. by space SPUs arethe entitiesarranged (The layout planning matic syste as cells. referred to ISLP] level,they are area.)Acell mightbe aworkdepartment' usedthe term acti'uity system a building feature,or a fixed item. Each cell initially is space, a srorage nted by a symboland identifier. represe Nlost of thesesymbolsaretaken from ANSI Y15.3M-1979,the American National StandardsInstitute standardfor processcharts, which show the tlpe of activity that acts on a product. For space dominant activity the space's planning,the symbolthat bestrepresents and color codes' their meanings, Figrrt.2.8 showsthe symbols, ir rrsed. inspection, transport, operation, represent The standardsymbols delay, and storage.For spaceplanning, t'"vo additional symbolshandling and product cells-are added. The handling symbol designatesareasused for repackaging,transfers,or other elements that are partly transport and partly operation. The product cell spaceused for multiple activities on a single product or designates small group of products.The definition of SPUs is one of the most strategictasksin facility planning. This definition decidesthe basic organtzation of the factory. Affinities betweenany nt variousfactorsthat demandcloseness Affinities represe or personal communication example, For plan. two cells in a space are Affinities affinity. to an interaction betweenworkers might give rise +4 to rated using a six-level scale,with numerical valuesranging from -1. The scalehasfour positivelevelsthat mean sPUs shouldbe close. Suchhigh-value affinities may resultfrom frequent material movement the cells.Negativeratingsmeanthat the SPUsshouldbeapart. between There alsois a neutral rating, 0. A vowel scale,A-E-I-O-U-X, may also be used for rating "A" wasfirst popularizedby Richard Muther. Here, affinities; this scale "IJ" a neutral affinity, represents representsthe highest affinity rating, "X" The hasa mnemonic advantageaffinity. This scale i, " rregative "nd asillustrated in ft gute2.9. vowelshavecorrespondingword associations the methodsfor evaluatingaffinities. Chapter 3 discusses Figure 2.9 showsthe affinity conventionsdevelopedby building on the original SLP system.The multi-line representationworks well

Design The FrameworkFor Facilities

25

Vowel Scalar Manual CAD Color Descriptlon Rating Rating Graphic Graphic

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Figure2.9 - Affinity Conyentions

for manual graphics.On many CAD systemsand other computer graphicssoftware,it is easierto usevarying line widths, gray scales, and color. When color is available,it dramatically illustrates the nature of the affinity network. Figure 2.10 shows the typical range of affinity distributions for macro- and micro-layouts. Affinity diagrom SPUs combine with affinities to form an affinity diagram-the first of the derived elements. This diagram is an idealized spatial arrangementthat eventuallybecomesa spaceplan. In the diagram, symbolsrepresentSPUs and lines representaffinities betweenthem. A single line is the lowest value affinity and a four-part line is the highest.Squigglylinesrepresent negative affinities.Theseconventions are illustrated in figure 2.9. Using an iterative process,the designermanipulatesthe diagram to create an optimal or near-optimal arrangement. A near-optimal arrangementhasvery short high value affinities at the expense oflower

26

Facilities Planning

value affinities.It minimizes the crossingof affinity lines Figure 2.11 illustratesthe iterative improvement of an affinity diagram. It is interestingthat many computerizedplanning systems when, in fact, it is the part ofthe layout this specific process emphasize to which computersare leastsuited. process Space requirement.Some SPUs may require Each SPU has a unique space onlv a few squarefeet, while others may require tens or hundredsof of square feet. thousands requiredchanges with each The natureofspaceand the calculations "elastic,"and the calculations is pianning level.At the higher levels,space space canbe morerigid At the lower levels, maynot needto be asaccurate. but alsolessdefinite. For example,a particular machineor deskrequires cannotmakeit fit in lessspace. andthe designer acertainamountofspace, In other instances,a piece of equipment may require a certain type of because it has a peculiarshape,such as a U. But, under certain space conditions, other items may alsofit in that U shape.

50o/o

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10o/o

0o/o

Figure2.10 - Usual Affinity Distribution

The FrameworkFor Facilities Design

27

Thespaceplon primitive
When space is addedto the affinitydiagram,it distortsthe diagraminto the space plan primitive. It is an idealizedrepresentation and doesnot include designconstraints. Constraints Design constraints arethoseconditionsthat limit an ideal space plan. Such constraintsmight be building size and shape,columns, floor loading, utility configurations, externalfeatures, and many others. Space plan The fusion of a space plan primitive and constraints producesa space plan. Several viablespace plansshouldemerge. A setof cells,affiniiies, and constraints may give rise to severalequally valid configuration diagrams andprimitives.Eachoftheseprimitivesmayresultin multiple macro-space plans. The nature of the design problem precludesan optimal space plan, exceptin the simplestsituations. The designer's experience is a key factor, for it helps him or her decidewhich configurations havethe most potential.It helpsscalethe myriad of possiblespace plans down to a reasonable number. Figure2.11illustrates the complete progression from fundamental

Figure2.1I - Optimizing o Configurotion Diogrom

28

Facilities Planning

to the macro-space affinities,and constraints elementsof cells,space, arevalid for any sizefacility and the progression plan. Theseelements and at any level. The design project plans are simple;executionof the tasks The elementsof facility space requiredto developthem is not. Rarelydo the tasksneatlycorrespond to the developmentas describedabove.At each level of design,the approach changesto accommodatethe amount of detail, available information, and the dominant issues. At each level, an approachthat fits a wide range of projects and projec*.With minor These are calledmodel siruationscanbe developed. plan, for example, variations,the model project for a macro-space size,complexity, regardless of plan appliesto almost any macro-space or industry. Similarly, the model projects for cell design and site planning apply to almostany cell designor site-planningproject.The methods,formality, and time requiredvary according scope, resources, are and deliverables complexiry. The sequence, procedures, to sizeand constant.Model projects for each level of design can be essentially foundin Chapters 3,4,5,6, and7.

Chapter3

TheMacro-Space-Plan
The macro-space-plan often is the mosr important level of facility planning. It sets the fundamental organization of the factory and patterns of material flow with long-term effects. From personnel turnoverto qualityto delivery,the macro-space-plan influences almost every measureof facility and organizationperformance. Done well, it is a platform for reengineering business. It canforce reexaminationof markets, products, and processes. It can achieve quantum improvementsin productivity and profit. It can position a firm for profitability and growth. Done superficially, it can leave real issues unquestioned. This chapterexplainshow to designmacro-space-plans using a structured,step-by-step approachthat resultsin a near-optimalspace plan andwide acceptance ofthe results. This approach hasseveralparts: conceptual projectp/ans, taskprocedures, conventions, frametuork, model and designtoolsand aids. Chapter 2 introduced the conceptualframeworkwith its levelsof detailthat narrowthe projectto a manageable level.Thesefundamental and derivedelementsshow how a space plan dwelops. Arranging the levelsin phases helpsplan the project.In the pages that follow, macrospace-planning-one of the more important phases-is examined. With a model project plan, tasks are arranged.Procedure diagrams illustratehow to conducteachtask.The technicaltools and other aids providethe means to completeeachtask.Figure3.1is the modelproject plan for a macro-layout. It showsthe requiredtasksand their sequence. This model evolved from the systematic layoutplanning (SLP) approach developed by RichardMuther almostthirtyyears ago.It hasbeenused

30

Planning Facilities

for hundreds of projects and sufficesfor almost any size and type of From project to project, the depth of analysis macro-space-plan. and the along with the methodsfor eachtask, the resources) changes a few additionaltasks.However, a projectrequires time. Occasionally, remain the same. the basicstructureand sequence Each task has a two-part identification number.The two digits The digits followingthe decimal beforethe decimalshowthetasklevel. Task03.04,for example, task,roughlyin sequence. identifythe specific macro-space-plan. is the fourth task at Level 3, the The tasksofthe modelprojectoccurin threedistinctgroups:data and layout planning.Thesegroups acquisition,strategydevelopment, are nearthe top of figure 3.1. Two tasks,03.01 and 03.27,areoutside thesegroups.Task 03.01 startsthe project,with plans for activities, ofthe preferred Task03.21is the actualselection timing, andresources. the project and allowspreparationfor Level4, lavout option. It closes the micro-space-plan. A procedurediagram is provided for some tasks.For example, figure 3.3 is the procedurediagram for Task 03.02. Such diagrams are required.These procedures illustratethe logic flow and sub-tasks the third sometimesiterative.Most early layout models emphasized takesplace.Of course,this task group, where geometricarrangement is important, but far more important is the determination of what the to arrange.The definition of theselayout cells establishes spaces organizationof a faciliry'swork. Embodied in cell definition, it has far more impact on facility performance. through their first layoutsusing Figure 3.1 alsoguidesdesigners in this chapter.The designtask at hand should the systemdescribed always be the central focus and any temptations to jump ahead prematurelyto other tasksshould be resisted.Completed tasftsalso on the concentrate should not be revisited.Figure 3.1 helpsdesigners If each current task, its procedurediagram, and specificdiscussions. plan will take shapeand the the space task is done in proper sequence, project objectivewill be reached. throughout the organizationinformed It is vital to keepmanagers best suited to the a responsibility during the entire planning process, designer. Many facility projects result in fundamental changes and Managersandothersneedtime to learnnewinformation restructuring. and form newviews.If they arenot kept informed and involvedin the will not be and consensus agreement process, learning and reasoning This could resultin the rejectionof an excellentlayout. achieved. formal and informalways ofinvolving managers. There areseveral and Formal methods include using a steeringcommittee to oversee

The Macro-Space-Plan

31

review progressand adding update meetings to the model project. A kickoff meeting can follow Task 03.01. During such a meeting, key members of the organization could review tasks and confirm that resourcesare available.An additional meeting, at which time factual datawouldbepresented in a non-threatening manner,might followthe

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Figure3.1 - Macro-Spoce-plon Model Project

32

Planning Facilities

data acquisitiontasks. A formal meeting is valuablefor developing operations strategy builder. Agreementand commitment andcanbe an important consensus to the operationsstrategyarevital for later agreementon a faciliry plan. plan options,is also of space Task 03.21, the evaluationand selection and informal interviews Extensive a good consensusbuilder. and othersthroughout the organization with managers conversations are alsoimportant.

IntroducingCosmosProducts
Cosmos Productsis the companyused as a model in this chapterto Cosmos offacilitiesplanningat the macro-level. illustratethe processes Products convertshigh-grade vinyl film into decorativematerial. The markets,and firm hastwo broadproductlineswith differentprocesses, material in many distribution channels.Roll products-pin-striping colors, patterns,widths, and combinations-sell in the automotive that usethem productssellto manufacturers aftermarket.Custom sheet boats, of campers' Manufacturers decoration. logos, and labels, for Cosmos customers. are typical chain saws,and agriculturalequipment Custom productsare the artwork for thesecustomers. often prepares of materialwith imprinting, adhesive flat sheets , anda paperbacking. Cosmos Products started as a small operation about twenry-five rate yearsago.The firm hasgrown significantly eachyear at ^n average this growth, therehavebeena number of 22percent.To accommodate of additions to the current faciliry. In recentyears'managementhas itself in too much inventory' difficulty that hasmanifested experienced confusion. general and shipping delays, the faciliry and The company'scurrent project is reengineering areto: reducematerialhandling costs; The obiectives relatedDrocesses. reduce'operating .orrrl i-prove delivery performance; irip.or'. teamwork, communication, and quality; allow for new products; 1998production;and deliverthe projectunder a budget accommodate of; O. W. committeefor this projectconsists The steering of $800,000. offi cer;J. Marshall, chieffinancial Holmes, presidentandchiefexecutive officer; W. Burger, vice president,operations;and E. Warren, vice president,salesand marketing. "Plan Project,"develops c projectplan.Developing a specifi Task 03.01, In this step, demandssignificantresources. a soundmacro-space-plan is mappedout. The model projectin the dispositionof thoseresources figure 3.1-works for almost every macro-space-planproject, whether

Planning the project

The Macro-Space-Plan

33

large or small. Small or simple projects may need lessformality, rigor, the and documentationthan largeror complexprojects.Nevertheless, of eachtask must be done. essentials for the project.After the key decision-makers Step 1 establishes they are interviewed and their objectivesare established,the time and neededfor each task should be defined. With the above resources then plansthe project.Project information and the model,the designer planning software is useful for this task, although for most macroa simpleGantt chartwill suffice.Figure3.2 is the schedule space-plans, for CosmosProducts. for a new macro-space-plan In addition to statementsoutlining tasks, elapsedtime, and for each task should be identified. A responsibility,the deliverables deliverableis a tangible output for the task. A written summary of findings is a valid deliverable, as are a material flow diagram and "IJnderstand material flow" is not a physical infrastructure checklist. there is no way to see' measure,or judge valid deliverablebecause completion. The designer should confirm that these deliverables proceeding. the intentionsofkeydecisionmakersbefore accuratelyreflect "Plan are a task list, a Project,"the deliverables For Task 03.01, Gantt chart, and a summary that includesthe project objectives.A PERT chart is usefulbut not necessary. size The typicaltime frame for completinga projectof Cosmos's for half is used Almost days. forty working is about and complexity firm foundation information acquisition and strategy.This provides a for the layoutsto follow, therebyeventuallyreducing total project time. it because to accept difficult for impatient managers This is sometimes However, far lesstime is spent takeslonger for a spaceplan to aPPear. for the plan is more on changesand debate.Moreover, a consensus likely when all participants have been through the information and strategJstages. Information acquisition tasks Once there is approvalfor the project plan, the first setof tasksinvolves the gatheringofirrformation,both quantitativeand qualitative,needed to developsound macro-space-plans. This phasehas anotherpulposethat may be more profound and throughout the organizationand asking lessobvious:raising awareness difficult questionsthat manyin the org anizationmaynot haveconsidered and consensus ofbuilding suPPort At this time, the process previously. for the outcomeis begun. In addition to analysisskills, spaceplan designersmust have an Consensus psychology. of individualand organizational understanding

34

Facilities Planning

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Figure3.2 - Focility Re-Engineering

The Macro-Space-Plan

35

meanstime andcommonunderstandings that mustbeginearlyin order to bear fruit at the end ofthe project. Product-vol ume ana lysis Product-volume (P-!) analysisexaminesthe current and future time frames for the products and their volumes.This analysishelps the designer understand the relationships between variousproducts.Highvolume and low-volume products,for example,may require different equipment and production modes.The analysisalso defines future requirements, helps selectthe best planninghorizon, and allows for changes beyondthe immediatespace plan. The results of the P-V analysis provideimportant input for many later tasks,and, therefore,should be completedearly in the project. Facility designersthat have been long-time employeessometimes believethey know the products well enough to skip this task, but this is not recommended. The procedure diagramfor product-volumeanalysis is in figure 3.3. Block 1 documents thegathering ofinformation.This maybeaccomplished in the following ways:visually examining a range of finished products; reviewing salescatalogsand other information for an overview of the product line; and interviewing salesand marketing people. It is also important to obrain overallsales volume history (usually,five to ten years is adequate). Where marketsandtechnologies arechangingrapidly,tvyoto threeyearsmay be a more appropriate time frame. Salesforecastsfor the following five to ten years should also be requested. An absence of this information indicates uncertainty.It may requiremultiple contingencies in the faciliryplan. Unfortunately,sales peopleand other managers may be unwilling to commit to a forecast. In such a situation,high, low, and optimistic forecasts could be asked for, with the explanation that they are needed for facility planning purposes and extremeaccuracy is unnecessary. A requestfor a salesforecastmay touch off a flurry of executive activity because the requestedinformation may nor exist or may be questionable. Generating the numberswill help build management awareness. It is sometimesthe beginning of an important strategic debate that ultimatelyleadsto betterfacility plans.This debatealsocan lead to important and profound changes in management thinking. In Block 2, the forecastdata is plotted on a line chart along with sales histories. If they areavailable, oprimisticand pessimistic forecasts should alsobe added.After examiningthe chart,plotting a regression line like that in figure 3.4 may be helpful. Where seasonality is a concern,a separate chart could be usedto show monthly sales for the

36

Facilities Planning

past two to four years. Visual presentationis more meaningfulthan a list previouslyunrecognized trends. ofnumbers. A simplechart often reveals grouping. In Block 3, the productsare examinedfor appropriate If the facility will only produce a few products, such grouping is Most facilities, however, havemanyproductsorvariations unnecessary. in anywhere from three to fifly groups. Preferably,thesegroups have aswell ascustomerrequirements. common manufacturingcharacteristics the distribution channeldeterminessales groups. Sometimes During this task, the groups may have either a marketing or manufacturing the orientation,orboth. A marketingorientationmeans items within a group are similar for the customer.A manufacturing orientationmeans the itemswithin agrouparesimilarformanufacturing purposes.These groups m y or may not be the same. Sometimes

2 GroupedProdud ftofile . Dollars . Pi@es . OtherLhib

Figure3.3 - Tosk3.01, Product-Yolume Anolysis

The Macro-Space-Plan

37

Thousands
40 35 30 25 2A 15 10 5 1 9 8 71 9 8 8 1 9 8 91 9 9 0 1 9 9 1 1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7
0 8&g&'1!$3ra1q" -lrf*f+,1f.::rr::at-t:ii':t,:-rilir:a*ia i::s.::::.": trr:::ll: . rt:...r.:::r'.-i::'- :. l

Figure 3.4 - Soles HistorylForecost

operationspeopleadoptproduct groupsoriginally devised by marketing. This can complicatethe manufacturingprocess unnecessarily. Once the groupshavebeendetermined, a groupedproductprofile shouldbe prepared. Sucha profile takesthe form ofa rankedbar chart showingsales volumefor eachgroup(fig. 3.5). Sales volumeis measurable in dollars,pieces,or other convenientunits. Several profiles showing different units suchastons or palletsmav be helpful. A secondv-axis on the chart showscumulativepercentage. A more detailedproductprofile, Block 4, alsomight proveuseful. There aresituationswhen a product group hassignificant sales volume, but individual products in the group have few (or no) sales. The forecasts and P-V analysis becomethe agreed upon basisfor process design,space requirements, storage requirements, and material flow analysis. It is important to confirm the forecasts and other P-V datawith managers and especially with the key decision-makers. The P-V analysis can assist with the development of the manufacturing strategy. High volume and low variety suggesthighspeed production line equipment. Low volume with high variety suggests a functionallayout.High varietyand a wide rangeofvolumes suggest cellularmanufacturing. Seasonal variationnecessitates specifi c strategiesfor inventory and capacity. The section on manufacturing

38

Planning Facilities

will explore theseissuesmore fully. strateg'y A few short paragraphsor bullets can summarrze the findings from the P-V analysis asshown in figure 3.3, Block 5. Figures3.3through3.5illustratedeliverables forthe Cosmos Product Volume Task The following is its P-V summary,anotherdeliverable.

: Product-volume summary CosmosProducts

The 22 percent growth rate is expectedto slow somewhat during the next three years.The 1997 forecastvolume of 35,000 units will be the first faciliry planning horizon. Cosmoshas about 10,000line items in the product database. Theseareinl92 groupsaccordingto significant feafuressuch as basematerial, color, and width. Thirty-four groups lessthan represent 80 percentofsales.Ofthe 192 groups,63 generate $200 per month of income.We may have significantopportunity to ntionalize the product offering or modify our inventory policy. Existing process analysis "Existing Analysis," involves Task 03.03, Process trackingworkproduct activity,or the sequences in which outsideentitiesacton anorganization's work product. For manufacturingspaceplans, the work product is usuallya physicalproduct.In other space plans,the work product may be intangible such as an information packet.In a hospital, the work product may be a patient. currently in place. Existing process analysis documentsthe process However,ifthe product is new,suchaprocess may not exist,and a similar

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Figure3.5 - Product Profile

The Macro-Space-Plan

39

product and process shouldbe studied.Ifboth product and process have no current benchmarks,an initial proposal for the processshould be selected. The eady completion of this task creates a reference point for process improvementsand a space plan. The space plan designerusually performs this task with assistance from production people.This brings detailedknowledgeof actualfloor operationsto the process. Figure 3.6 showsthe procedure for analyzingthe existingprocess. _ one or more flow processcharts are constructedduring ihis task. Modified ANSI conventions(seefig. 3.7) areused in this charting system, wherebysymbolsrepresentdifferent typesofevents that involve a work product. The operationsymbolmodifies the work product in a way that advances it towards a finished state. The transp,rt symbor shows a physical movementofthe work product-usually a significantdisrance, such as ten feet or more. The bandling symbolrepresentssorting, positioning, or some other short movement. Inspection checks for quality. The delay symbolrepresents something that halts the process for a time. Often, this is a work-in-processstaging. Storageis a longer wait, usuallyin a designated areawhere the location and material have records. A short horizontal line at the beginningofthe process showsitemsfrom suppliers outsidethe process under study. vertical lines on the chart show the sequence ofivents. Horizontal arrows show where severalitems of work product merge. Text to the right of eachsymboldescribes the event.These notesalso might indicate time,the numberofpeople, orother relevant information. Process chartsand materialflow chartsshould not be confused. There is a notabledifference. with process charts,the symbolsarenot locationsor workstationsor even machines.only the text has who, what, and whereinformation.The linesdo nor represent movementof the work product; instead,they represent only ^ ,.qu.rr." of events. Constructing the chart(s) meansgathering initial information beforehand;this is illustratedby Block 1 in figure 3.6. Some of this comes from the P-vanalysis(Task03.02)and somefromlookingatthe process and talking with knowledgeable people; Block2 (fig. 3.6) of the procedure beginsaddressing the question of how many and which products to analyze.It asksif theie areproduct groups with similar processes. The answer should be basedon the observations and knowledgecurrently available. Somesituationsmay presentthousands or tens ofthousandsofproducts. A definite answermay nor be possible without extensive analysis, w-hichis unnecessary at this point. Suppose, for example,an injection planning facility were being planned.The plant supplies67 molded

40

Facilities Planning

This givesa total of 7,273 itemsbut eachitem comesinany of 79 colors. item, or SKU, numbers.However, the plant usesquick color change For manufacturing equipmentand hashonedtheir skillsin colorchanges. can make any given purposes,color is not a differentiator. The molders of colorswithout difficulty. The 19 piecein any color or a succession colors of eachpart would therefore be grouped asif they were a single product. If suchgroupscannotbe identified, Block 3 is the next steP. Block 3 asksif there arefewer than2i products. If there are,each

Process Chart

Figure3.6 - Task 3.03, AnolyzeCurrent Process

The Macro-Space-Plan

41

item is charted. For more than 25, a charting sampleof 5 to 25 items should be selected.This is Block 4 or Block 10. Product groups identified in Block 2 are treated similarly, resulting in Block z. Simpty substitute groups for individual products in the processdescribed. There are severalmethods of preparing the charts. For a simple process' personalobservation is enough.If computerizedroutings are available,they may be used.A personalinterview with someonJwho knows the processwell is sometimessatisfactory.usually, however, a group approachshould be used.It caprures a wide rangeofopinion and knowledgeand helpsbuild consensus for the chart aswell asfor the later space plans. The group approach garhers the mosr knowledgeable people _ available.Together, they construct a chart that follows the matirial or item and records events that affect it. People often have difficulty distinguishingthe product or item, workers, and machines.To help with this, they should imagine they havebecomethe product and have assumed its role. They should then report their experiences. All elementsshould be recorded.Frequenth. there is an ,,official" process documented on routingsand a computeidatabase. Then there is the "unofficial" process-what really happens.unofficial erements may include set downs, queues,and repairs. The group may wish to include other information on the chart such as processtime or cost. when this is complete, the group should make further commenrs, particulady about which processelements are troublesome.some additional questions to bring out important process issues are: . Which elementsgenerate the most quality defects? . Which elementsare most difficuit to set up? . Where are the largestinventory buildupsl . Which elementshave the most scheduling difficulry? . Which elementsdemandthe most labor? The analystguides the group during this task by deciding: . the level of detail for processelementsl . the number of products to chart; . whether and how to group products; and . whether and how to group items that go into a product. To tally a count for eachf'?e ofelement, the percentage oftotal elements is calculated.These could be charted on a bar or pie graph. Only the operation symbol addsvalue.All other elementscontribute only cost or time. The percentage ofvalue-adding elementsis calledthe valueadded index(vAI). vAIs frequentlyare intherangeof 20 to 30percent. Awenthougtrt-out process should have a VAI of at least60 p-r.ent: Next, a short summaryofthe resultsshouldbe pripared. The flow

42

Planning Facilities

charts,elementprofiles,and written findings are deliverables. process summary: The following is the Cosmosprocess

processsummoty Existing CosmosProducts:

The valueaddedindex (VAI) for roll productsis 13 percent'The VAI Theseareboth quite low. There productsis 20 percent. for commercial transport'handling, numberofopportunitiesto reduce area substantial and storageelements. require specialequipment' This In ro11 products,the processes times rangefrom five Changeover equipmentis relativelysmall scale. to forty-five minutes. is verysmallin the manual scale process products, For commercial on a medium scale. operates Die-cutting at pick-and-pee1. operations We may wish to investigate presses. Silk-screeninguseslarge-scale for silk-screening. smallerscaleprocesses all usea singleslitter that is quite fast. Slit-and-sheetoperations Both commercialand roll productsusethe samematerial.Optimizing the use of each roll savessignificant wastage.It seemsto dictate et ^tea for all products. continueduseof a common slit-and-she The processcharts for Cosmos Products arc fairly simple. In figure 3.7 showsthe process addition to the modified ANSI conventions, for one of Cosmos'sroll products-a vinyl stock material for signs and for a multi-color, die-cut other decoration.Figure 3.8 chartsthe process These markets. commercial ofCosmos's from one product a typical decal, This single outdoor equipment. decalsdecorateautomobilesand other thousanddistinct products. several chart represents it is often tempting to combine items, With complexprocesses, of the chart. Simplifying the chart, the complexity reducing thereby Much of the value however,is not the sameassimplifring the process. of the full complexityof representation chart is its accurate of a process and a process.It is an important means of building consensus understandingfor a new spaceplan. A readablechart on large-scale and complexity the full scope to convey drafting papermaybe necessary ofthe process. lnventory analysis "Inventory Analysis,"is important for at leasttwo reasons. Task 03.04, capital consumer' First, inventory is usuallythe primary or secondary often vying with facilities for this dubious honor. Second,almost every comesto eventually system difficulty, problem,or defectin the business rest in inventory. Inventory thus can be an indicator of the efficacy of system. the business

The Macro-Space-Plan

43

The inventory analysis usesfinancial and warehouse data. The first stepin the analysis is to preparea chart that showshistorical annual inventory turns, usually for five to ten years or even further if the information is readily available.Inventory turns are the total inventory from the firm's balance sheetdividedinto the total sales for the previous year.salesinformation usuallycomesfrom the incomestatemint. The industryaverage for the inventoryturn alsoshouldbe listedon the chart. The inventoryturns for cosmos Productsareillustratedin figure 3.9.

H i n1s l Veallcel llnes a.e :equence \0T mateal:. movement FolLow CNF p.oducl o. veng nrnow a.olucT gaoup Me.ge ch3.l
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Figure3.7 - Tosk?.03, ProductProcess Chort

44

Planning Facilities

One or more inventoryprofileslike that in figure 3.10 shouldbe prepared.These are pie charts or bar graphs that show the current A production distribution of inventory acrossseveralclassifications. items, raw material, purchased ory by show invent class profile should (WIP). profile A product class finished goods, and work-in-process shows inventory by product or product group. Other classifications, such ascustomerWq areusefulin specialsituations. What does inventory analysisdetermine?Trends in inventory historv can help size storaseareasfor the new facilitv or layout. Such

9 . ;

F H

ctcr!gge

Figure3.8 - ProcessChon for a Multi-color, Die-cut Decol

The Macro-Space-Plan

45

lnventory(Thousands of Un ts)

30
"f

Inventory Turns

30

- - . - *
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25 '2A

15
-:-.,r*r_,-

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IndustryAverage rurns

-7

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10

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+ lnv llnitc

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0 r98g 1990 199r 1992 1993 1994 1995 i996 1992 rgs"8

Figure 3.9 - lnventory HistorylForecost

Average InventoryIn EquivalentStorage Units

Purchased N,4atls 237 7y.

Work-ln-Process 628 18%

Productron Stage

Figure3.10 - lnventory Analysis

46

Planning Facilities

trends provide valuable input for the development of manufacturing strategy.An unfavorabletrend might initiate a changein strategy. forimprovement. areas profile alsocansuggest The production class items indicatea supplierand or purchased High levelsof raw materials purchasingissue.High levels of WIP indicate material movement' A high volume of finished goodsindicate scheduling,or focusissues. The following is an exampleof sales, or marketingissues. scheduling, summary: an inventory analysis

summary lnventory CosmosProducts:

significantlyduring the past six years. Inventory volume hasincreased growth' resultingin a gradualerosion is higher than sales This increase that, asa resultofthe facility of the rurn ratio. Managementanticipates and inventory project,the numberof turnswill increase, reengineering levelswill come down. The inventoryprofileffig. 3.10] showsthe portion ofinventory at each production stage.This indicates significant opportunities for vinyl. reducingfinished goodsand purchased

SpaceAnalysis
The spaceanalysisrevealscurrent spaceuse. The spacediagrams indicatewhether the existinglayout is primarily functional,productfocused,or a mixture, as well as which products use line or cellular analysis This space productionandwhich usefunctionallayoutmodes. alsohelps define layout cellslater in the project and can be a basisfor for the new facility. requirementcalculations space in spaceuse. Valueimbalances reveals also The spaceprofile usage 60 percentor moreoftotal space generally represents addedspace fallsbelow30 percent, space plans.When value-added in the bestspace therearesignificantopportunitiesfor improvement.Large amountsof canindicatea needfor more ceilularand line production, space storage or it may show a need for schedulingsystemrevisions.Using large amounts of spacefor inspection or repair may indicate significant quality issues. When operationsfocusis an issue,adding a product spaceclass by product.Eachproductgroup has space diagramis useful.It classifies for a singleproduct group usedfor operations a pattern or color. Space for usedfor operations will haveonly one color,while functionalspace layout A product-focused many colors. have many product groupswill "messy''functionalspace "clean" product spacediagram and a has a focused(functional)layout has the opposite.The diagram.A process in more detail. theseissues focusexplores sectionon oDerations

The Macro-Space-Plan

47

The analystusuallyperformsTask 03.06,"Space Analysis,', with assistance from those who are familiar with operations.The analysis beginswith a current drawing of the facility, preferablyone that shows major departmentsand, perhaps,detailsof equipment and furniture locations.The colors or patternsin figure 2.9 arethen used to code marked-off space on this drawing.A tlpical resultis the existingspace diagramfor cosmos Productsin figure 3.11. The areafor "".h ,p".. classis totaled and a space class profile similar ro the pie chart labeled "Existing Space Profile" in figure 3.11 is prepared.

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Figure3.1I - ExistingSpoce Diogram for Cosmosproducts

48

Planning Facilities

The collection and presentationof this information can alert tasks, As with the otherinformation acquisition to keyissues. managers should The analyst this is an important result of the spaceanalysis. to begin askingsuchquestionsas: managers encourage ' Why do we use 40 percent of our facility for storage,yet we constantly fall short on customer delivery? ' Why are aislesin our facility so disjointed and chaotic? ' Why doesProductA require 18 percentof our facility s space and0.5percentofour profit? 3 percentofour sales but only generates for CosmosProducts' summary analysis The following is the space

spocesummory Existing CosmosProducts:

The existing and scattered. disconnected I\{uch of our spaceappears of The proPortions plan. undedying no clear, shows spacediagram be could but industries, spaceuse are better than in many other improved.Significantopporrunitiesmay existin reducingstorageand traffic areas.Some parts of the plant have narrow aisles.Others have overly wide aislesthat becomeWIP storageareas. Organization analysis "OrganizationAnalysis,"hasseveral It can help purposes. Task 03.06, and cafeterias. determinethe sizeof supportfacilitiessuchasrestrooms basedon work for planning space In office layouts,it may be essential station requirements.It can help evaluatethe current and proposed in formulating a manufacturingstrategyor in plan. It can assist space betweenstrategyand practice. identi4'ing inconsistencies with a completeand current usuallybegins Organizationanalysis organizatronchartfrom the personneldepartment.It should include all departments and employeesthat use the facility hdown to the lowest and peoplewho resideoutside levil. It alsomight includedepartments An examplemight operations. on impact the facility but have a major and be a corporate engineeringdepartment that designsprocesses oroducts but is in a remote location. Names and titles for each but thereshouldbe an approximate productionworker arenot needed, department. and count for eachsupervisor Thesechartscanbecomequite largeand may haveto be plotted on drafting paper,but the chart should not be broken into small large-scale the true This may be convenientfor the analystbut it disguises sheets. aim. the impact is Maximum organizatrcns. convoluted nature of large, plan, the space Managersmust developand approvethe sftategicbasisof howto constructthechart. the spaceplanitselfFigure3.12shows aswellas After the organ\zationchart is complete, the current spaceplan

The Macro-Space-Plan

49

shouldbe examined. A continuous,enclosed line on the organization chart shouldrepresent eachmajor areaon the layout,surroundingeach position or departmentthat inhabits the layout areauntil all positions are accounted for. Figure 3.12 illustratesspaceandorganization congruity. It shows consistency between the current otganizatron and the current arrangement. Peopleand positionsin the samedepartmentgenerally occupycontiguousareas.

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Figure3,I2 - Orgonizationol Anolysis

50

Facilities Planning

(fig. 3.13)demonstrates howmanypeoplein the A messydiagram through the facility. The diagram sameorganization units arescattered by itself does not tell us whether the facility or the organization is correct;it showsthat they are inconsistent. ldentifying physical infrastructure Physical infrastructure supports operations for all or most of the For this product line but does not contribute directly to the process.

o o) d)

Figure3.13 - OrganizationalAnalysis

The Macro-Space-Plan

51

reason,physicalinfrastructureelementsdo not appearon the process charts. Infrastructure seldom relates to a single product or product group. Examples are: cafeteria,maintenancedepartment, heating, ventilating and air conditioning space, and electricalswitchgearrooms. Theseelements arenecessary for operations andthey areessential to the spaceplan, yet they are easyto overlook. A physicalinfrastructurechecklist(fig. 3.1a) helpscatalogthese features.using this form involvessteppingthrough thelist with a small group of knowledgeablepeople. Qrestions to ask are: . Is eachitem in the current facility? . Will a similar item be neede d in the new facility or space plan? This list will be input for the cell definition task later in the project.

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Figure3.14 - Physicallnfrastructure Checklist

52

Planning Facilities

Analyzing material flow is superimposed on analysis In this task,information from the process the current spaceplan. The resulting diagramsbring attention to They alsoindicatethe needfor more materialmovementopportunities. for This taskalsoprovidesa baseline cellularor line productionmodes. plan. measuring handling improvementdue to the new facility or space developedinTask03.03 Forthis task,theprocess charts andlayouts one or more items to represent and Task 03.06shouldbe usedto select tlpical productsor parts.Lines and arrowsshouldtracemovementacross the layout.The numberofmovesfor eachitem shouldbe countedandthe is performedfor movementdistancefor eachitem totaled.If the analysis Figure 3.15 is an example.It many items, the resultsshouldbe averaged. This faciJity hassignificant long moves, crossovers, andbacktracking. shows departments improvement opportunity. Moves between organizational alsoindicate improvement oppornrnity. Managers are often unaware of the severity of material flow in a dramatrcway. will documenttheseissues problems.This analysis It helps management take another step towards consensus, are understanding, and support.Other typesof materialflow diagrams flow. material for picture of the current alsouseful a more complete Other issues canaffectthe layout.Theyusuallyarisein initial discussion Other issues are: or during data acquisition.Someexamples ' a schedulingsystemthat dictatesbatch movementthrough the plant; ' difficultiesin hiring skilledpeoplethat maypush a company toward automation;and ' external regulationssuch as those in the pharmaceutical industry that may dictate functional operations. At minimum, abrief Experience andjudgmentarethe bestguides. They may need significant analysis. is necessary. listing of theseissues

The strategicframework
is the dominant approachor philosophy that An operationsstrateg'y or business system. Operations guidesthe designof the manufacturing and ultimate fate of an strategies often determinethe competitiveness to structure,aswell asthe arrangementand organizatron Strategyleads might bemachine s, interconnection of business elements. Suchelements information systems, people,or facilities. Theyencompass extendoverlongperiods-years or decades. Strategies permeatingeveryareaand aspectofthe all the products and processes,

The Macro-Space-Plan

53

organization They affect and determine the behavior of individuals. Operations strateg'y may be explicit or implicit. An explicit strateg'y is stated,orally or in writing. Properly promulgated, it guides decision-makers in their dailywork, building a commonframeworkfor both operationaland structuraldecisions. An implicit strategy, by conrrast,is not written or publici zedas such.It often results from commonunderstandings aboutwhatmatters for the business. These understandings may be rational or senseless, effectiveor ineffective,consistent or contradictory.

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Figure3.15 - ExistingMateriol FIow

54

Facilities Planning

An implicit strategyis determinedonly by watching patternsof decisionsand behaviorover time. For example,has the organization evolvedalong functionalrather than product lines?Is new equipment Is the schedulingsystem predominantly high-speedand large-scale? ofpatterns is a pattern. Even the absence batch-oriented? Top managers for operations strateg'y. Managementis responsible but they cannot can abdicatethe task of enunciatingthat strateg/, for the result. relinquishresponsibility Determining the framework of an organization'soperations tasks,focus hinges on the identification of heymanufacturing strateg'v (or sumlnar! statement). and an operations strateg! opportunities, Key manufacturing tasks and focus opportunities The design of a manufacturingplant or businessis like any other engineeringdesign. It optimizes performanceon some dimensions, environmentand while reducingoptimization on others.The business available technologvplacelimits on the design. This has an analogyin aircraft design.Aerospaceengineerscan 350 people. designan aircraftthat flies at Mach 3.0 or one that carries few hundred gallons They candesignan aircraftthat circlesthe globeon a of fuel or one that lands on a 500-foot runway. However, they cannot of designan aircraftthat doesall ofthe above.In the 1960sSecretary Defense Robert McNamara tried to buy such a multi-puqposeaircraft calledthe TFX. This aircraft did not achievemany goals. manyproducts Yet, manvmanagers demand factories that produce quickly for manv customers, at the highestquality and the lowestcost with output changingfrom day to day. Such a factory lacks focus.A business operationrarelyperformswell on more than two or three of thesekey dimensions. An unfocused factoryhastoo many tasksor too technologies or too many disparate manyproductsor too manyprocess Such afactory management. customers. It is often too largefor effective rarelyperforms any taskwell. Manufacturing focus concernsthe organizationof products and that large In the early7970s,Wickham Skinnerreco$nized processes. factors factories with manyproductsusuallyperformedpoorly. Several contribute to this effect: 1. A wider range of products usually brings more variery in the process.This requiresgreater complexity in handling, storage, It affects almostevery tooling, changeovers, andskill requirements. facet ofoperations. and disparate customers 2. Awider rangeofproductsoften mustserve

The Macro-Space-Plan

55

markets. One market may regard delivery speedas a top priority while another demands quality or customization. Such varied market criteriaincrease the diffi cultyfor manufacturingand decrease effectiveness.

3 . Economiesof scaleare the usual rationalefor increasingfactory

size.Economy of scalerefersto the increasing efficiencyasplanti and prorcesses grow in sizeandoutput. The ideawaspopularized by Henry Ford'smass productionmethods. Wickham Skinnercoined the term "dis-economies ofscale."Increasing scale bringssuchdiseconomies as increased coordinationeffort, isolation of specialty departments,and isolation from customers. As a factorygrows beyond 300 to 500 persons,the dis-economiesof scale soon overcome the economies. 4. Largerfactories havegreaterdistances betweendepartments. This increases materialhandling costsand exacerbates the isolationand coordinationdiffi culties. 5. unfocusedfactories often haveextensive vefticalintegration.vertical integration with a wider product range requiresmore disparate processes. This requiresfar more technicalmasterythan a more focusedoperation. A focused factory strives for a narrower range of products, customers, or processes. The resultis a factory that is smallerand has few key manufacturing tasks. In recentyears, Skinner'sconceptofthe focused factoryhasbeen extended. Focus is an issue when organizing any combination of products,technology,and people.It appliesto serviceoperations,to factories, andto departments within the factory.It applies to workstations within eachdepartment.The issueis: by what criteria shall we divide our space, people,and machinesinto manageable units? There areseveralpossible responses. Someexamples are:products, processes,markets, customers, geographic areas, and support require ments.For a morecompletediscussion ofoperationsfocus,refer to the first chapter of the Handbook of commercial and Industrial Faci li ties M anage ment. For the macro-space-planof a factorfi the focus choice usually narrowsto productorprocess. Aproduct-focusedplant groupsoperations into departments that focuson products.Each departmentmust have all equipment and skills for all operationt, y.t only processa single

56

Planning Facilities

and reducescoordination and product. This eliminateschangeovers schedulingproblems. A processfocus allows each department to specializein their in manyplants, or craft.It is a common arrangement particularprocess probably taken from the medieval craft guilds. of processfocus are elusivein Many of the perceivedadvantages spaceplans and organizationsdo practice,although process-focused situations.On the whole, productwork well in certain, specialized focused space plans are preferred becausethey have many more Designersshould aim for the highest degreeof product advantages. focus attainable, using processfocus only when exotic skills and large in which product focushas The areas s makeit necessary. scale processe advantagesinclude: cost control, coordination, material flow, equipmentutilization' knowledgeand managementand supervision, quality, and organization. time, flexibility, response skills, it pulls together the Product focus simplifies cost control because sameor similar products and convertsmany indirect coststo direct. Elaborate tracking and allocation schemesare often unnecessary. operation must addressa wider product Becausea process-focused variet!, allocation of indirect costsis more difficult. processes. Product focussimplifiesthe coordinationof sequential reducingthe complicationsof distance Operationsare in small areas, and isolation and simplifying personal communication between the product rangeis narrow' only a smallvarietyof Because operations. simplermethods Productfocusoften uses will arise. problemsand issues for production control suchas Kanbanand direct link. In conjunction it reducesthe number of work centersthe with MRP-type systems, systemschedules. focus,materialflow reductionsof 80 When comparedto process There are operations. to 95 percentare common for product-focused Variable shorter. are and distances moves, fewer interdepartmental This focus. product flow paths often becomefixed upon conversionto or even suchas conveyors' allowsthe useof simplerhandling devices, space plansoften requireexpensive manualhandling. Process-focused automatic guided vehicle systemsor even more expensivefork trucks. Because of the smallerproduct rangeand better communication, product focus simplifies management.Product-focusedcells often require little or no management becausethey naturally encourage the shallower org nrzationsnow in teamwork. Product focus achieves ratherthan on productsand customers is placed vogue.More emphasis departmentalloyalties. output moreequipmentfor the same In theory,productfocususes

The Macro-Space-Plan

57

than process focus. However, firms seldom realize the theoretical utilization advantage ofprocessfocusbecause ofthe complexscheduling required. In practice, there are severalapproaches to mitigate the apparentunder-utilizationof product focus.One way is to designcells that maximize the useof major equipmentwhile sacrificingusageon lessexpensive peripheralequipment. Product focus requires a wider range of employee skills and knowledge. This mayplacelargetrainingburdenson firms that convert from process focus.However, the teamwork and job enrichmentthat result reducesturnover. Processfocus, on the other hand, allows concentrationon processskills, and highly complex and technical processes sometimes need this concentration. Process-focused organizationstlpically haveverylong throughput times. As a result,they cannot respondquickly to changes in product mix, volume, or specialrequirements. Many process-focused plants counter this with extensiveinventories, even though inventory is expensive and rarelyreduces the response time on customized products. Productfocusallowsfirms to eliminatefinished-goods inventorywhile improving delivery performanceand reliability. Process focusis more flexible,at leastin theory.However,several meansexistto achieve good flexibility in product-focused layouts.For example,the useof small-scale, mobile equipmentcan allow product focusedcellsto be formed,disassembled, and re-formednewproducts. Product focusgenerallyachieves high quality levels.This results from quick feedback,good communication, easycoordination, and high commitment. Process focussometimes mayhaveaqualityadv^nt^ge for complexor technicalprocesses. Productfocusis mostcompatible with newerapproaches based on teamwork and empowerment.Process focuslendsitself to traditional commandand control management styles, often requiringa substantial hierarchyto dealwith increased coordinationand complexiry. The concepts offocus and keymanufacturingtasksareinterrelated. Focusidentifiesthe most important dimensionsand optimizesthem. The business addresses a narrowermarket, but addresses it very well. The key manufacturingtasksstatewhat manufacturing must do well to survive in the market. Process elementsarethe equipment,people,and operationsthat add valueto aproduct.They direcdytransformmaterials, information, andparts. O perati ons strategy sum m ary A sound operations strategy addresses four areas:mission, ?rlcess, i nfr astruct ure, andfa ci I i ties (physical infrastructure). The site mission

58

Facilities Planning

states, in a few paragraphs,the purpose of the site. It identifies It defines one to three key customers, products, and processes. in the marketplace. manufacturingtasksthat directly correlateto success important externalissues The mission statementalso might address strateg'y suchasenvironmental policy.The remainderof the operations summary flows from the mission statement.It stateshow the firm intends to achieve the key manufacfuringtasks. but doesnot directly affect the Infrastructure supportsthe process a wide varietyof elements. covers product.Non-physicalinfrastructure Examplesare:scheduling It refersto peopleand information systems. and tool design training operations, personneldepartments, systems, capability. is tangible and is generallysynonymous Physicalinfrastructure, with facilities. Buildings, utility systems,roads, and docks are not stream;rather, they support all processes. directly in the process eachmajor topic at a policy level.Few A good summaryaddresses haveastrategy summarysufficientfor facility designpurposes. companies of strategyand structurethat relate thoseelements For suchpurposes, syste ms For example, compensation to facilitiesneed to be emphasized. for but little consequence havemajor effectson org anizatronalbehavior the facility plan. Figure 3.16 providesa structurefor a strategystatement.Such a summarizingthefirm's ofone to fourpages normallyconsists statement Figure is the statementfor for element. 3.77 intentions eachstructural CosmosProducts. the facilities planner summarypresents The absence ofan effective with difficult options: 'proceed without a summary; 'guide management asthey developa stratery; ' write a summarybasedon an idea of what it should say;or ' write a summarybasedon what probablywill happen. Development ofa strategysummaryrelieson all ofthe information collectedduring the first task group. Even this may be insufficientfor is a high-level task that a completestatement.Strategicdevelopment of the business. almost everyaspect encompasses ldentifying operations strategy "Identi$'Operations forTask03.10, diagram Figure3.18is theprocedure ofinformation Block 1 ofthe diagrambeginswith the assembly Strategy." strateg)) in a form suitable for a report or presentation.The operations outline,Block 2, is alsoneeded. Block 3, the current position summary, shows the company's

The Macro-Space-Plan

59

presentstatus.A management team should assist with this step or at leastconcurthat the summaryreflectsthe company's currentsifuation. Blocks4through 6 determine management's readiness forchange. It is not enough for management, or certainindividuals,to express a need for change.The managementteam also must be capableof carryingthrough with change. The success of a space plan depends on the organization'sability to supportit. For example,a cellularspace plan that dependson kanbanproduction control and small lot sizesneeds

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4.4 Utility Systems 4.5 Expmsion Policies 4.6 Nil Product Flexibility 4.7 New Proess Fluibility 4.8 Resle / DisposalPolicy 4.9 Haadous Waste Policy 4. I 0 Endromental Issues

Figure3.f6 - Strotegy ond Structure Key lssues

60

Facilities Planning

rapid setup techniques and participative management.Management may not have the wherewithal to adopt thesetechniques. If managementhasan acceptable strateg'y summa{I, this summary shouldbe usedin subsequent space planwork. Ifmanagementexpresses a desirefor operationsstrategiesdifferent from current practices,their readiness to makerequiredchanges mustbe evaluated. This is a difficult and sensitive decisionthat requires yearsofexperience in institutional change.Designerswho lack such experience should seekcounselfrom the managementteam or others in the organization.

Sib #l ha Mo di$ind missiw @cpondilg to our &o mjor tr8k6. The* e: Roll Product!- Supply qr ostoren with the largd vriety of rcll prcdu* in or irdusry wilh 24-hour ship@t atd quality withh lhe top 20% in our iidusry. Produs- Supply high quality Comercid vinyl dcals ad ap,plqua b small dd nrdim sia |mufamrcF. OrigiMlity dd quality of artistic d6ign is il itrtcgral pd of dr prcdud mix. We expd b ship to'/o ofall orders wilhin twe{Ekr at a reliability of 98ol.. Our products will @fom to rEogEzad qualfty sbrdards. At Cm w q!@t to be a good ngighbor a|d integnl pa of or muity. Com6 shold b lilM 6. sdbhctory mployers.

Mlsslon

priffi m larg$scale silks|q aDd50olc?0% d dlFi equipMt. We will add snBll-scale equipmot in advd@ of del@d dd brgFscale equipmd wfio dqMnd is prc@. All cquipM will haw a midmm oapability index of 1.4. we will strive for fte laK sd highd t4hDly lwel on large{ca.le silksHing.

Intraslructure
C('ffi will triw for a produd.focue4 shallw, multatiw ard infonna.l orgeiz*i@. We will gradully move Mrds a ptticipatire ffi+aed org&i4i@ ovc the M five yec. Our Ming s)ffi shqld a@mmodat aciivity-bded 6ting using @st &iveB for overlsd allstio. Wc will u* prcj* mirg for c@ial work ud p|1ss @sting for roll products. We @ogniz the limitatioE of omtiooal mmtirg systans for maagmt dsisic. Prcduaio ontrol will us MRP-ty? produ* dd supplieN. schcdrli4 for mcial We *i[ u$ krnbd s]ffi for inbrul schcduling produd will b of 6ll opediG. Cfficial sidly mkefrrder. Roll prodrd will u$ strEll 6"i"hd goods st@ls for the highct volw E0o/o of lim itans. Tlrc mining 20% of lw-volme rcll produc wiu b6 trEde ro or&r. Unusually large or&rs ofrcll pJoduG will have c{mdd deliverid ald be rade to or&r. At Cffi we will trirc br l@g-bm reldidBhip! wilh rcliable $ppli6. We will sld supplicF @ lb b6is ofquality, dlirery rcliability aDd @$ in tld order. Facllltles Sit fqs will folN @rpoftlwel stErgis d w siB develop. All sib, nw dd in dF fuhre will haw a ruimm of 200 fiplcyH. Site #l requic only limired capability for nw prcduc{s and prms. Significa*ly difrpr@t prws, such a a esting openrioo" sbotrld hare a separate sib.

Procass
will striv for a Roll Ploducte Cffic produd-f@sod opcdion with the dctprid of prinBry slittDg *trich seruc both Roll and Cmial opcroim. we will h.w a mix of large in G@p T@tmlo$/ ard $utl slc cquipM @lls. Rapd stup i5 a importart prioity for equipdd slti@ ald opBlio. We will attqnpt 60% atd d avFage cquipMt utiliation bwq 85%. we will add pr(Bs eprcity 6-12 mths ahad of daMnd. Pffis should harc a M gEduly to gability iDdsx of L4. We wil ffi puitbd they re highr bh@logj/ p|ffi @NisM wifi dr f{w ffitcgy, @st justified ad haw ad.q@ spport. Producte Cm6 will triw for Co||ercid ptodud-foq8 witlin thc limits st by plrc and requimts. This my diclate mviourroal physical *pmio bawo silkscming ad subsequd opcdi@. Prinary slitring nd sbet cunirg wiU |@in p|lss f@used. Our prlss scale will be a mix of largc aDdsnEll @cpordmg to th ordcr mix. Rapil stup is d important priority o the ruller *ale, lw volme pre. We will attqnpt o arcnge utili*io of 807e90%

Figure3.17 - Physicollnfrastructure Stdternent

The Macro-Space-Plan

61

An organizationmay not want changeor may not be positioned for change.If so, the operations strateg.y summaryshouldidentify the approachthat is most likely to be adoptedin practice. If the organizatron desiresand is ready for significant change, initiating a strategic debate is a good idea.This debate shouldconclude with a proposedoperationsstrategJsummarythat will help the space plan designercarryout the new strategyduring the facilitiesplan.

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62

Planning Facilities

One sub-task of Task 03.10 is the identification of focus plans, organi.zatron opportunities. The conceptoffocus appliesto space ,t-rrr.tur"r, and other elements of the enterprise. Developing an appropriate strategy for facility planning means identifying the most uppropriut. focus-for the facilities at each level. This is not a final unalyris. Rather, it guides and gives preferred directions to space planners as they proceedwith their work. The flo- piocesschartsfrom Task 03.03 can help sort this out' of cosmetic chartsfor the manufacture Figure 3.19 showsthe process

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The Macro-Space-Plan

63

containers. The principal operations are injection molding, assembly, transferprinting, and packaging. There are four basiccontainers. Each has varietiesof color and print. Because color and print changeovers arefast and easy, the plant considers only containerstylesdifferent products. Process elements usuallytouchthe product.At CosmosProducts, peopleassemble, lathesturn, and molding machines convertpowdered resin to solid components. The selection, arrangement, and operation of these and similar elementsare part of processdesign. A purely processfocus would group the molding machinesinto a molding department,printing into a print department,and assembly into an assembly department.Each departmentwould perform operationson all four products.Envelope A showshow assembly operations might fit into an assembly department. Envelope B showshow all operationsfor a single product would be coordinated. Sometimesfocusing purely on product is impractical. Instead, group technology cellsmight be used, wherebya series of operations for several productstakesplacein a singlecell. EnvelopeC showshow these operationsmight be coordinated. Various mixed approaches are common. For example,process focusmight be usedfor receiving,shipping,and molding, while other operationsmight havea product focus. Figure 3.20 shows the proceduresfor identifying focus opportunities. The first is preparation ofprocess chartsfor all products. This maybe doneon paper,or, forlarge numbersofproducts,forms of computer analysis can be used. Next, productsthat are candidates for a plant-within-plant are identified. These would have enough volume to justi$r separate equipment,people,andinfrastrucrure. Any suchproductsshouldbe set asideand removedfrom further consideration. A plant-within-plant (PWP) is a self-contained productionfacilitywithin the wallsof a larger facility. Ideally, a PWP is completely independent with its own supporting infrastructure. We then searchfor products(or components)that have similar operation "strings"-troups of operations that can use the same equipment, the samepeople,and perhapsthe sametooling. Is there adequate volume to justiS, dedicatingequipment,people,space,and infrastructure to this group?If so, theseproductsor componentsmust be removed from further consideration and assignedto a group technology(GT) cell. This procedurecontinuesuntil the only remainingproductsand

64

Planning Facilities

operationsare thosetoo small and varied for dedicatedplants or GT cells are then developedfor these items. An cells. Process-focused alternativeis a job-shop departmentsimilar to a prototype shop. Some space plans involve a great number of products and In these situations, or tensofthousands. thousands components, perhaps at this point in the macropracticalitymay not allow a detailedanalysis

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The Macro-Space-Plan

65

space-planproject. The objective for this sub-task is to identi$' opportunities,not to make decisions. For CosmosProducts,the two distinct productlines-roll products and commercial products-separated naturally into focused factories. However, the slit-and-sheetoperationservedboth product lines. Many log rolls, when slit, becamestock for both product lines. The narrow widths necessary for roll products are a natural byproduct of slitting for the wider commercial items. Maintenance, quality, and severalother functions cannotbe split economically. For this reason, the designteam's aim becametwo semi-focusedfactorieswithin the same facility, i.e., plants-within-plant. Several functionalareas serve both focused factories. Roll productoperations lend themselves well to GT cells.However, the large number of items precludesa complete GT analysisat the macro-space-plan level.The teamtherefore developed a compositecell for roll operations,with the intention of analyzingtheproces sin greater detail and designingGT sub-cells at the next designlevel. In commercialproducts,the silk-screen operationscall for tight environmental control.In addition, the existingsilk-screen presses use large-scale, high-technologyequipment.The team decidedto put two compositecellsin the commercialarea. The first compositecellwould include silk-screen and any related operations in the controlled environment. A secondcompositecell would have post-silk-screen operations such as thermal die-cut, pick-and-peel, and packaging. These smaller-scale processes would be arrangedinto GT cells. Designing the space plan With adequate information and an agreed-uponstrateg-y, the actual spaceplan can be designed.The activity to this point may have consumedas much as half of the time and resources availableto the project. Nevertheless,these expenditureswere good investments. Managers from all areashave new perspectives. The factual data has tempered emotions. As the spaceplans develop, debate should be constructiveand rational.The final selection will enjoy wide support thanks to management's broaderunderstanding of both business and technicalissues. Defining space plan cells and processes Task03.11, orthe definitionofspaceplanningunits (SPUs), is the most fundamentaland important task in space planning. It establishes the organizationof space and must fit with a correspondingorg anizationof peopleand processes. Moreover, all subsequent work flows from this task. An omission or error invalidatesall of the work that follows.

66

Facilities Planning

A procedure chart for this taskis in figure 3.21. Blocks 1 through 3 call for assembling deliverablesfrom all previous tasks. Block 4 reviewsoperationsstrategy.If the strategystatementfavors a process(functional)space focused plan,planners shouldproceed to Block5 and Blocks 11 skip through 23. In Block 5, functional and support cells for the spaceplan are identified by examining the cell definition summary (fig. 3.22), the space analysis, the infrastructure checklist,the process charts,and the

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Figure3.21 - Tosk3. I I, DefineSPUsd Processes

The Macro-Space-Plan

67

organizairon chart. We look for activities, people, or equipment that will require space. For eachsuch item, a cell could be defined, or the item could be combinedwith others into an SPU. Generally.ren to thirty SPUs should be identified In the SPU definition summaV, the spaceplanners should identiSreach SPU with a name and number and show those that are included. The spaceplanner may also specifyexclusions. The columns

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68

Facilities Planning

(e.g.,does that showthe source of the celldefinitionshouldbe examined chart, or both?). this activity show up on the organizationchart, process If the operationsstrategysummarycalls for a product-focused spaceplan (line, cellular, or Toyota), support cells still need to be identified. However, a product-focused spaceplan may absorbmany in an indirect activities within the product-focused cells.For example, cellseachhad one ofseven electronics plant, assembly-integrate-test testengineers, and process engineers satin major products.Schedulers, had the cells. A subsequentorganizationrealignment these people report to cell managers rather than functional managers. If the plan's strategycalls for product focus, planners should oroceed to Block 11 to decide whether a current cell definition is iatisfactory. If the factory has previously operated with productfocusedcells, rearrangingthem may be all that is needed.Suitable "IdentiS, definitions may have been developedduring Task 03.10, Focus Opportunities." Now, additional product-focused cells should the next step is be defined.If the current definition is unsatisfactory, Block 13. For a product-focused space plan,the plannercandefineproductfocusedcells at the macro- or micro-level.Defining work cellsat the if the likely result is a manageable number macro-levelis satisfactory and if the effort reouiredis reasonable. Sometimes this is not the case. For example,an adiquatedefinition might requirean extensive group technologyanalysis, which is inappropriate at the macro-level. Or there might be many smallcellsthat aredifficult to arrange. If so,the planner should considerusing one or more compositecel1s. A compositecell consists smallercells.In the Cosmos of several Products example,post-screenoperationsand roll operationslend themselves Designingthe individual cellsand to cellularmanufacture. deciding which products go in them is a prolonged, detailed, and difficult taskthat, in this case until the next design , hasbeenpostponed havebeen level.Therefore,post-screen operations and roll operations necessary. A group defined ascompositecells.This wasnot absolutely technologyanalysis have at this macro-level to might beenconducted identify families and define the subcells. If composite cells are not used at the macro-level,Blocks 14 through 16 arethe next step.Planners evaluate the numberofproducts and select an appropriate analysis tool. For a smallnumberofproducts, twenfy or less, for the plannersshouldgo to Block 20, chart the process each,and then usethe process chartsin Blocks 18 and 19. In Block 18, the space planneridentifiespreliminarypart families;in Block 19, the cellsare defined.

The Macro-Space-Plan

69

For a moderatenumberofproducts,lessthan 100 but more than twenfy, production flow analysis is used.The processthen movesto Block 18 for defining product familiesand Block 19 for defining the corresponding cells. (more than 100) will probably require a products _ Y""y classification and coding analysis. This is an extensive undertakingbut one with significantbenefits. After defining SPUs, it is time ro review the processes for improvement. The processanalysisat this level may be general. Examining the process further maybe done during the detailingof the layout at the micro-level. In Block 7, the space planner determines key equipment requirements. This is not alwaysa completelist; rather, it identifies equipment that occupies significant spaceor needssignificant 1aj9r funding. In Block 8, capaciryis checked. Normally, this lapaciry analysis is confined to key equipmentor known bottlenecks.piocess charts for anysignificantprocess revisions and a list of key equipment might alsobe helpful. When complete, a cell definition summary is in place. Cell definition should include everyspace or featurenecessary ior the ner" plant. It is not always an elaborate document.Everyone involvedshould know what eachSPU conrainsand what it will not contain.These are the building blocksfor the new layout. Because cell definition is so crucial ro the remaining activities, plannersshouldcirculate it widely for commenrand input. In addition, decision-makers must approve itbefore space planningcango forward.

Cosmoscell and processdefinition

Part of the cell definition for cosmos Productsis illustratedin figure 3.22.The operational cellscomedirectlyfrom the focusstudy ofrask 03.11. other cellsarederivedfrom the existingprocess .h"rt, and the physical infrastructure checklist. For example,SPU 01 is silk-screenoperations.It includes silkscreenprinting, drlang, baking, and humidifying and excludesscreen preparationand subsequent operations. The team createdthis sPU from the existing spacediagram and alsofrom the existingprocesschart. Cell04 is post-screen operations. It includesthermal die-cutting, pick-and-peel, masking, labeling, inspection, and packaging. Th1 existingspace plan had no areawith this label.This spu was derived from the process chartsand the strategystatement. Figure 3.23 is the revised process sheetfor cosmos'smulti-color commercialfamily of products.comparing this illustrarion to figure

70

Planning Facilities

from 0.20 to that the valueaddedindex (VAI) hasincreased 3.8 reveals from 78 to 50. has decreased 0.30. The number of elements (30 Improvementsofthis magnitude to 50 percent)arenot uncommon in figure 3'23 projects.The dotted envelopes in layout-reengineering representthe cells where the processactivities occur. Most of the

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The Macro-Space-Plan

71

process improvements at cosmos arefrom the eliminationoftransport, storage'and delay elements,which are renderedunnecessary when processes occur in the samelocation.This is the power of a productfocusedspace plan. Materialflow analysis In Task 03.12,the analyst uses informationgathered earlierto calculate materialflow berween eachcombinationof SPU pairs.Additional data may be neededfor this calculationto establish the affinitiesassociated with material flow. Figure 3.24 showsthe procedurefor this analysis. In manufacturing, material flow is usually an important factor in layout. For non-manufacturingspace plans,materialho* -"y not be relevant,and this task probablywill not apply.Berweenthe extremes, the relative importance of material flow for establishingaffinities will vary considerably. Material flowvaluesareone of two inputs for affinitv develooment. As space plandesign progresses andseveral optionsareunderconsideration, the material flow analysiscan assistin evaluatingtheseoptions. Later, flow calculations provide a basisfor handling tyri.- design. From the P-Vsummary,process charrsand observaiion (Block 1) materials are classified into manageablegroups (Block 2). This classification assists in developing a common unit for measuring flow, the equivalent flow unit (EFU). A classification summaryis one of the deliverables for Task 03.72. Usually these groups number less than twenty-five. They are based on material-handling characteristics. strucruraishapes might be one group in a metal-working factory. It would include steel and aluminum shapes that areten to twenty feet in length. Another group might be small parts-items defined aslessthan four ounces"ttd l.tt than three incheson any dimension. In Block 3 of the procedure, plannerschoosean EFU. This is a two-part measure: material-unitsper time-unit suchaspailetsper day (metalworking); cartons per hour (grocery distributionj; tor* p* d,iy (steelfoundry); or totesper day (electronics). When there is one type of material,this step is easy.Ituses the normal unit such astons or pieces.such situationr "r. rare, however. Most layoutsdealwith a wide rangeof materialmovement. Materials also may change form. A sheet metal cabinet for computersbeginsasa flat sheetthat is difficult to handle.cutting and forming increases the difficulry and bulk by an order of magnilude. Paint makes it delicateand susceptible to damage.packagiirgthen allows it to be nestedand stacked,rendering it lesi delicate."

72

Facilities Planning

in a quantified schematic Figure 3.25 illustratesthese changes and theirwidth represents movement, represent The lines diagram. flow flow rate in units per week. The the flow rate in equivalentpallets per However,the changein size, week is constantthroughoutthe process. features, delicacy, and packaging changesthe equivalent flow as it movesfrom one ooerationto the next.

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Figure3.24 -Task3.l2, AnalyzeMaterial Flow

The Macro-Space-Plan

73

The sourceof data is determinedin Block 4 of Fig. 3.24. For simple flow situations, the P-v analysisand processcharts provide all the necessary information. In complex situations, the proiess charts may be too many or too complex; sometimesmovestake place that are not in the official process.These must be identified from other data sources such as the MRP database, material handling records,direct

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Figure3.25 - Changesln Material Flow

74

Planning Facilities

or random samplingasoutlined in Block 5. observation, Block 6 marks the extractionof data.Again, for simple situations, For each chartsand the P-V information are necessary. only the process move will if a similar determines chart, the planner on the process move flow unit determines the existwhenthe new SPUsareused.He or shethen forecast. and the number of flow units per day requiredto meet the sales Other data sourcesmay need significant manipulation. Each and to flow data.Experience space plan project is uniquewith respect are the main guides. common sense or Block 7 formats the data, usually on a comPuter spreadsheet In Block 8,the flowis calibratedusingtheAEIOLIXconventions database. (see the SPUpairsalong fig.2.9).This is doneon a rankedbargraphwith donemanually. The rating shouldbe the other. and flowrates on one axis The affinity distribution in figure 2.10 should be used only as a guide, other factors also are involved. For example,discontinuitiesin because the curve naturally divide one rating from another. A{finity pairs that "IJ" rating. havezero flow betweenthem get a forTask03.12is illustratedbytheCosmosproject. The procedure as classified Basedon the information from Block 1, the materialswere follows: Log Ro llrThese vinyl stock rolls are36 incheslong and abott 12 inchesin diameter.They weigh about 200 pounds. SIit Rolts-Vinyl stock rolls are rolls that have been slit and They rangefrom 6 to 20 inchesin length and rewoundon smallercores. lessthan 5 inchesin diameter.Weights are lessthan 40 pounds. arepackedroll productssimilar to cellophane Roll PacLages-:fhese tapeor maskingtape. The largestareabout5 inchesin diameterand 4 inchesin length. Most are much smaller. ofvinyl stockor decalmaterial,average24 largesheets Sbeets-These and shipping. inchesby 60 inchesand remainflat throughout the process Packaged Sheerr-These are decal sheetspackagedin corrugated their volume but boxes.The boxesand packing significantlyincrease reducethe delicacyrequiredin handling. Much ofthe materialhandlingin the plant is doneusinghandcarts usedasan EFU. This offered soa handcartwas with four-wheelcastors, s. It was easyto visualizethe handcart being used for severaladvantage all materials and to developconversionfactorsfrom that vision. In the undoubtedlywouldremainthe primarymeansof newlayout,handcarts movement. for Block 9 Table 3.1 is the output of Block 7 and the deliverable on the procedurediagram. This table showsthe material flow analysis are at the top left. Next to for CosmosProducts.The materialclasses

The Macro-Space-Plan

75

EFU=Equivalent Hand Carts LogRolls 0.500 SlitRolls 0.071 RollPackages 0.004 Sheets 0.167 Packaged Sheets 0.250 (A) (B) (C) Fwd Units /Day 69.0 (D) (E) (F) (c) (H) fl) (J) (K) (D (M) Rev Tot Flo Flo Flol N_F N_FTot Tot Units EFU EFUsVow Num N-F Vow NumNum Vow lDay Fact /Day Rtg Rtg Ratio Rtg Rtg Scr Rtg 0]7 0.17
11.5 '11.5

From -To Unirs 01-02 01-04 SHTS 01-05 SHTS 01-08 Q1-12 01-13 01-14 01-15 02-11 03-04 O3-05 SLITS 03-06 03-08 PKGS 03-10 PMAT 03-12 03-13 03-14 03-15 04-09 SHTS o4-11 04-12 04-'13 o4-14 04-15 05-06 SLITS 05-07 LOGS 05-09 LOGS 05-13 05-14 05-15 07-10 LOGS 07-12 08-09 PKGS 08-12 08-13 09-10 09-12 10-14 11-12 11-13 12-13

u0 t2 69.0 t2 u0 u0 u0 u0 u0 u0 u0 0.11 c.l 01 u0 0.01 19.2 A 4 7.3 o.25 1.8 o 'l u0 uo uo u0 o.25 17 3 E3 u0 u0 u0 u0 u0 46.0 46.0 0.11 10,1 t 2 23.4 0.50 11.7 l 2 0.2 0.50 0.1 0 1 u0 u0 u0 0.50 11.7 l 2 u0 2134.0 0.01 19.2 A 4 u0 u0 u0 u0 u0 u0 u0 u0

1.25 A 4 2.00 E 1.25 A 4 3.25 A 125 E 3 2.75 E 1.25 0 1 0.50 0 1.25 | 21.00 I 1.25 | 21.00 | 1.25 | 21.00 |25 | 21.00 | 1.25 E 31.50 | 1.25 A 4 2.00 E 125 E 3 2.13 E 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 | 2 3.50 A 1.25 U 0 0.63 | 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 | 2 i.00 | 1.25 0 1 0.50 0 1.25 0 1 0.50 0 1.25 E 3 3.38 A 1.25 | 21.00 | 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.250 1050 0 1.25 0 1 0.50 0 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 | 2 2.25 E 1.25 | 2 2.25 E 1.25 U 0 0.63 | 1.25 0 1 0.50 0 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 0 1 1.75 E 1.25 0 I0.50 0 1.25 | 2 3.50 A 1.25 0 1 0.50 0 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 E 31.50 | 1.25 | 21.00 I 1.25 0 10.50 0 1.25 0 10.50 0

TABLE 3.1

76

Planning Facilities

the factor,which converts descriptoris the EFU conversion eachclass factor is the inverseof the materialunit into an EFU. Each conversion number of flow units that fit onto the cart. A cart usuallycarriesnvo log factor is 0.5. The SPU pairs arein rolls, for example,so its conversion column A of table 3.1. Column B shows the flow units-slit rolls, etc. Columns C and D indicatethe flow rate. sheets, usingtwo numericalSPU identifiers.In the Pathsshouldbespecified to intermediate and06 refers roll operations, to 03 refers Cosmosexample, them is 03 to 06.To avoidduplicationand The flowpath between storage. shoulduseonly the forwardpath-the SPU with errors,planners possible the lowest number followed by each SPU numbered above it. When materialmovesfrom a higher numberedSPU to a lower numberedSPU, it is called reverseflow. The total material flow is the sum of the forward and reverseflows. Column F in the Cosmos model is the flow totals flow ratein EFUs multiplied by the EFU factor.This resultis the average flow path. for each vowel rating the shows day. Column G per This Products. for Cosmos Figure3.26showsthe flow calibration is Block 8 on the procedurechart and is typical ofa product focused layout. It has a small number of high flow ratesand many SPU pairs layoutshavea much broaderdistribution with zeroflow. Process-focused with their complexnatures. of flows commensurate

03>08 0B>09 04>09 05>07 07>10 01>04 01>05 05>06 03>05 03>r0

05>09

From-To SPUS

Figure 3.25 - Moteriol Flow Colibrotion

The Macro-Space-Plan

77

Id entifyi ng non -fl ow affi n ities Material flow is only one of many factors that give rise to affinities. other factorsareintangible and more difficult to quantifr. Examplesof these factors are:personal communication; the needto transferperionnel betweencellsor departments; movementto and from the cafeteriaor rest rooms; quality feedback; joint teamwork communications; access by outsidevisitorsl RF communications requirement;and other sitespecificneeds. Figure 3-27 shows a chart for recordingnon-flow affinities that arso may be used to documenr flow affinitie, J, total affinities. Diagonals represent eachSPU.When they cross, they form a diamond. In the upper half of the diamond, the affiniry rating is recordedusing the vowel or

Figure?.27 - Affinity Chor-t

78

Planning Facilities

number scaleshown in figure 2.9.The lower half of the diamond is the place to record the primary factor(s)that gaverise to the affinity. These non-flow affinities are independent of material flow The problemlies in capturingthem. In Task 03.14 they requirements. aremergedwith affinities for an overallor total affinity rating. A survey, meeting,or personalevaluationmay alsobe used. consensus from each representatives meeting that assembles A consensus Task for accomplishing the bestapproach departmentor SPU is usually of figure chart the affinity Using 03.13.The analystactsasfacilitator. the needfor affinity ratings,the chart, and the 3.27,he or sheexplains eachpair of SPUs,one at a desireddistribution.The group considers the relationships. time, and discusses Using the conventionsin figure 2.9' they decide on a rating. are rather long. After five to ten ratings, Initially, these discussions however, the group will begin to agree readily. A scribe records the ratings and keepsthe group focusedby displayingthe current SPU pair arise'Thesemayresultin constraints Frequently,corollaryissues on cards. or evenrevisionsof the SPU definition. feelingthat theyhave meetingemerge in a consensus Participants been part of the overall project. This is important. When they seehow their input led directly to a sPaceplan, they will have increased plans that finally emerge. commitment to the space Another methodofidentifying non-flow affinitiesinvolvessending in eachdepartment.The questionnaire to representatives questionnaires areas, andpeoplethat must be near them to list other departments, asks interpreted,and ratings each other. The resultsare then assembled, in figure 2.9. This method using the scaleand conventions developed is effective for large projects with fifty or more SPUs and many affinities. However, it does not allow the participants to develop a The participantsmay not through discussion. common understanding trust the judgment of the person who intelprets the surveys and may not be brought out. corollaryissues which usesa singlejudge A third method is personalevaluation, knowledgeofthe have intimate must to determineaffinities.He or she but he or shemay alsobe a strong This often is the analyst, operations. or CEO. This is a quick method and the plant manager leader, perhaps may be effective for small projects. This, however, does not build may remain hidden. and may be divisive.Corollary issues consensus Merging affinities used Two sets ofaffinities nowexist.The developmentofflowaffinities a nature preclude by their affinities Non-flow a quantitative approach.

The Macro-Space-Plan

79

quantitativeapproach andwereidentifiedby a consensus or someother non-quantitative approach. Thesemust nowbe mergedinto a singleset of affinities (fig.3.28). This is Task 03.14. A spreadsheet createdby hand or computer is usuallythe most straightforward method of merging. Table i.2 is an extension of the spreadsheet in table 3.1. These columns are put in after columns A through D. Column E: Vowel Non-Flow Rating (Enter Manuallv) Column F: Numeric Non-Flow Rati"g (Enter tr,t""u"ity; Column G: FlodNon-Flow Ratio(Enter Manually) Column H: Merged Score: Col. Ax Col. F + Col. p x (f - Col. F) Column I: Merged Vowel Rating (Enter Manually) Planners should add rows for all remaining combinations of SPUs,sortthe rowsin themergedscore column (col. u) in descending order,andplot the mergedscores on a rankedbar chart.From the chart.

EFU=Equivalent Hand Carts LogRolls 0.500 SlitRolls 0.071 RollPackages 0.004 Sheets u.lo/ Packaged Sheets 0.250 (A) From -To 03-08 08-09 04-09 05-07 07-10 01-04 01-05 05-06 03-05 03_10 05-09 (Bl

(ct
Fwd Units/ Day 2134.0 21234.0 69.0

(Dl
Rev Units/ Day

Units PKGS PKGS SHTS LOGS LOGS SHTS SHTS SLITS SLITS PMAT LOGS

(Ft Tot EFU EFUs/ Fact Day 0.01 0.01 0.25 0.50 0.50 0.17 0.17 0.11 0.11 0.25 0.50 19.2 19.2 17.3 11.7 11.7 11.5 11.5 10.1 5.1 1.8 0.1

(El

(ct tH) Flo Flo VowNum Rtg Rtg A A

t

4 4
z

t r J

zJ.4

23.4 69.0
Aqn

46.0

46.0 46.0

t t t t o o o

2 2 2 2 1 1 1

TABLE 3.2

80

Planning Facilities

they should assigna mergedvowel rating (Col. I). Deciding the relative importance of flow and non-flow factors Heavyindustries andotherinfluences. on the industry,process, depends such as steel or shipbuilding warrant a flodnon-flow ratio up to 2.0. and industriesthat dependheavilyon personalcontact may Office areas haveratios aslow as 0.5.

3 D e t e r mi n e F l o w / N o n - F l o wR a t i o

4 M e r g e U s i n OW e i g h t e d AvergaeTechnique

Prepare Atfinity D i s t r i b u t a o nB a r c h a i l

8 D e livera b le i . Merged Affinity Chari

Or . M e r g e dA f f i n i t y Li6t

Figure3.28- Tosk 03.14,Merge Affinities

The Macro-Space-Plan

81

Generally,the sameflodnon-flowratio shouldbe usedfor all the affinities on the spaceplan. Occasionally,however, specific affinities may haveto be modified for special circumstances. Next, the total affinities must be rated. When assigning the mergedvowel rating, the analystshould considertwo factors. First, he or she should strive for a workable distribution of ratings similar to those shown in figure 2.9,\n addition, a searchfor natural breaksor discontinuities in the distribution avoidshaving nearly identical scores with different ratings.Accuracyis not paramountin this process. Developing a configuration diagram In Task 03.15, merged ratings are used to develop a configuration diagram.The configurationdiagramis the firstofthe derivedelements. It comesfrom cell definitions,affinities,and experience. The graphics work may be done on a CAD system or other software. However, manual developmentis straightforward and often quicker. To developthe affinitydiagram, the analystplaces the A affinities and their associated SPU symbolsfirst, then addsthe E affinities.At this point, rearrangingthe diagramis desirable. Next, the I affinities are addedand the diagram is rearrangedagain. He or shefinisheswith the O affinities, which usually will have little effect on the diagram.. Striving for short distancesbetweenthe As and Es with minimal crossing is a worthwhile goal. Multiple crossingsmight create traffic congestionon the final spaceplan. Lower value affinities probably will havelonger distances. The high valueA and E affinities will have short distances. Attempting to fit this diagraminto a buiiding environment at maybeovedooked. this point is not advised. someexcellent arrangements Figure 3.29 illustrates the diagram developed for the Cosmos project. Step 1 featuresthe SPU symbols.Step 2 shows the A and E affinities in an undesirable arrangement. Step3 showsthe rearrangement of the A and E affinities and the addition of the I affinities. Another rearrangement is illustratedin Step4. Finally, in Step5, the affinitieshave been rearanged again,and the O af{inities added. The Cosmosconfigurationdiagramin figure 3.29 is only one of many possible diagrams that uses this combination of SPUs and affinities.It can be mirrored or rotated.There may be other positions for the SPUs that give the same or better results. Some of these variationswill fit the building better than others.However, it is best not to jump aheadand anticipatethe shapeofthe building. It is worthwhile to ask severalpeople to develop diagrams, thereby ensuring a wide selectionof possibilities.

82

Facilities Planning

u, o q) '- q)
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The Macro-Space-Plan

B3

Space calculation Spaceis the third fundamental element of a space plan. It is a limited resource;there is only so much spaceunder a roof, on a site, or in a department.Whether the space is land on a site or space in a building, it is usually expensive Although spaceis three-dimensional, most spaceplans ignore the vertical dimension. This is acceptable in all but a few situations. Most layouts attempt to optimize the useof spaceaswell as its arrangement.A complete space plan requiresnot only the location of SPUs, but their size and shapeaswell. The spaceoccupiedby SPUs usually prevents the designer from honoring all affinities

tr o

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TABLE 3.3

84

Facilities Planning

simultaneously. Benveen them,itforcescompromises above andbeyond thosearrivedat in the configurationdiagram.The space needs of SPUs may distort evena neadyperfectdiagram. Task03.16 calculates sizeofthe requiredspace for eachSPU,usually in square feetor square meters. Calculationofspacerequirements uses one or more of six methods.These methods are:elemental calculation. visual estima ting, transformation, space standards, proportioning,or ratioforecas ting. Table 3.3 shows Cosmos Products' spacerequirementsand how the analysts usedseveral methodsfor the calculation. Elementol colculotion This method, illustratedin figure 3.30, startsat the most detailedlevel.Each pieceof fumiture or equipmentassigned to an SPU is measured. These dimensionsarethen addedtogetherfor the total amount of space. for Space aisles, miscellaneous storage, or otherneeds arealso indudedin thesum.This addedspace often is a percentage of the basicequipmentspace. Elementalcalculation is simpleandstraightforward. However,it has its limitations. For one, it takesconsiderable time and effort. Uncertain forecastscan make it difficult to determine how much furniture or equipmentwilloccupythespace. Elementalestimatingis primarilya shortterm methodology.Most industriesuse it for one to three yearsin the future.Beyondthat, other methodsareequallyandperhaps more reliable .

DevelopEquipment lnformation Capacity/Process/ Saleslnformation

Figure?,30 - Computing Spoce, Elementol Colculation

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The Macro-Space-Plan

87

Figure 3.33 - Computing Space, Standard Dato

Handling\Storage43 34"/o

SecondaryProcess 30
23o/o

Primary Process24
19"/o

Standard Proportions Of Existing Facility

New Facility

Figure?.34 - Computing Space,Proportioning

88

Facilities Planning

Proportioning
Certain typesofspacecalculationuseproportions effectively.The space for a given SPU comes from the calculation of another space.For example, aisles mightbe apercentage ofproductionspace, or conference room spacemay be a portion of office space. Figure 3.34 illustrates. Proportioning works well when the history to support it exists.It usually applies to only a few types of space,however. Proportioning requireslittle effort. Ratio forecasting Ratio forecasting useshistoricaltrendsto forecast space. In this method, business parameters and spaceare correlatedover time. Such ratios may changegraduallyover the years.The analystthen projectsthe trend of this ratio into future yearsand usesthat projection to calculatespace. Ratio forecasting,which is based on historical data, is most appropriatefor long-term site plans.It haslimited usefor short-term spacecalculations.

The spaceplan primitive

The next stepin the progressionis the space plan primitive, which involves adding spaceto the configuration diagram(s). The spacerequirements comefrom the calculations andspace summary(Task03.16). The Cosmos Productsspace plan primitive is illustratedin figure 3.35. The spaceplan primitive begins with a configuration diagram. Using an appropriate scale,designersplace a squareor rectanglewith the SPUs calculated areanear each SPU symbol. In step 2, designers either move eachspaceblockunderneath the SPU symbol or move the SPU symbol over each space block. As the space plan primitive develops,itwill haveto be stretchedto accommodate the space without overlaps.The result should be a compact arrangementthat honors the affinities as closely as possible. Although designers should begin anticipating a building shapeat this time, they should not strive for a final layout.

Constraints
Many factorsthat affecta macro-layoutdo not fit the conceptsof SPUs, space, and affinities.These are constraints.Someexamples are: . Column spacingof 32 feet restricts the placement of aisles and someequipment. ' High electricalload restricts the placement of heat treat ovensto certain areaswith adequateelectrical service. . A cold climate dictates that dock doors should not have

The Macro-Space-Plan

89

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Figure3.35 - CosmosSpaceplan primitive

o(U =o_

90

Planning Facilities

northern exposure. ' zoning requirements specifythat docksnot facethe street; ' floor loading restrictsthe placementof certainequipment; ' explosion hazard dictates that ahazatdouschemical room havean explosionvent on an outsidewall; and ' the companypresidentrequests a window for his office' (Task03.19)is shownin figure3.36. A form for identif ing constraints are the toP' major categories The SPUsarelistedon the left and across

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The Macro-Space-Plan

91

identified. Theseinclude: site conditions,utilities, handling methods, personnel, proceduresand controls, shape rario, and oihers. The accumulatedproject documentationfor each spu and categoryare reviewed,and the constraintsare listed. A bullet or check associates each constraintwith a particular sPU. some constraintsapply to all SPUs. In this situation the bullet goes in rhe "general" rtw. The following is a descriptionof CosmosProducts.orrftrairrts: Aestheticy'The nafure of cosmos products is artistic. Therefore, the aesthetics of the building and surroundings is important. cosmos wants to presentitself well to customersand other visitors. A pleasant surroundingwill help aftractthe best commercialartists.The aesthetics issueappliesto shippingand receivingareas, which areoften unsightly.It alsoappliesto the artwork, administration,and employee service"areas. TruckAccess-This is anothersite condition. Trucks need access to both shippingandreceiving. cosmos is fortunatein this respect. The site hasgood access on both the north and south sides. Forkrrucks--Handling in someareas uses forklift trucks.Adequate aislewidths on the main aisles and selected departrnental aisles arenecessaq/. c art s-s mallcartsconveymaterialsin manyareas. Here, narrower aisleswill suffice. EasyAccess-This is a personnel issue. Administration, employee service s,andmaintenance all requireeasyand inviting access forpeople. Press Lines-Aspect ratio refersto the relativelength and widtl of SPUs. Silk-screenprinting operationsrequire a mini*mumlenqth to accommodate the long press lines. Utilitier-Certain sPUs requirewater,sewer, and air conditioning. Next, this constraint summaryand the space plan primitive will be usedto preparespace plan options.

Designing macro-space-plans
plan primitive now must fit into a building outline. The ]h9.space building may exist or it maybe a proposedstrucrure. Preparingspace plan optionsbeginswith overlayingthe building _ with a space plan primitive. The space blocksare shapedto fii :":]tl. building walls, columns,and other featur.r. Th" constraints ,r.--ury should be consultedduring the placementof eachSpU. F or eachspace plan primitive, thereprobablywill be several viable _ layouts.All variationsof the primitives, including mirror imagesand rotations,should be examined. I_tmay be difficult to match space, honor constraints, and design an orderly arrangement. In general,designers should strive for clean, rectangularareas.spacerequirementsmay have to be compromised.

92

Planning Facilities

The original spacecalculationsare usually flexible within a reasonable range-10 to 20 percent. options(Option 1) from the Cosmos One ofthe macro-space-plan This option is based on the 3.37. in figure project is illustrated space plan using which calledfor a product-focused strategy, operations and focusedfactories. cellularmanufacturingtechniques to buildinqs is now enclosed betweenthe two original The soace "requiremen; to allow and also space increased the u..o--od"te

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Figure3.?7 - Option I of the Mocro-SpocePlons for the CosmosProject

The Macro-Space-Plan

93

improvedmaterialflow betweenthe buildingsand to the shipping and receivingdocks.Each of the old buildings hasbecom. u ,.-ilfoi,rr.d f?,:oty,with roll productson the left and commerciar productson the right. In the center are slit-and-sheetoperations,-hi.h serveboth focusedfactories.servicefacilitiessuchasquality assurance, employee services, and maintenanceare also in u i.ntr"l location. Ariwork, administration,and employee services facethe street.This satisfies the aesthetic constraints.

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Figure?.38 - Option 2 of the Mocro-Spoceplans for the Cosrnosproject

94

Planning Facilities

about the productSome Cosmos managershad reservations an additional Therefore, 03.10. Task in adopted strategy focused approach the process-focused basedon continuing macro-space-plan 'n", pr.p"..d. The resultwas their (fig. mitigated 3.38),which O ption2 and disadvantages the relativeadvantages .orri.rnr and demonstrated of processand product focus. It was preparedas a second,parallel statement strategy startingfrom Task03.10.The process-focused proJect requirements. produceda different set of sPUs, affinities,and space Option 2 retainsthe aislesystemand many of the good features of Ontion 1. Functional and semi-functionalareassuch as shipping, They are and artwork havemany of the samecharacteristics. receiving, areas storage as such SPUs often in the samelocation.Somefunctional names, need significantly more space.Processareas change their Option 2 spacerequirements,and other characteristics. characters, additional 1. This option than space more needsabout 10 percent on the eastside. spaceis in a building expansion therewill be threeto six projects, For most macro-space-planning fundamentally different options and severalvariations. using the existinglayout-or simply doing nothing*is alwaysan option' Even plan is no longerviable,it makesa convenient when the existingspace projectteamdeveloped The Cosmos forgaugingimprovement. baseline other options,which are not includedin this book. several Aisles Aisles present specialproblems.They should be straight and wide .r,o.rgh fot two-way traffic. Usually, the best approachidentifies main SPU. Designersthen place them on the macroaislesas a separate Departmental aisles,on the other hand, are within the space-plan. spacecalculationsfor each SPU. Aisles adjacentto walls are often they serveonly one side. because undesirable An alternateapproachincludes all aislesas Part of the SPUs' Designersthen place sPUs on the plan, recognizingthat those main generallywill follow the SPU boundaries. aisles plansin figures3.37 and3'38 Cosmosspace ihe straightforward calculationand every separate have a aisles Main method. first the use continuoustraffic allows loop central A aisle. to a main SPU is adjacent prep and part screen in both directions.A singledead-endaisleserves will allow subsequent operation.This aislesystem of the silk-screening without disturbing the basicflow pattern. layout changes

issues key materialhandling ldentifying

Material handling and layout are intertwined. The best handling

The Macro-Space-Plan

95

systemdepends on the space plan and the bestspace plan may depend on handiing methods.often, a layoutthat doesnotworkwitir manual handling becomesviable with automated or conveyorizedhandling. This presents a chicken-or-the-egg problem. Are handling equipment and containers selectedbefore the rayout? Is the layout designedfirst and the handling systemthen serected? usually, the best approach is to design the layout assuming conventionai p"rh"p, manual handling. This optimizes material flow and often eliminates the need for complex and expensive handling systems. particular handling issuesthat drasticaly affect space . lowever, plan selection must be identified. For example, a pneumatictransport systemhas different requirementsthan a systemthat usesforktrucks for conveyingbulk material. one space plan might be the best for fork truck handling, while another might be bestfotih. prr..r-atic system. A space plan shouldbe designedand selected bifore the handling systemis finalized. To do this, however,may mean assuminga general tlpe of handling systemprior to layout design. To accomplish Task03.20, examine."ih ofthe proposedlayout options and ask the following questions: . What types of handling systemsareviable for eachoption? . Would a particular handling system affect one layout option more than another? . Would a different handling systemallow new layout options? lf aparticular handling systemaffectsall layout opiior^ equally, , selection ofthat system is not a key issue. In sucha case, the evaluation ofthe options is the next stepin the space plan. Ifa particular handling systemwould give one option a significant advantage over the others, such selectionis a key issue.In such a case,furthir investigationis recommended, perhaps accompanied by a preliminarydesignand cost estimate for the handling system.This approachallows -"rr"g.rrrerrt to selectthe bestlayout at the macro-levelwithout completelydeiigning handling systemsfor all the options.

Deciding on the best spaceplan

Several vi-abfeoptions now exist for the macro-space-plan.Many others probably have alreadybeen screened out during ."ili", parts of the designprocess. The designershould narrow the choice to ihr.. to six significantly different options. Each option may haveseveralminor variations.Management and othersinvolved in the project then decide which to use.This is done for several reasons: ' managementoften criticizes the engineering staff for tunnel vision. Engineersmay lock onto an ideaearlyin a project.A

96

Planning Facilities

wide varietyofoptions showsthat the designeror designteam has considereda wide range of possibilities; ' asking for a selectionfrom among options is usually more palatablethan asking for approval ofa preordained design; . the processof decision-making builds consensus'suPPort' andionfidence. This Preventslater attemPts at redesignby those who felt left out of the processland ' the decision processmay Seneratehybrid plans, which are often superior to the original designs. Figure 3.39 shows the procedure for evaluation. The spaceplan "input" listed in Block 1. Block2 assembles a decisionteam. options arethe objectivesoriginal In Block 4, the team reviews the project's These original objectives may be specific, directly measurable,and

SpacePlanA

Figure3.39 - Computing Space,VisualEstimotion

The Macro-Space-Plan

97

applicable to the evaluation, or they may be global and difficult to measure.They may require sub-objectivesfor a good evaluation.The information developed during information gatheringmayhavemodifi ed the objectives.The debatesduring the strategydevelopment also may havechanged objectives. The decisionteamadoptsthe originalobjectives or revises them as appropriate. Flowing from the objectivesaredecisioncriteria. These arefactors that the team canevaluate directly-either qualitativelyor quantitatively. They are the basisfor the decision.Examplesof decisionfactorsare: material handling savings, improved communication, OSHA compliance, improved teamwork, initial cost, operating cost, quality enhancement,improved delivery reliabiliry, improved delivery speed, and ability to use a particular technology. A decisioncriterion may be a decideror a qualifier. Qralifiers are golno-go criteria: a spaceplan meetsthe minimum requirementsor not. Performance beyondthe minimum creates no additionalbenefits. Performance below the minimum disqualifies the space plan from consideration. For example,OSHA compliancemight be a qualifier. Layouts that meet the requirementsare acceptable. Layouts that go beyond OSHA requirements bring no perceived additionalbenefit. Deciders bring additional benefits for each increment of performance . Improved cost,for example, is usuallya decider.Option B mayhave an operating cost advantage over Option A. Although both space plansmeet the budgetedcostimprovementobjectives, Option B is the preferredspace plan on that dimension. Block 3 containsthe tools for evaluation. In addition to macrospace-planning, thesetools apply to other levelsof facility planning. Among the common tools for evaluationare: material flow analysis (MFA), financial analysis,ranking, instinct, positive-negativeinteresting(PNI), decisiontree analysis, and weightedfactor analysis. MFA examines the large-scale materialmovementbetweenSPUs. It developsa measureof associated cost and difficulty. Improved communication and coordination are corollary benefits of improved material flow. Specific techniques in this category include transport work, flow diagrams,and D-F plots. For the most part, these are quantitativemethods. Financial analysisincludes costestimating,return on investment (ROI), and payback.These methods are quantitativel however, they often involve qualitative judgments aswell. A simpleranhing,from most preferredto leastpreferred,is often an effective tool. The ranking can use qualitative factors, quantitative factors.or both.

98

Facilities Planning

The gut-level reactionor instinctof knowledgeable people has value.Although it should rarely be usedasa primary evaluationtool, it may uncoverunseenopportunitiesor problems. PNI analysisis a variation of the brainstorming technique. It examineseach spaceplan factor, focusing first on the positive features and then on negativefeatures.Finally, it focuseson those that are neitherpositiveor negative-things that areinteresting or unique.This analysis, was developedby Edward DeBono, an expert on thinking processes. It is simplebut effective. It often brings out hidden features and builds teamwork and consensus. Decision treeanalysis is usefulwhen a seriesof probableeventscan affectthe decision. For example, which space plan is bestif a particular contractis won and, afterward,the overallmarket contracts? It helps evaluate the cumulativeprobabilityofeach ofthe four possible outcomes. Combined with financial analysis, it is a quantitativetool. Weigbtedfactor analysis bases a decisionon a combinationof the variousfactors,both qualitative and quantitative. It is bestifthe factors areindepe ndent,but this is not always possible. Somecompromisingof this principle is acceptable. first identi$, the factors, then decide Judges a weight for each,and, lastly,rate eachoption. In addition to the tangible and intangible categories, straregic issuesmay arise.These are usuallyqualitative.The consequences of strategic issues are often so far-reaching and so important they overshadow all other factors.For example, Option A might usea new technologv.This technologyshowsno immediatecostbenefit yet the introduction potentially could revolutionize the industry and place a firm far ahead ofothers.ShouldOption A be selected? This is a decision for top managers and cannot be made lightly. In weightedfactor analysis, thejudgesthat weigh the factorsmay be different from those who rate the options. For example, top managementmay weigh the factorsbut leaveratings to specialists or operatingpeople. In physics, Heisenberg's uncertaintyprinciplestates that both the position and state of certain sub-atomicparticlescannot be known. Thit ir because the process of measurem.rri dirtort, either the position or state.A parallelphenomenonoccursin space planning.The process ofjudging and evaluation often leadsto other options.Thus, someor all of the space plans may changeasa resultof the evaluation process. Or, a hybrid space plan that features the best parts of several original options may emerge. Block 5 of the procedurediagramexamines the decisioncriteria and available tools. Two to four tools appropriate for the evaluation

The Macro-Space-Plan

99

should be selected. Block 6 evaluatesall options with respect to the identified qualifiers.Any option that fails to meet a qualiS'ing criterion drops from consideration. Block 7 evaluates the optionswith respect to the decidercriteria. New or hybrid options go on the list of available options. After evaluation,one option is selectedfor development.A decisionsummaryrecappingthe decisionprocess shouldbe prepared. The summaryand decisionmake up Block 10.

Evaluating the Cosmos spaceplans

The Cosmosdesignteam and steeringcommitteemet to evaluate the proposedspace plans.They decidedthat both the steeringcommitree and design team should participate in the evaluation. They first reviewedthe original projectobjectives. Thesecamefrom Task 03.01, "Plan Project": ' reducematerialhandling cost; . reduceoperatingcosts; . deliverproject under budget of$800,000; ' improve deliveryperformancel . improve teamwork,communication,and quality; ' allow for new products; and ' accommodate 1998 production. From the original objectives, they derivedthesedecisioncriteria: D Material flow D Direct operatingcost qD Initial cost D Delivery D Communication D Teamwork D Qrality D New product adaptability Meets 1998 production requirement a_ OSHA/EPA Compliance a_ "Q A notation designates the qualifiers.OSHA,/EPA compliance is necessary for anyspace plan.Thosethat fail to meetthis qualification are no longer considered. Similarly,the 1998 production requirement is a qualifier. Initial cost is both a deciderand qualifier. A spaceplan must meet the $800,000budgetlimitation to be considered; this is the qualification. Initial costbelow$800,000 is abenefit;this is the decider. "D." All the other criteria are deciders, denotedby a

100

FacilitiesPlanning

The Cosmosteam chosePNI, MFA, cost estimating,payback, and weighted factor analysisas the tools for evaluation. They analyzed materialflowfirst andthen usedthe resultsto assist with the costestimating.In Step 1 ofthe MFA, they developedthe flow diagramsillustratedin figure 3.40. These diagramsshow where the flow complexityfor the existing

I Oprlon# I ProduclrFocused SpacePldn

Optlon #3 Existlng Lagoul

Figure 3,40 - Moteriol Flow Evaluotion

The Macro-Space-Plan

101

layout is greatest.Option 2, a revisedfunctional layout, improves the flow complexity and shortensflow distance.Option 1 improvescomplexity and firther shortensthe total distance. The flow complexityindex (FCI) counts the frequencyof flow crossingson the diagram. Option t has an index of 0, Option 2 has an FCI of 4, and Option 3 has an FCI of 6. Visual examination of thesematerial flow chartsconfirms the increasingmaterial flow complexity from Option 1 through Option 3. Transportwork is the summation ofeach flow distancemultiplied by the flow rate. The units for Cosmos are EFUs per day. Table 3.4 is the spreadsheet used by the team to calculatedistance and transport

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102

FacilitiesPlanning

The work for Option 1. The other options havesimilar spreadsheets. three options havetransportwork of 9,647,78,669,and 28,t31 EFUfeet per day respectively. Another measure of material flow is the frequency count for materialmoves.Option t has11 internal moves,Option 2has L4, and traveledfor the two representative Option 3has 2I. The total distance of productsis another measure. Options 1 through 3 have distances L,026,7,723, and2,735feet,respectively. The average number of trips per day is 119, 732, and !98. This analysis assumes that all trips use the EFU, an equivalent handcart,asthe means. the layoutactuallywilluse When implemented, severalmethods of handling. However, for estimating, the EF"[J assumptionis a reasonable approximation. Figure3.41is agraphicdisplayoftheMFAresults. Based on every materialflow measure, Option f. is significantlybetter than Option 2. Option 2 is significantlybetter than Option 3. Financial analysis Table 3.5 summarizes the financialresults for the threeoptions.Option 3-the existinglayout-maintains the status quo.For this reason, there is no change in either savingsor costs.Option 3 thus provides the baselinefor the financialanalysis.

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TheMacro-Space-Plan 103 The center building is the new constructionbetween the two existingbuildings.The team estimated the costat $35 per square foot. The eastextensionfor Option 2 will cost about $30 per squarefoot because it doesnot haveloading docks. Option 2 wlll need new equipment,valued at about $23,000, which will cost $21,000 for installation. Option 3 requires more equipment becauseof its cellular nature. Rearrangement costs are $45,000and $28,000,respectively, for Options 1 and 2. The cellularapproach of Option l will requiresignificanttraining and additionalconsultingfeeswhen comparedto Option 2. The team alsoanticipateda more difficult start-up. A contingencyof 15 percentthat allows for unplanned costsis appliedto the implementationofboth newoprions.Either Option 1 or

Initial CashOutflows Description Center Building East Extension Equipment Installation Rearrangement Training Consulting Startup Contingencies Total AnnualInflows Description

Option 1 Amount $161,000 $0 $176,000 $49,500 $45,000 $32,000 $43,500 $100,000 $91,050 $698,050 Option 1 Amount

Option 2 Amount $161,000 $307,800 $23,000 $7,800 $28,000 $0 $20,000 $45,000 $88,890 $681,490 Option 2 Amount $750,000
qE FFA

Option 3 Amount

$0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0 $0
Option 3 Amount $0 $0 $0

Increased Sales $750,000 Material Handling $22,885 DirectLabor $132,000 Other lndirect $75,000 Working Capital $140,000 Ouality $230,000 Total $1,349,885 Initial Inflow Inventory Years-To-Payout $1,750,000 0.23

$10,000 $37,500 $0 $20,000 $826,058 $0 0.82

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TABLE 3.5

104

Facilities Planning

Option 2 will bring increasedsalesand production. The net profit for this is estimatedat $750,000. Material handling savingscome from the decrease in handling and transport work. Using the data from the material flow analysis,the teamestimated costsavin gsof fi22,885peryearfor Option 1 and $8,558 for dollarsperyear Option2. This assumes four minutesofloading and unloading for eachtrip. It assumes an average transportspeedof 150 feet per minute and an $18.50hourly labor cost. It also assumes that each move has an empty return trip. Calculations for direct labor, quality, and other indirect labor savings arelessrigorous,but the teamdeveloped conservative estimates from their experiences. Option t has a significantinventory reductionof ff7.75million. This is a one-time savings andlessens theworking capitalrequired. The intereston this, at 8 percent,amountsto $140,000per year. The payoutfor Option 1 is 0.23 years. The payoutfor option 2 is 0.82 years. Both payoutsare quick. There is no payout for Option 3 because there is no initial investment. An ROI analysiswould be more rigorous than the payout method. However, the fast paybacks for Options 1 and 2 indicate that the increased complexityand effort requiredfor an ROI analysis is unnecessary. The teamreviewedthe decisioncriteriato seeif the options met all qualifiers. All three options met the regulatory qualifiers. All three options met the budgetary qualifier. Only Options 1 and 2 will satisfr 1998 production requirements.This signifies that doing nothing, Option 3, is not a viablecourse of action.Option 3, however,hasbeen useful as a baselinefor improvementestimates. Positi ve -n eg ative -i ntere sting Having completed the quantitative analyses, the evaluationgroup then rurnedto PNI analysis. Meetingwith a facilitator,theyfocused on each to option and eachaspect in turn. They usedbrainstormingtechniques develop the positive, negative,and interesting points for each option. The resultsare in table 3.6. Weighted factor analysis With the quantitative and qualitative analysis complete, the team rurned to weighted factor analysis,where analysis and opinion are mergedinto a singledecision. Figure 3.42 summarizes the weighted factor results.The team first reviewed each factor and confirmed the definition. Through discussion, the membersreacheda consensus on the weights. Each

TheMacro-Space-Plan 105 factor had a weight betweenone and ten. Operating cost, quality, and delivery receivedhigh weights (ten and nine).Thesefactorshavethe most direct effectin the marketplace. The group believedthey had the highest strategicimportance. Material flow, communication,and teamwork received weights in the seven to eightrange. Thesefactors aresomewhatrelated. Good material

PNlAnalysisSummary
Option 1 Positive
BestMaterial Handling Simplif ication Neat & CleanGeometry Less Inventory Better Teamwork FitsW/TOM FasterThroughput
Factar Racnnnca

Option 2 Negative
HighTraining Required It MightNot Work Difficult Adjustment Higher Risk

Option 3 Interesting

LessSpace LessCost Faster Payout BestAnnual Cost Easier Supervision Employee Involvement Nice Aisle System Uses Current Software w/Kanban Production Control Option I Positive Reduced Material Handling Nice Aisle System Neat& Clean Geometry Easy Personal Adjustment Lotsof Space Option 3 Interesting LowRisk Allows Cellular High Cost Transition Later Allows Cellular Procrastination NoThroughput lmprovement MoreSpace Required LowerPayout Higher Annual Cost
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Involvement DoesNot Assit TOM LessTeamwork

TABLE 3,6

106

Facilities Planning

flow improvescommunicationand simplifiesoperations. It alsoreduces interdepartmental problems.Betterflow andbettercommunicationenhance teamwork.Material flow alsoties to operatingcost. The team then examined material flow and compared the three options. With quantitative data from the MFA, they quickly achieved consensus on the ratings. Option 1 receivedan A for material flow,

Weighted Factor Analysis

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The Macro-Space-Plan

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Option 2 received an I, and Option 3, the baseline, received a U. The team repeated this process for the other factors. Delivery had somequantitativebasis. The number and length of moves from the MFA indicated that delivery would improve under Option 3, whereasdelivery perhapswould see slight improvement under Option 2. Qrality, new products,teamwork, and communicationhad no quantitativeanalysis. Nevertheless, discussion and a reviewof the PNI analysis brought a consensus among the team members. They then multiplied each factor weight by each raring and totaledthe score for eachoption. Option 1 received 194points,Option 2 received94 points, and Option 3 received18 points. From those scores, the group concludedthat Option 1 was bestby alargemargin. The team could have begun the weighted factor analysis by weighing eachfactor individually and rating eachoption. They could then average and comparetheir resultsasa basisfor discussion. This is a usefultechnique when it appears that individualshavewidely differing views. Severalcomputer programs are availablefor this type of multil factor decisionmaking,but the most important resultsderivefrom the discussions. In most situations, a manualcompilationlike that in figure 3.42 rs sufficient.

Conclusion
This completes the discussion of macro-space-planning. Many of the methods apply to other levels of spaceplan design. Material flow analysis, for example, is an important tool for Level 2, "Site Planning." Weighted factor analysisappliesat all levels. For most facility planning, the macro-space-plan is the most important planning level. It is where strateg.y is defined and the first stepstoward implementationare taken. It is the level that usuallyhas the greatest impact on a firm's competitiveposition. For thesereasons it hasbeen the sublectof the most subsrantial discussion in this book.

Chapter4 Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

Micro-space-planning,Level 4, is the next level of design detail. Micro-space-planning determines the locationofequipment,furniture, andworkstations for eachdepartment or SPU ofthe macro-space-plan. Process chartsand operationplans define how peopleand equipment will work within the space(fig. a.1). The output is usually a twodimensionallayout for eachdepartmentor SPU. It may be helpful to combine the space plans for eachSPU on a large drawing that overlays the macro-space-plan. Soundmicro-levelspace planningensures thatworkflows smoothly in eachSPU, promoting teamwork.It affectssupervision, o rganizational learning,costs, inventory,quality,delivery, flexibility,andcoordination, as well as many aspectsof the firm's cost structure.It provides an opportunity to reengineer the processes. During this activity,collaborationwith supervisors andworkers in eachdepartmentis vital. The success of the space largely plan depends on their cooperationbecause it is their spaceand their work that will change.Upper management usuallyparticipates lessat this level than at higher levels. Micro-space-planningsometimesoccursbefore the large-scale macro-space-plan is designed, particularlyif only one areaneedsa new space plan. Or, a designerm y wish to developan experimental work cell to gain experience and try out new ideas.Ifso, he or she should review the parts of Chapter 2 that discuss levelsand phasing. The approach to micro-layouts discussed in this chapteris similar to that for macro-layouts. It has five major tasks,eachof which has a corresponding procedure diagramthat tellsthe designer or designteam

Planning r 1 0 Facilities fundamentalelements-SPUs, how to do it. The macro-space-plan's and constraints-still apply,yet there are significant affinities, space, This chapterexplainsthe tasksand procedures. differences. organizethis work, while The model projectplan helpsdesigners allowing them to look aheadand behind. Focusingon a detailedtask also means stepping back to view the entire work cell design.This where each differs significantlyfrom designinga macro-space-plan, task can be approachedas a relatively independent piece of work.

D l a m o n dE q u l p m e n t Uacro Spacoplan

Figure4.1 - Workcell Operotions Plon

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

11' |

Work cells
Work cellsaresmall,selfMacro-space-plan SPUsareoftenwork cells. contained work units with severalmachines or operations. Their equipment and peopleare situatedtogether in a compact,sequential arrangement.Work cellsusuallyhavetwo to ten people and two to ten to produce operations. They perform all or most operationsnecessary Here aresome their productsor completea majorproductionsequence. examples: A manufacturer ofjet-engine turbine bladesdecidedto usework cells to prepare the intricate and delicate wax patterns for precision investment castings. A molding machineproduced wax components. A team of t\,vo to five people then assembledthe components into patterns. They manually cleanededges,filled voids, and inspected completed patterns. Within a few days of cell startup, defects and rework declined 30 percent while productivity rose significantly. Throughput went from severalweeks to one day. The same ofturbine blades alsochose manufacturer to usecellsfor processing raw castings. In the post-casting cell,tvvoto seven peoplecut They shot-blasted the blades, gatesand risers. ground flash,de-burred, x-rayed and inspected. Throughput time went from months to days. increased dramatically. Productivity improved. Qrality A maker of industrial air cleaners decidedto use cells for final assembly.Productivity increasedby 20 percent. Responsetime for specialorderswent from weeks to hours. Finished-goodsinventory declinedby 96 percent. The same manufacturer then linked aweldment cell for cabinetsto the final assembly cells.This further reducedWIP inventory and improved quality. The air cleaner manufacturer then placedsheetmetal fabricationin a linked cell.Internal-partsshortages disappeared. WIP declinedfurther. A firm that manufacturesmechanicalcontrol cableschoseto use cellsfor final assembly. That companyreducedthe amount of finished Workers in the goodsby90 percentandimprovedqualityby60 percent. d at I20 percentof the former work standard. cell consistently produce In addition, workers in the cell performed many tasks that indirect employees previouslyaccomplished. A manufacturerof HVAC equipment machinesand assembles large gearboxes.The firm installed a machining cell and a linked assembly cellandreduced finishedgoodsby 80 percentwhileimproving time for specialorders quality and productivity significantly. Response went from weeks to twenty-four hours. Many other industriesuse work cells with similar results.These indude thosespecializing in electronics, steel casting, structuralfabrication,

112

Facilities Planning

plastics,and vinyl windows. Cells work with single products or many products,in offices,hospitals,and serviceindustries.They are effective dominatesa process. operations wherevercoordinationof sequential by their range of productsand processes Cells can be classified (fig. 4.2), using the conceptof operationfocusdiscussed in Chapter 3 (seefigs" 3.79 and 3.20).These cell classifications are: DedicatedCell-Awork cell that producesonly a single product processes. with, perhaps,minor variation. It has multiple, sequential of productfocus.Sucha cell may be Dedicatedcellshavea high degree found in the lower left region of the chart in fignre 4.2. (GT) Cell-GT cellsproducea family ofrelated GroupTechnologjt identical, processes. products.They have similar, but not necessarily Examples are the machining of similar shafts or the assemblyof productswith many common parts. GT cellshavea moderatedegree ofproduct focus. Functional Cell-:lhese cells use a single process,such as heat on a wide varietyof unrelatedproducts.Functional treat,that operates They may be found on the left in figure 4.2. focused. cellsare process Project Cell-lhese cells produce a wide variety of unrelated A small tool-and-die shop is, products using multiple processes. effectively, a project work cell. Project cells have neither product nor focus. process Project and functional cells are outside the common notion of someofthe advantages theycanachieve Nevertheless, cellularoperations. of traditional cells.They usethe samedesignapproach.

Interpretingterminologyand conventions
Most business operationsprovide a variety of products and services. while othersgo to internal Someproductsare for externalcustomers areintangible,theirprovisionfollowsthe Although services customers. product. In this chapter,for space sameprinciplesas a manufactured may alsobe interpretedas service. the term product plan purposes, Also, the sizesof lots and containersin work cells have different interpretationsin different industries.For example,the term large container meansone thing to a personwho works in an electronics with a heavysteel plant, but it hasquite a differentmeaningto someone in the insurance It may haveno meaningat all to someone background. but well-understood, industry. Conventionsareusedas approximate, terms that crossindustry boundaries. in this book are basedon The conventionusedin the examples piece refersto one item or a singleunit designproduction volum e. Single to lessthan one ofproduction. Smallisa quantityofproduct equivalent

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

113

half-hour ofproduction.Mediumis a quantiryofproduct equalto or less than four hours ofproduction. Largers a quantity ofproduct greater than four hours of production.

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' t1 4

Planning Facilities

The micro-leveltasks
The preferred approachto micro-layouts follows the pattern developed Figure 4.3 is the model project.It has in Chapter 3 for macro-layouts. five generally sequentialtasks: ' Task 04.01, "Analyze and SelectProducts"; 'Task 04.02,"Design and Refine Process"l. ' Task 04.03, "SelectInfrastructureElements"; 'Task 04.04,"Design Cell Layouts";and . Task 04.05, "SelectCell Option." and their diagramthat showsthe designsteps Eachtaskhasa procedure However, decisions. help make design forms and aids Various sequences. there are parts of eachtask that can have multiple options and many

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

115

points where a particular line of inquiry appears infeasible.Multiple designiterationsmay be necessary. For example , the selectionof a particular product group appears viable during Task 04.01, but the calculationof process time during Task 04.02 leads to the realization that the equipment has very low utilization. A return to Task 04.01for aproductgroup revisionmay be necessary. Or, during the evaluation process, it maybecomeapparent that a different option for production control offers certain advantages. Productioncontrol is an infrastructure elementfrom Task 04.03.The designerthen returnsto that task,specifies a new option, and designs an additionallayout. Some micro-layouts fall outside the work cell classifications mentioned earlier.They use SPUs and departments with many more peopleand processes. Suchoperations aremore difficult to coordinate, control, and supervise. They are often process-focused. Non-cellular micro-space-plans requirelessrigor and effort in Tasks04.01 through 04.03. Otherwise,the samemodel project and task procedures apply. Compatibility of design elements Severalblocks in the taskprocedures indude the question,"Compatibility OK?" This is a signalto refer to a compatibility guide. Figure 4.4 is a compatibilityguidefor the elements of awork celldesignand shouldbe read in the sameway asthe affinity chart. Shadedbullets indicate usual compatibility between two elements.The examplein the lower right shows that a small externallot sizeis compatible with a small external containerand incompatible with medium andlargeexternal containers. This guide should be consulted frequently for the first few work cell designs, althoughexperienced designers may not needto useit. It is not infallible, however.There are occasions when a designwill use elementsthat, under normal circumstances, are incompatible.

Selectingthe products
Product selectionis the first and most fundamentaltask for work cell design.It must be decided which productseachSPU will process. This determinesthe focus for the cell. All other design decisionsflow from this task. The deliverablefor this task is a list of products for each cell and a designproduction volume for eachproduct. Decisions are basedpartially on how the products are processed. A functional cell might processevery product. In a predominantly functional space plan, a product may travel through many SPUs.In a product-focusedwork cell, the products may stay in one cell. During the macro-space-planning, products may have been

1 16

Facilities Planning

may have made a selection, to a compositecell or designers assigned later. Task 04.01 knowing that further refinementwould be necessary is the time when this should occur. In most situations, Product selection groupsproductsandprocesses. to allow product focus,the groups should consistof similar products . that use a similar process and sequence "SelectProducts." forTask04.01, Figure4.5 showsthe procedure This datamay input datafor productsand volumes. Block 1 represents macroprepared havebeencollected during Task 03.02of a previously

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Figure4.4 - Wo*cell Compotability Guide

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

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space-plan,but more detail rr.ray be needed at this point. Block 2 represents input data in the form of information about the current or proposed processes. Again, someofthis may havebeencollected for the macro-space-plan, but more detail may be neededat the micro-level. In Block 3, a product profile and salesforecastis prepared for individual products rather than product groups. However, if the variation between productsis minor, it is possible to consider them a singleproduct. Blocks 4 through t help selec the methodology for product groupingandselection. The basis for this groupingvaries. In machining

To 04.02

Figure4.5 - Task 04.01- Select Products

118

Planning Facilities

operations,similar size and featuressuch as round shafts or milled operations, aremost likely the determiningfactors.In assembly shapes part commonality is the criterion. intuitive charting/ Three methodsexistto helpwith this selection: In and classification. and coding grouping, production flow analysis, the products, personor teamexamines inruitive grouping, anexperienced often visually and perhaps with processcharts to bring out valuable productsto information. From the results,that personor team assigns if there aretwenry that works well logical groups.This is a quick method a where a few productscan represent or fewerproductsor in instances larger population. Experienced shoppeopleoften think they can group many parts and intuition. This usingonly their experience complex routings, with Instead, beyondtwentydistinctproducts. lessandless effective becomes intuitive groupingshouldbe usedto designa protot)?e cellfor learning. (PFA) usescurrentroutingsand processes. Product flow analysis or manual methods,parts that computeranalysis, With spreadsheets, have similar routings are grouped. PFA is a powerful and fast method if processes are consistent.Like intuitive grouping, it is most are simple or productsfew. PFA begins when processes advantageous with more than 100 products. to lose effectiveness (C&C) associates a codenumber with Coding and classification information on The codenumbercarries everyproduct andlor process. manager then sorts A methods. database features or process product items the and retrieves various combinations of codes to group works well evenwhen tensof appropriately. Coding and classification of items arein the productmix. It handlescomplexproducts thousands and orocesses. Aithough C&C requires a major initial effort, the benefits are commensuratewith the effort. It is a valuable method becauseit Familiescanbeidentified the database from manyperspectives. examines for purchasing and the issuanceof group purchaseorders. Design standardized. can be examinedand parts,tooling, and gauges features more rationally. Cost driverscan alsobe identified and costsallocated during the havebeenthe subjectof much research Coding systems managershas made past thirty years.The advent of modern database thereis a significant to use.Nevertheless, flexibleandeasier codingsystems can be quite sophisticated. element of art to their use. Coding systems such as Salvendy's Designers and planners should consult references alargeeffort in a C&C HandbookOflndustriat Engineeringbeforeinvesting is a major factor in getting good results. project.Experience Block 4 asksif there are fewer than twenty products. If so, Block

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

119

5 recommendspreparing processcharts for each product and then proceedingto Block 10. If there are more than twenty products, but fewer than 100 products and fewer than t',arenty unique routings, a processchart for eachrouting is necessary. For twenty or more routings, a production flow analysis is recommended. Ifthere aremorethan 100products,they should be codedand classified. The break points of twenty and 100 products are approximate. When processes aresimpleorproductsaresimilar,chartingor PFA can be usedfor evenvery large mixes. In Block L0, preliminary prt families are identified basedon rhe previousanalysis. For assembly operations, theseareproductsthat usethe same parts.For machining,or otherequipment-intensive operations, these arepartsthat usethe sameequipmentand tooling. For services, theseare productsthat havea common customerbaseor usesimilar skill sets. At this point, it hasnot beendeterminedwhether the familiesof equipment and peoplewill form a viable cell. A preliminary product family might havetoo many or two few peopleto createan effectivecell. The family might, or it might not, utilize the availableequipment effectively.Proceedingthrough the analysis will test the viability of the currentfamily selection. Ifthe family doesnot appear viablear anytime, optionsinclude:addingmoreproducts, splittingthefamily,ormodifring the process. The Diamond Equipment Company Throughout this chapter,the activitiesof the Diamond Equipment Companywill be usedasexamples of how micro-space-planning tasks and procedures may be accomplished. Diamond manufactures a varieryof special pumps for chemicals and hydrocarbonsand is reengineeringtheir facilities. During the macro-space-planning, the staffidentified fourteenproductgroupsfor cellularmanufacturing usingthe intuitive method. Eachproductgroup has a corresponding work cell for assembly One of Diamond's proposedwork cells assembles diaphragm pumps.Theseproductsappeared to be a good selection for a work cell because they usedmany common parts and the sametest equipment. Their design characteristics were similar. The total assemblyand indirect labor originally usedfive to six persons. The "A Team" was chosento designthis cell as its first project. The team members included a supervisor,five workers from various production departments,and an industrial engineerexperirnced in space planning systems.

120

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

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The initialproduct selectionwas still tentative. The ATeam's first task was to veri$r that selection.Team membershad the option of dividing the diaphragmpump cell into several cells.If necessary, they could add other pumps to the cell'sproduct family. The team prepareda P-V analysis, including a drawing (fig. a.6) of one tJpicalproduct. From the drawingsand other information, the teamlearnedthat their proposed productmix includedtwo pump sizes. They alsodiscovered that threepressure ratingsfor eachsizerequired six different springs and three diaphragm materials required six diaphragms.Electricalcomponentsfor eachpump were rhe same. A forecastfor all proposedproductsis shown in figure 4.7. The team chosea baseline designvolume for the work cell of eighty-eight units per day. The product profile in figure 4.8 showsrelativevolumes basedon recenthistory. The team decidedthat this product selection was viable and proceeded to Task 04.02,"Design The Process." Diamond alsohasa machineshopwith twenty-seven peopleand avarietyof numericalcontrol (NC) and conventional equipment.The machine shop usesvertical and horizontal machining centers,lathes, drills, and secondaryequipment. The machineshopmakes components for all assembly operations.

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At the macro-space-plan level,the designers identifiedthe machine in it a location and space shop SPU asa compositecell.They assigned the facility. The M Team was chosento designwork cells within this composite cell. Like the A Team, the M Team had an industrial and five other members. engineer,a supervisor, the M Team performed a preliminary To simplify the analysis, Team members identified high-volume items product segregation. They decided to segregate theseitems that ran on dedicated equipment. and anaLyze them separately. For the remaininglow-volumeitems,the teamutilized figure 4.5. They found the information required in Blocks 1, and 2 of this task There procedure.They prepareda product profile and salesforecast. items, so the team proceeded to Block 6. Because were twenty-seven therewerefewer than 100items,the teamwent on Block 7. They found twenty-six unique routings among their lwenty-seven items. The proceduresuggested production flow analysis. To apply PFA, the team developed a matrix (fig. 4.9) that correlated parts and processes but did not show the sequenceof operations. Part identifierswere listed on the left, equipmentor work centersacrossthe top. The check marks in figure 4.9 show that,a particularpart usesa particularwork center.

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

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Initially, the matrix appeared to haveno identifiable pattern. The prospectsfor finding viable work cells and part families did not seem good.The teamexaminedthe matrixfurther.Theysortedandrearranged rows and columns.Gradually,structureemerged from apparentchaos; the result is illustrated in figure 4.10. The shaded areasrepresent machinegroupsand part familiesfor four work cells. The upper left block is a manual machining cell with turning, milling, and other equipment.The reamconsidered breakingthis cell into turning and milling cells.However,the productionvolume,seemed insufficient.Moreover, the cell had a compatibleset of skills.

124

FacilitiesPlanning

The next block is an NC cell. It turns and mills shafts.This cell shares a heattreatfurnace with the manualcell.The third cell mills and and plates,usuallycastings or weldments. drills bases A fourth cellturns,mills, and drills largerotationalparts-mostly castings-and shares an NC drill with the third cell. Two operations fall outsidethe cells. Theseusea snaggrinderand manual broach, which are low-cost machines.The team expectsto ourchaseadditional such machines. Everv cell that recuires these tperations will havea snaggrinder and broach,eventhough they will sit idle much of the time.

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

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At present,the team has not considered revisingthe processes. _ some operations couldmovefrom NC to a manualprocess o.,ri.. '.r.rru. Revised processing couldpresent interesting possibilities for tightening the relationshipbetween product and process within eachcell.It mighi relieve an overloaded cell. It might give additional work to an underutilizedcell.

Gator Steel Foundry

Gator Steelis ajobbing foundry in norrhern Florida.Its specialty is small-to-medium-sized high-alloy steelcastings. Gator alsocastsin mild steel.Many of Gator's castings becomewear surfaces for earthmoving and logging equipme nt. The firm hasabout800 activecastings and uses a varietyof molding processe s.The work doneby its managers and designers is an example ofhow a companythat manufactures more than 100 items with complexprocesses accomplished Task 04.01. Management decidedto useC&C to rationalizeand standardize the processeg. They alsowanted to set up work cellsfor their molding operations. After following the task procedureoutlined in figure 4.5, they decided C&C was the mosr appropriatemethod for grouping productsand processes into cells. Because of the complexityof the castingprocess and the product range,Gator hired a consultantto help developan appropriatecoding systemand carry out the analysis. He developeda polycodesystem, wtrerebyeachdigit position represents the samerype of information. This contrastswith a monocodesystemwhere the digit information variesbasedon the value of other digits. Such a polycoderequiresa longer code number and more computer memory and storagespace. However,polycodes areeasy to work with when conventional database managers are used. Gator's consulrantperformed the work on a PC using a wellknown database manager. The codecarriedinformation on both part features and currentprocesses. The consultantusedthe part features to standardize processes and group parts into families. Figure 4.11 illustrates a samplingof someof the 800 castings and their code numbers.The report headershowssequence numbei, part number,and name.It alsoshowsthe positionnumberfor eachcharacter in the code number.The code number has the followins structure: Position Feature 01 Annual Usage 02 Lot Size 03 FinishedWeight 04 Material

126

FacilitiesPlanning

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

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At present,the team has not considered revising the processes. Someoperations couldmovefrom NC to a manualpro..r, o.,ni.. .,r.rru. Revised processing couldpresent interesting possibilitie sfor tightening th_e relationshipbetween product and process within eachcell.It might relieve an overloaded cell. It might give additional work to an underutilizedcell.

Gator Steel Foundry

Gator Steelis ajobbing foundry in northern Florida. Its specialry is small-to-medium-sized high-alloy steelcastings. Gator alsocastsin mild steel.Many of Gator's castings becomewear surfaces for earth-oyt.rg and loggingequipment.The firm hasabout800 activecastings and uses a varietyofmolding processes. The work doneby its managers and designers is an example of how a companythat manufactures more than 100 items with complexprocesses accompl;shed Task 04.01. Management decidedto useC&C to rationalizeand standardize the processeg. They alsowanted to set up work cellsfor their mording operations.After following rhe task procedureoudined in figure 4.5, they decided C&C was the mosr appropriare method for grouping productsand processes into cells. Because of the complexityof the castingprocess and the product range' Gator hired a consulrantto help developan appropriati coding system and carry our the analysis.He developed a polyiode sysrem, wherebyeachdigit position represents the samer1,pe of information. This contrastswith a monocodesystemwhere tne digit information variesbasedon the value of other digits. Such a polycoderequiresa longer code number and more computer memory and ,torage space. However,polycodes areeasy to work with when convention"ldat"base managers are used. Gator's consultantperformed the work on a PC using a wellknown database manager. The codecarriedinformation on both part features and currentprocesses. The consultantusedthe part features to standardize processes and group parts into families. Figure 4.11 illustrates a samplingof somecifthe 800 castings and their code numbers.The report headershowssequence numbei, part number,andname.It alsoshowsthe positionnumberfor eachcharacter in the code number.The codenumter has the following structure: Position Feature 01 Annual Usage 02 Lot Size

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126

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

127

15 Secondary Core Equipment 76 Group TechnologyFamily Assignment Initially, the analyst codedeachparr using only positions1 through 15. Position 01 is the first character of the codenumber.The number 3 in that position represents an annualusageof201 up to 500 castings. 4 represents annualusage of501 to 1,000 castings. Position05 is for heattreatment.0represents n ormahzatrcnat 1,600 to 7,675degrees. This is one of several standard heattreatmentsat Gator. 3 represents awater quenchfollowed by temperingat 800 degrees. Position 10 showsthe tlpe of molding equipment.0is a Hunter Matchplate molding machine with a24by 24 matchplate.4 represents an OsborneJolt- Squeeze machinewith a 16 by 12 flask. Other character positions described size, weight, and other important characteristics.This information was vital for production planning, scheduling, costing,and tooling design. The analyst then checked the database for obviousdiscrepancies. For example, certainmolding equipmentcolresponds to ceftainsizeranges. A retrievalon combinationsof characters showssuchinconsistencies. Next, the analyst standardizedthe processes. Parts with similar featuresnormally should haveuniform processes. For example,highvolume parts should run on high-volume equipment. Any such discrepancies were corrected. The analystthen beganto group parts around similar processes, using character position 16 to identif,i eachfamily. He assigned nine of the parts in figure 4.77 to the H1 famlly. This family haspartswith sufficientvolumefor aHunter automatic molding machine.They use the sameflask size and have the same material, allowing similar parts to run together and minimizing changeover time. FamiliesH0 and H3 alsorun on the Hunter equipment but with alarger mold size. The N2 famlly uses a no-bake binder system. The no-bake process is more expensive than greensandbut achieves tightertolerances. The toleranceclass, Position 08, is differenrfor castings in family N2. Only a small sample of parts has been shown. The complete database, 816 part numbers,fell into 14 families.The number of parts in each family varied from 2 to 73. In later steps, Gator Steeladdedprocess time andother information to their database. This allowed the staff to calculate^ver^geequipment utilization and peoplerequirements for proposedwork cells. All codenumbersin figure 4.l1are somewhatsimilar, and some areevenidentical.This is because the castings in the sampleardsimilar in manyrespects. Theyallhaveaboutthesame sizeandweight,andthey

128

FacilitiesPlanning

Within each usethe samematerial.Theyhave simplecoresor no cores. GT family, the code numbers have even more similarity. Yet, from the design engineer'sperspective,these castings are quite different they have different names and functions and become the castings partsin different products.From a marketingperspective, and have different also are different: they go to different industries the products have different customers. From a financial perspective, and profit margins. pricing, overheads,

Designing the process

This Task 04.02 designsor redesignsthe cell's production process. it often results in significant improvementsin productivity because that the process suitsthe work cell'spart family. It alsoforces ensures a critical review of the t1pe, size, and capacityof equipment and may eliminate process elementsthat add no value. This task is similar to some of the work in Task 03.11 at the was the process macro-levelbut with more detail.At the macro-level, to ensurea valid cell definition. All defined only asfar aswas necessary equipment or processtimes may not have been identified, and the that further refinementwas necessary. designermay haverecognized In Block 1, a preliminary Figure 4.12 showsthe task procedure. This often is an process and the equipmentrequiredfor it is selected. to For a completelynew product, it may be necessary existingprocess. should result This preliminaryselection process. startwith a proposed equipmentlist. in a process chart and corresponding Block 2 refines the process.Non-value-added elements are eliminated and other options for equipment scaleare explored.For example,a preliminary processfor a steel fabrication cell needed a sophisticatedcutoffsaw- alarge,high-volumepieceofequipment that would servefive different cells.The processrefinement examined the This Eachcellwould haveoneof the saws. r bandsaws. useoffive smalle eliminated five transport operations,reducedinventory and simplified when making is a particularlyimportant issue Process scale scheduling. a transition from a functional to a cellular spaceplan. Blocks 3 through 6 estimatesset-up, equipment, process,and Traditional time the differences. times.Figure4.13illustrates personnel and machinetimes arethe that personnel, process, studyoften assumes that one from an underlyingsupposition This assumption comes same. a singlemachine,which often is invalid. Figure 4.13 personoperates loadsthe machineand is then showsthat, afteran initial setup, a person That personthen unloadsthe machine idle while the machineoperates. and inspectsthe part. The machineis idle during the inspection.The

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

129

process time is the total throughput time for one part. Disparities between person and machine times can generate important productivity increases. Where such disparityis significant, peoplecanload a machineand then moveto anotherprocess while the machineoperates. The longerthe process time, the more advantageous this becomes. If set-upsvary significantly between parts, the setup time for eachpart and eachoperationshouldbe estimated; otherwise,a blanket set-up time for each operation may be sufficient. Consider the possibilitiesfor improving set-up times.These estimates do not have to be particulady accurate. Accuracyon the order ofplus or minus 20 percent is sufficient. These times should be documented on a spreadsheet similarto Table 4.1.

Figure4.12 - Design and RefineProcess

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FacilitiesPlanning

T i m i n gT e c h n i q u e s
-Stopwatch Study -Predetermined Systems (MTM) 'Experiencd OPinion -Historical Data -Equipment Specifications

10

15

20

25

30

Figure4.13- WorkcellTirnes

S/U per Day: Units/Day: Avail Min/Day:

2 88 420 PERUNIT PERDAY

Sru 3.60 3.00 2.00 1,.75 2.00 0.00 2.00 1.00 Oper Mach Proc 3.09 3.09 3.09 1.38 1.38 1.38 0.88 0.88 0.88 2.19 2.79 2.79 4.70 4.70 4.70 0.45 0.50 0.95 1.03 15.00 17.06 1.88 1.88 1.88

Station/Op Head SubAssy Diaphragm Assy Body/Coil SubAs Main Assy ElectAssy ElectTest Flo/Press Test Package Totals

Proc Oper Mach 277.92 27t.92 27r.92 72I.44 121.44 121.44 77.44 77.44 77.44 1,92.72 1,92.7r 192.72 413.60 473.60 473.60 39.60 44.00 83.60 7507.28 90.64 1320.00 165.44 765.44 165.44

Sru 7.20 6.00 4.00 3.50 4.00 0.00 4.00 2.00

15.60 29.62 32.13 15.35 1372.80 2606.562827.44 30.70

People Reqd: 3.34767

TABLE 4.1

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

131

The time for eachcyclewhen the equipmentis busyandunavailable for other work is then estimated. These times may be obtainedfrom equipment specifications, stopwatch timing, existing standards,or experience. The level of accuracy normally usedto setwork standardsis not necessary. Accuracyofplus or minus 15 percentis usuallysufficient. How long is a personis occupiedduring an operationcycle? To calculate personnel time, the samesources usedfor equipmenttimes are available,and the required level of accuracyis similar. Process time is the time a part spendsin process, not including queuingtime. Someprocesses may havea curing or other wait, which is alsopart of the process time. In situations where a processrequires constant attendance, personnel, equipment,and process times may coincide.This alsomay happen when very short cyclesprecludethe possibilrtyof a person moving to anotheroperation. Block 7 uses the time estimatesto calculatethe amount of equipment and the number of peopleneededfor eachprocess. Block 8 selects the externallot size.External lot sizeis the quantiry of product produced after a changeover or ser up of the cell. This is usuallydifferent from internal lot size,.which will be discussed later. The form in figure 4.14 maybe usedas a guide for estimatingthe external lot size. selecting an appropriatelot size requires intelligent balancing ofthree costfactors: set-upcosts, inventorycosts, andpiececosts. It coststime, effort, and money to set up or changeequipment. This set-up cost must then be spread over the numbei ol units produced.For example, it may take two hours to setup a machineat a cost of $10 per hour. The total set-up cost, then, is $20. If one production unit is processed, the setupcostper unit is $20. If two units are processed, a cost of $10 is added to each unit. If 100 units are processed, a cost of20 centsis addedto eachunit. If set-up costswere the only factor, infinitely large lots would be the result. Inventory costs are among the offsetting factors that limit the maximum lot size. Larger lots call for more inventory. Resourcesare expended to provide the spacefor that inventory, which also needs working capital and insuranceagainst loss. It requires tracking and support systemsto control it. Inventory also can becomeobsoleteor damaged. Piececostsare thosecoststhat remain constantregardless of lot size. They include direct labor, materials,and some overhead.The more valuablethe material and labor in a product, the fasterstorageand inventorycostsrise. When selecting external lot size, there are severalprinciples to

132

FacilitiesPlanning

keepin mind: that arcfar abovethe optimum. Designers 1 . Most firms uselot sizes that current lot sizesare realistic. should not assume

2. The total cost curveis usually{lat nearthe optimum. Therefore, a

significant variancefrom the theoretical optimum may have little choosea convenientround number or cost effect.For this reason, use a rule of thumb. Such a rule of thumb might be 0.5 daysof production or a singlecustomerorder.

3 . Conventional accounting systemsoften disguise many storage

costs.These must be investigatedwith tenacity to make good decisions. ofthe total on the shape 4. Set-upreductioncanhavedramaticeffects cost curve.It may becomeso flat that the lot sizeissuebecomes irrelevant. Be sure to consider the value and effects of set-up reduction. Diamond's A-team designs a process The A Team at Diamond Equipment continued its work ceil chart for the original the process designproject.Figure 4.14 illustrates functional had organized itselfalong the firm andlayout.Because process The team lines, this chart shows many moves,delays,and storages. basedon the sameequipmentbut in a cellular proposeda new process Figure 4.15 showsthis refined process. arrangement. times,the team From these 4.1 Table containsthe time estimates. They assumed four the peopleand equipmentrequirements. calculated set ups per day knowing this might changewhen the externallot sizes were calculated. The team then estimatedthe total set-up time within the cell at 15.35 minutes.The sum of all set-up times with the previouslayouts was about 60 minutes.The team did not know exactlyhow to achieve itwas a reasonable believed this reduction,eventhough teammembers goal. The cost for a single set up for the new cell was $4.32. This calculationis shown at the upper right in figtre 4.14. unit cost,which doesnot dependon set The team next calculated up or lot size.Direct labor, taken from table 4.1, was 0.25 hours.The was fi78.67.Unit costwas,therefore,fi56.77. labor ratewith overhead storage cost,theteamwentto Diamond'saccounting To determine department,where the annualcostsfor operatingthe finished goods

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

133

warehouse were identified.This annualwarehouse cost,$236,901.00. is in figure 4.74.Team membersdeterminedthe average number of diaphragmpumpsin the warehouse during the previous year,and they determined the spacenecessary for each pump. They then assigned 0.003percentof the warehouse costto eachdiaphragmpump unit. The cost for storing a singleunit for an entire yearwas ff15.32.

Unlt Cost
Item Cost($) Labor(Hours' Ratel...2.5*.1t.67= 4.85 Material/Parts
Overhead Olher:

Sotup Cost
llem

Labor (Hours' e"tet...]5-1j.!..82

Stup Scrap Setup Materials Lost Produclion Prolit (ll @ 10006)_

Cost (g)

172z

4S.tG

Tolal Cost/unil

$ st.ll
Storage Cost warehouse Cost($) Lease/capiral charse................ ....12.,.'l.gg. :p.g L a b o(fH o u r'sB a t e ) . . .. . . . . . . . 1 1 2 , O 2 O . O O lnsurance................ 6,o8,7.oo Maintenance
Total

Economic Lot Slze ELS =

ELS= to4 Total unit cost

Lot Piece Setup Storage

16,5oo.oo 3,4oo.Oo 13,154.OO 1,54O.OO 2,1oo.oo 276.qO1.OO O.OO37o t.Zl

Tares.......,.............. U t i l i r i e s....-.. . . . . . . . . Obsofescence.........__ OTUQSubtota|.............. % of Warehouse/Unit. Uhic t osl'Inlernal

0.173 4_54.710 o.ot6 52L4-71o 7l_s4:71!_ o.osg oo _54:zle_ o.o43 2l___54.71o o.o35 o.ozq 5!L42:o 7JL4.7_1_9_ o.ozs

_9.o1o o.o2o oato o.o4o lnt g o.ose o.o69

sq.(a3 s4.916 s4.7q7 54.7q3 53t_g_4 sq.7qt 54.8o4

A n n u a f W a r e h o u s e C o s t / U n i t . . . . _1 . 5.32

54. 54. 54.

125 15o 175 LotSize(Unils)

2oo

225

25o

275

Figure4,14 - Lot SizeAnalysis

134

Facilities Planning

t to t9 ,360 units per year.Using this figure, the day.This is equivalen set-up cost, and the unit storage cost, they calculated the theoretic economiclot size(ELS). The ELS was 104 units, or gre^terthan one day'sproduction.The teamknew that it had probablynot identified all the storagecost and that total cost curvesare often flat near the ELS.

Items5A E 58

Irems 1-g 8 6l-75 Cotl

srk

Recelve i Hrs Slore Wks 24 To Elecl 15 l'4ln AssV

Recelve 1 Hrs Store 2-4 \lk. To olaohoram 15Mh Inbound oueue l-3 DaUs Dlaph CutlAssm 6 . 1 6 x 1 0 4 - 6 1M 6 in Outbound oueue 0.5 0ags To l,4ech Assg 60 Min

Recelve 1 Nrs Slore

2-4 uks To AssemblU l5 MIn oueue Q Mech Assg l-3 Dags

Mech AssU-100 Unlts 6.16x146-616 l'4ln oulbound oueue 05 Oags To Elect Ass! 60 l'4ln Inbound oueue 05 Dags

L o t S i z e = 1 0 4U n l t s Times Are Clock/Calendar Fon Lot

Elecl Assg 1 7 6 x l O A - 4 7 4M h outbound oueue 05 Dsgs To Test l B 0 l x l 0 0 - 1 8 0 1M 1 n Inbound oueue 05 Dags Tesl E Repalr I8.0lxI00- l80l 0utbound oueue 0.5 DBgs To Pack 8 Ship 6.0 Mln lnbound oueue 0.5 Dags Pack E Shlp M 1.88x100-18 8l n

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h*, Ve"F

Chort for the Original Processond Loyout Figure4,15 - Process

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

135

This meantthat awide rangeoflot sizes brought almostthe samecosts. They calculated total costfor a rangeof lot sizes that spanned the ELS. Theyplotted them at the bottom offigure 4.14.This confirmed that a lot sizeofhalfthe ELS increased the unit priceby only two cents.

3o

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3

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5

Figure4,15 - Process Chort forthe Refned process ond Layout

136

Planning Facilities

a lot sizeof forty-four units.This is onehalf-dayofproduction, selected outlined eadierin this set-ups per day. Basedon the conventions two chapter,this is a medium lot size. of table 4.1. They used tvvoset ups per day for the spreadsheet They alsoverified that the cell neededfour people.

Planning cell infrastructure

infrastructureelements;the procedureis illustrated in Task 4.03 selects without directly fi.gure4.77. Infrastructureelementssupport Process elements infrastructure creation. Some to product or contributing touching may elements aretangibleand somearenot. The followinginfrastructure work cell design: the minimum for adequate be considered 'external containersl 'internal containers; ' externalmaterialhandling; ' internal materialhandling; ' externalproduction control; ' internal production controll ' internal lot size(transferbatch); ' equipmentbalancemethod; ' peoplebalancemethod; ' quality assurance; 'supervision; ' compensation system;and ' operatorassignments and skills. arean essential part of the work cell elements Theseinfrastructure design.If a designteam or designerdoes not selectthem, operators analysis; must do it ad hoc. Their selectionseldomrequiresextensive Each element however,it doesrequirecarefulthought and experience. must fit with the othersinto an integrated,well-functioning system. ofthe external is the selection The first stepofthe taskprocedure type of container. containersand the identification of the size and Materials and products move to and from the cell in these external containers.Containersbringing material to the cell can differ from thoseremoving products. They canimprovehandling Containers canprotecttheir contents. characteristicsand convert small units to larger handling units. They can assist with visualcontrol of materials. earlierin this chaptermay be usedto The conventions described small, medium, or large. classifycontainersas single-piece, Containers should neverbe larger than the lot size.Thus, large or medium containers should not be specified for a small lot size. This

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

137

medium containersshould not be specifiedfor a small lot size.This samesort of incompatibility can occurwith other designelements. After the containerselection,the structureofits route and the qype of handling equipmentthat will be usedare specified. This is Block 2 of the task. Handling often changessignificantlywhen manufacturers move from functional to cellular layouts. The new system must accommodate smallerloadsand more frequentmoves.This affectsthe container route structure and the type of equipment employed.

Figure4,17 - Tosk 04.03- ldentify lnfrastructure Elemenrs

138

FacilitiesPlanning

Figure 4.18 shows the basic routt structures available.(A) is a direct route structure,where material movesfrom its origin directly to its destination. Such a structure fits well with large lots and functional Fork layouts. Full loads for the equipment employed are necessary. trucks moving pallets usually operate on a direct route structure. In (B), d channelroute structureis shown. Channel structuresfit with smallercontainersand less-than-firllloads.The equipment moves alonga fixed route.At eachstopit picksup loadsoriginating at that point anddropsoffthose destinedforthatpoint. Citybusesusesucha structure. For situationswhere control of movement and material is critical, a central system (C) works well. All loads move first to a central location. A second move takes them to their destination. Central systems workwell where sorting or storagetakesplace.FederalExpress useda nationwide central systemfor m anyye rs.Manywarehousesand distributorsuse centralsystems. A s is illustrated in (D). This structure works well with long distances and partial loads.Loads move first to a terminal. They then move to a secondterminal,often on different equipment,and then on to their destination.Airlines and long-distancetruckers often use a terminal system. of equipmentis, for the most part, based on experience. Selection The equipment must be compatiblewith route structure,containers, and flow rate. For example,fork trucks work bestwith high flow rates, variable routes, direct structures, and large containers. Conveyors usually suit high flow rates,fixed routes, and direct structures.

Externalproductioncontrol
Five basicm ethods-direct link, broadcast, kanban,materialrequirements for coordinating p lanning (M RP), andreorder p oint (ROP)-are available production. This is Block 3 in figue 4.17. Direct link havea physicallink. Product movesfrom With direct linkage, processes the first to the secondprocess without queues, buffers,or delays. The processes start and stop together.They operate identical lot sizes, with usuallysingle-piece. There is no WIP betweenthem. Direct link is only feasiblewhen processes are balancedand require about the sametime per cycle.The processes must be capable of synchronization, have the sameproducts, and be co-located. Broadcast A broadcastsystemis slightly more flexible than direct link. In this

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

139

system, a scheduledictates the rate and product mix for the final operation. The same schedule is applied to upstream operations, which make their componentsin the sameorder (the line set order) as the final operation.They deliver thesecomponentsjust aheadof the scheduledassembly time. Co-location is not necessary; however, the capability to make the samelot size-usually a single piece-is. Broadcastsystems often are seenwhere subassembly operationsfeed assembly lines. Kanban Kanbansystems usea smallmixed stock.The stockpoint is often at the producingwork center. This stockhasenoughofeachitem for afew hours to a few daysofproduction. usersoftheseitemspull smallquantitiesfrom the stock frequently.They signalthe producing work centerat the rime theymakeeach withdrawal.sometimes this signaldevice is a card,hence the useof the word kanban,which is Japanese for card. At the producing work center,peopletrack the incoming cards and observestock levels.They then scheduletheir production to minimize changeover effortswhile replenishing the stocks.Kanban systems sense and respondto changingdemandvery quickly. They operatewith very low inventoriesand need short set-upsand small lot sizes. It is unnecessary to coordinate production exactly. A work center may feed and draw from many other work centers. The system is simple and does not need computers or sophisticated communicationsequipment. Kanban is often a good choice for coordinatingwork cells. Material reguirements planning (MRp) MRP systems usecomputersto schedule and track production.They alsocanplan capacity, collectcosts,and providemany other functions. A basicMRP system hasdatabaseswith the followinginformation:bills of materials,routings,inventoqf,and lead times for eachoperation. The system worksfrom a forecast ofend-productdemandand the above information. It produces a schedulefor each work center. Fee dbackupdates the system asexecution takes place. MRP systems are very flexibleand canschedule virtually anyrypeof shopor operation.In theory, a modern MRP systemis almost the ultimate in scheduling. Practiceis somewhatdifferent. To work correctlv.bills of material must be almostperfect.Routingsmust be current.Inventory accuracy must be 99 percentor better. Lead times must be realistic.variation from leadtimes must be minimal, and the forecast must be reasonably accurate. Such conditionsrarelyexist.

140

FacilitiesPlanning

Reorder point ROP) ROP systemsmaintain a significant stock of each item. As users withdraw items,the remainingstockdeclines. When the stockreaches apre-determinedlevel-the reorderpoint-a signalinitiates apurchase order or shop order to replacethe stock.Ideally, the remaining stock lastsuntil the replacement are simple. quantity arrives.ROP systems They canoperate manually,semi-manually, or with a computer.When demandis steadyand replenishment times do notvary, ROP systems work well. These conditionsrarelyexist. ROP systems are superficially similar to kanban.They differ in the following ways: 1. ROP systems a replenishment signalonly at the reorder generate point. Kanban systems generate a replenishment signalwith each withdrawal.

2 . Comparedto ROP systems, kanbansystems operate with frequent

replenishments and small lot sizes. daysorweeksfor a replenishment signal. 3 . ROP systems usuallytake The feedbackfor a kanbanwithdrawal is verv fast. often minutes or hours. 4. ROP systemsusually have a separate warehouseor scheduling system.Producingworkersusuallyoperatea kanbansystem. workwell for small,low-costitemssuchashardware, 5. ROP systems where simplicity of operationovercomes the inherent inefficiency of the system. There is a hierarchyof methods: 7. direct link; 2. broadcast; 3. kanban: -. material requirements planning; and

) . reorderpoint.

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

14'l

Whe n conditionsallow, directlink is the most desirable method. ROP is the leastdesirable. As work cellsarebeing planned,it is best to use a systemashigh in the hierarchyaspossible. Use ROP onlyundervery specialconditions. Work cells generallywork best with direct link, broadcast, and kanbansystems. Within a faciliry or work cell, several of thesesystems may exist at the sametime. Kanban may work for certainpro..rr., and products, and MRP for others.Kanban might be usedinternally and MRP for purchased items. Over time, the system may change.A process-focused plant might initially have an MRP system.Management may begin to connectoperations with kanbansystems for selected products.With a new spaceplan, operationswould consolidatein work cells or have direct linkage. Block 5 of Task 04.03 identifies internal production control, which addresses the issueof coordinatingprocesses within the work cell. It helps operatorsdecidewhat to make and what operation ro perform next.The selection of an internal production control method usuallytiesto the selection ofbalancemethods.Within the cell,several production control methodsmay be usedfor different partsof the cell. Part of the discussionof external production control applies internally. Direct link, broadcast, and kanban often work well within cells. MRP and ROP usually work only in functional or processfocusedwork cells. Circulation is also a viable option. This method uses mobile operators to carryaproductor transfera batchthrough eachoperation. Ifthe cell requires several operators, they follow eachother around the cell.Circulation alsobalances people.Because eachoperatordoesevery job, he or she alwayshas the sameworkload. Here are someguidelinesfor applying the methods to internal production control: . usedirect link for balancedand synchronized operations. ' use kanban where the cell has short processtimes, heavy equipmentuse,or long distances betweenoperations. ' use circulation for portable products where distancesare short. There also should be inherent equipment balanceor excess capacrty on someequipment. After the internal production control is identified, the internal lot size is identified. This is Block 6 in figure 4.17.The internal lot size,also known as the transferbatch size,is the number of units processed at eachoperationbeforetransferto the next operation. The internal lot sizeusuallyis smallerthan the externallot sizein

142

Facilities Planning

work flows more quickly, a work cell. This brings many advantages: the amount of\MIP is smaller,quality feedbackis rapid, and response time is fast. The smallestinternal lot size consistentwith certain limiting The ideal internal lot sizeis one-piece. factorsis desirable. of a Equipment batchingis one factor that might limit selection small or one-pieceinternal lot size. Some equipment may need a significant batch for proper or efficient operation.For example , arotary excessive wear and to need manyparts to avoid shot-blastmachinemay to hold offset a long cycletime. A machiningfixture may be designed work pieces. several Cycle time and transfertime alsomay be limiting factors.Some may havea veryfastcycleof, say, 0.1 minutes. equipment,for example, The time to move a singlework pieceto and from the equipmentmay approachthis cycletime. In suchsituations,operatorsspendso much lots that their efficienry dropsand equipment time transferringone-piece transferringin batchesof low. In this case, utilization is unacceptably twenty pieceswould give a cycle time per batch of two minutes. The workload on equipmentin a cell must havesomedegreeof balance.This improvescell productivity and equipment utTlizatronand method. work flow. Block 8 identifiesthe equipmentbalance smoothes Balance can be static or dynamic. Static balancemeans that over the entire product equipment times for eachoperation,averaged rnix, are similar or the same. Static balancepreventsone or more are not from becominga bottleneckwhen other operations operations the cell is necessarywhen ofstatic balance beingutilized.A high degree containsmore than one pieceof high-cost or critical equipment.For typewriters, or otherlow-costequipment,it matterslittle workbenches, if there is low utilization. operationsfrom work Dynamic balanceis the balancebetvveen m ayvary.Differences time for operations pieceto workpiece.The process this, or the processmay v^ry inherently. in product may cause Dynamic imbalance can reduce throughput of the entire cell For example, operation 1 betweenoperations. because of interference butoperation 2 cannotacceptitimmediately. hascompleted aworkpiece At other times, operation2 maybe readyfor the next work piecebut capacityof the cell and can operation 1 is not finished.This reduces good. balanceappears occur evenwhen the average There arethreemethodsfor correctingstaticor dynamicimbalance: equipment. Queuingusesshort queues queuing,inherent, and excess This ensures that downstreamoperationsalways betweenoperations. have a work supply and that upstream operations always have a

Micro-Space-Planning andWorkCellDesign

't43

destination for their work. Qreuing can compensatefor dynamic imbalance for long-term staticimbalance. , but it cannot compensate The inberentmetbodemploys processes with low processtime variability and identicalprocess times.Thus, the balance is inherent in processselection and does not need a compensatingmechanism. Inherent balanceusuallyis difficult to achieve. Excess equipmezluses suqplus capacity to compensate for imbalance. In this method, the work cell is designedaround high-cost or critical equipment.Low costor secondary equipmentwith surpluscapacityis sized and selected. The consequence of imbalance,idle equipment, then can do little harm. This method is alsousefulwhere utilization of peopleis more important than equipmentutilization. Block 9 identifiesinternal containers, basedon the conventions mentioned previously.while internal containershave a somewhat different role than the externalcontainers, their purposeis the same.If the internal lot sizeis greaterthan single-piece, the containershould match it. This facilitates transferand makes it easy to rrackinternallots. A work cell should havesomemeansto ensurethat eachprson in it has aboutthe samework time and effort level.This is the iisue of balancingpeople in the cell (Block 11). The availablemethods are: queuing,circulation,fixed assignment, and float. equipment,it also balances Qreuing not only balances people. The method works well with short process times and varied product mix and may be usedwith fixed or floating task assignments. Circulation applieswhen there are either very short or very long internal idle times and is basedon the differencebetweenthe person time and the equipmenttime. with a very short internal idle time, the personremains with his work piece.with a verylong internalidle time, fifteen seconds or more, the personinitiatesthe proiessfor a particular piece,picks up the previouspiece,and then movesto the next process. It is a "leapfrog"procedure. The next personto arrivesubstitutes a new work piecefor that just completedand moveson with it. Circulation also works well when there is excesscapacity on secondary equipment.Here, the secondary equipmentmay remainidle for much of the time. To be effective, circulation must have short travel distancesand peoplewho are competentin all the processes. As a balancing tool, fixed assignment requires inherentlybalanced processes. one operator hasa fixedworkstation. Fixedassignment often is usedwith queuingfor equipment balanceand production control. The floating system for people balance assignsan operator a primary and secondary task.The secondary taskmay be a primary task

144

Facilities Planning

for a neighboring operator.Each operatorperforms the primary task This signalmay be as simple until signaledto move to the secondary. from a neighboring operatorwho is falling asa verbal call for assistance too behind. Qreues can be an effectivesignal.A queuethat becomes their to move to short or too long is the signalfor one or more people long queues' tasks.They then work down the unnecessarily secondary This method callsfor skilledpeople,teamwork,and team spirit. It can for the team members. be highly satis$/ing method(s)to employis done in Deciding which qualityassurance shouldbe an integralpart of Block 12 of figure4.77. @,ality assurance inherent, inspect/reject, are available: Three approaches the process. and SPC/TQI4. that ensuresquality by selectingprocesses The inherentapproach There is little point in elaborate inherently producefew or no defects. quality inspection when defectsare negligible and inconsequential. This situation is rare, but it does occur. The inspect/rejectmethod introducesa formal inspectionfor quality. When defectsoccur, the This is often used with a separate product is repairedor scrapped. inspectiondepartmentand a policing approach. The preferred quality assurancemethods :usetotal quality control (TqlVI) often combined with statistical?rocess nxanagernent and (SPC). In this method, the workers monitor their own processes quality. The emphasisis on prevention and processcontrol. TQIVI/ well in a cellularenvironment. SPC works especially and quality standardsshould be Inspection points, procedures, specified.This is an integral part of cell design and should not be to an outsidequality department. assigned to tasks As part of the cell design,operatorsshould be assigned A circulatory. floating, or be fixed, (Block 14). Task assignments may an operatorto a particularworkstation allocates fixed task assignment "one person-one machine" or set of tasks. This is the traditional there must be approach. If the entire cell has fixed assignments, balance. inherent give an operator a primary set of tasks Floating task assignments the operatormay move set.As the workloadfluctuates, and a secondary For example,operator1 may have from the primary to the secondary. occupy 80 percentof his or her time. a set of tasksthat, on average, operator 2, immediately adjacent,has a primary set of tasks that overloadhim or her by 10 percent.In that situation,operator1 might to assistopetatot2 from time to time. assignment be given a secondary are a task designthat allows for assistance and Operator mobility the assisting A mechanism for signaling integralto a floatingassignment.

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

145

operatorwhen it is time to chanlietasksis alsonecessary. The signal can be a verbalrequest, a markeron a queue, lights, or someother method. The circulation method balances equipment and peoplewithin the cell, but it alsotells the operatorwhich task to perform. A particularwork cell may useone or all of the abovemethodsof assigningtasksto operators. The assignment beginswith the refined process chart and the elementtimes spreadsheet. For eachoperation,it must be determinedwhether a person's time or the process's time will govern. For example, alarge differential that allows a person to move to anotheroperationshouldusethe former. Thesetimes are noted on the process chart. Next, planners divide the total times for all elements by the number of workers. This is the number of minutes of work for each personif the work is perfectlybalanced. It shouldbe usedasa targetfor assigningtasks. Then, the maximum work for any one person is determined.This is the available time in one day dividedby the design volume; it is also the average cycle time for the cell. The tasksare then assigned. Those that occupymore than one person's time aredivided, and thosethat occupysignificantlylessthan one person's time are combined. When dividing and combining, designers look first at adjacent tasksand then for thosethat might occur on oppositesidesof a U-shapedcell. When several tasksare assigned to the sameperson,that personmust havethe ability to movebetween them on the layout. Eachpersonmust havecompatibletasks.One wayis to concentrate specialskills suchaswelding capabiliry.While full cross-training is the ideal, there will be occasions when the cell will have to workwithout a full set ofcross-trainedpeople. The final step in Task 04.03 is identii'ing the methods of supervision and compensation. Supervision in a work cell can enhance or disrupt the cell's performance.This issueis especially important when making the transition from conventionalto cellularm anufacturing. Two methods of supervisionare: command and control and selfmanaged teams. Command and controlisthe traditional approachdeveloped from the Roman Legions,the Prussian army,and the Industrial Revolution. Supervisorsthink and give orders; workers follow the orders without question. The systemworks well for fielding a massivearmy of rabble. In industry,it canbe effective for simpletasksthat useuneducated and unskilled workers. The most successfulorganizationsin many fields of endeavor, includingthe United States army,no longeruse unquestioned obedience

146

Facilities Planning

asa guiding principle. Suchorganizatiorlsnearly alwaysusesomelevel of empowermentand participation. A methodology that usesempowerment and participation is the referredto asa cyberneticwork team. Such self managed work team,also their own activities.This, however,requires teamsorganizeand execute training, and appropriatemanagement. experience, Many wdrk cellsrequire a certainlevel of teamwork for maximum effectivenessltherefore, properly designedwork cells fit nicely with teamworkand the feelingof They can enhance cybernetic work teams. team responsibiliry. Cells that require teamwork for proper functioning areineffective do not allowthem receive no training,and supervisors ifteam members to make the mistakesthat team developmentrequires.Management with no training and little temperament assigns supervisors sometimes for teamwork. Even with proper training and coachingit takes a team three to eighteen months to mature fully. In some organizations,managementis unwilling to dedicatethe cells.In this situation, resources and patiencerequiredfor team-based the cell designersshould recognizethis reality and design their work to supervision. cells to function with conventional approaches Compensationaffectsquality, productivity, and teamwork.While va!/, most firms useone or a combinationofthe compensation systems following types: hourly or salarywages, individual incentives, group and hybrid systems. incentives, pay-for-knowledge, Hourly or salary wagesis the traditional compensation system. People receive pay for the hours they spend at work, or they receivea fixed pay eachperiod with an expectationthat theywill spenda certain minimum number of hours at work. This works reasonablywell in on other factorsfor motivation. It is almost all situationsbut depends team spirit, self actualization,or fear of punishment that motivates learnmore abouttheirjobs, and carryout their peopleto be productive, work with quality. often pay workers by the and salarysystems Combined bourly zaage This approach setsup a two-tier class with a salary. hour and managers system that may causefriction and rivalry within the organization. and they often are peoplearefamiliarwith thesesystems, Nevertheless, a reasonable choice. Here, All-salarysystems areagoodchoicefor teamenvironments. everyoneis on salary.This helps reduce the divisive classstructure of managersversusworkers. Since the salaryis largely independentof must comd incrementalcell output, productivityand quality incentives from teamwork and self-actualization.

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

147

Individual incentives base'allor part of a person's pay directly on his or her task output. Such systemsreward output quantiry, but they often inhibit teamwork and usually have a negativeimpact on quality. They reward job knowledge only for the task at hand. Individual incentive systemswork well only where narrow jobs require a single worker. They require a process with high intrinsic qualiry or a product that is easilyinspectedfor quality. Someofthe difficultieswith individual incentives disappearwith a group incentivesystem, where membersof small teamsreceivethe samepay basedon the team'soutput. This encourages teamwork and allowspeopleto expandtheirjob knowledgewithin the team. However, group incentivesrarely help promote quality. In fact, they sometimes encourage conspiratorial behavior. Where the work environment requires significant skills, a palt-for-knowledge system may be appropriate. In this system, people receivehourly wagesor a salarybasedon the range and depth of their skills andknowledge.This system fits well in manycellularenvironments where team efforts and cross-functional skills are required. Pay-for-knowledgesystemsare not easy to implement. Such systemscan causeteamwork dysfunction as members vie for job experience that will enhancetheir pay. Productivity and quality may becomesecondary considerations. Somefirms may attempt to usehybrid systems of compensation with a baseline pay rate dependent on seniority or job position. Superimposed on the basepay areincentivesfor productivity, quality, and skills. Such systemsare complex, often generatingunintended consequences. Individuals may attempt to manipulatethe systemto maximizetheir pay. Space plan designers should understand the effects and consequences of compensation on the operationof their facility. For example,a team-based cellularstrucrureis unlikely to work well in an individual incentive environment. Pay-for-knowledgesystemshave little purposein a functional facility. The work cell operations plan As infrastructure elements arechosen, designers mustbeginto visualize a layout. All the infrastructureelementsconnectwith eachother aswell asproduct selection, process, and space plan. Figure 4.18 shows a work cell operationsplan. This form is a convenient place to document infrastructuredecisions.It is also a reminder of the fulI range of choicesfor eachelement.The'operator assignmentand skill matrix area shows job assignmentsand skill

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FacilitiesPlanning

requirements for eachoperator.Operatorsarelisted alongthe left side, across the top. For eachoperator,a solid skill categories and operations eachprimaryoperationandprimaryskill requirement; bullet represents secondary skills and operations. an unfilled bullet represents The A-teom se/ecfs infrostructure elements The A Team has completedproduct selectionand defined its process

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

149

for the assemblyof diaphragm pumps. Figure 4.18 is its work cell operationsplan. The team has selected a medium externallot size of forty-four pieces. This is the lot sizefor finishedpumps, but the team members realizedthat purchased itemsanditemsfrom other departments may come to the cell in largerlots. Figure 4.18 reflectsthis. The team decidedto package the pumpsin cartons, which will be placed on pallets, a single lot for each pallet. This is the outbound container.It is a medium container,consistentwith the medium lot size.Inbound materialalsocomeson pallets,most ofwhich will hold partsfor more than four hoursofproduction. The inbound palletsare, therefore,large. For externalmaterial handling, the cell needsmedium and large equipment corresponding to the containersize.The team decidedto use forktrucks forboth inbound and outboundhandling.Because forktrucks carry ^ full load (one pallet), the ream selecteda direct roure structure. Other possibleroute structures are shown in Figure 4.19. The kanbanmethodwasselected for both inbound and outbound externalproduction control. Occasionally, the cell will make special orders. The teamdecided to usethe kanbanand directlink methodsfor internal production control. The cell will balanceequipmentwith queuingand excess capaciry. The teamdecided not to usecontainers internally since the assemblies and components areeasy to handle,and the internallot sizeis singlepiece. Peoplein the cell will balance their work load using queuingand _ float systems. is inherentin someoperations, although Qralityassurance the electricaland flow testsare inspect/reject. The four peoplein the cellwill operateasacybernetic work teamand usekanbansignals for cell management. Compensation is hourly/salary. Task 04.04, "Design Cell Layouts," (fig. 4.20) arranges equipment, people, and other physical elementsof the work cell. As noted in Chapter 2, every spaceplan has four fundamental elements(SPUs, affinities, space, and constraints). At the micro-level, using the fundamentals is usuallysimple and straightforward(seefig. 4.2I). SPUsin the micro-space-plan areusuallyworkstations, equipment, or other significantfeatures. Thesearederivedfrom the equipmentlist or process chart.Diamond'sA Team identified the ten SPUsshownin the affinity chart of figure 4.27. Affinities are straightforward at the micro-level. Examining the process chartsand work cell operations plan usuallywill identify them. Using simplejudgments, spaceplannersnote the affinities and their

Designing a spaceplan

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Facilities Planning

underlying reasonson the affinity charc Typically, there will be many A and E affinities and few I and O affinities. With experience, on a designermay move directly from the simple micro-space-plans, chart to a layout. process Space,the third fundamentalelement, is also important. The designerusuallymoves directlyfrom a configurationdiagramto a scaled

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

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spaceplan. Occasionally, equipmenttemplatesmay be superimposed on the configuration diagram. Highly flexible SPUs,such asstaging or queuing areas, can be sizedasthe designproceeds. Because the focusofmicro-space-planning is limited and specific, a formal constraint summary seldom is necessary. Knowledge of equipment and process is sufficient to incorporateconstraintsas the designers proceedwith the space plan. Work cellshapes As the layout progresses, it will probablytake on one of several classic shapes. (J, Among the most commonshapes are straight line,serpentine, and innerted-U. Henry Ford's original assemblyline was straight line

Figure4.20 - Task 04.04- Design Cell Loyouts

152

Planning Facilities

(fig. a.22). The work product moves from one end to the other in a or stopsat eachworkstation.When Henry Ford straightline. It passes theyweresolving this arrangement, first devised and CharlesSorensen a material flowproblem. Manyparts went into a relativelysmallproduct where a large number ofpeople worked at short-cycletasks.A straightline cell is still well suitedto suchsituations. do not allow easycommunication Straight-line arrangements the opportunity to float is is difficult because betweenpeople.Balance it is difficult to maintain if the line is achieved, limited. Once balance areoften Long, thin line arrangements speed or product mix changes.

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

153

difficult to fit into existing buildings and macro-layouts. Serpentinecells (fig. 4.23) takelong production lines and weave them back and forth to fit building and layout fearures.Such an arrangement is morecompactthan the straightline cell.It allowsbetter communicationand somewhatbetter zone floating. Serpentine cells sacrificethe ideal material flows of the straight line arrangement. They offer lessstorageat the line. U-shaped cells (fig. 4.24) arehighly flexible becausethey allow peopleto rearrange theirworkpatterns easily. Theyworkwith floating assignments, circulation,and fixed assignments. As volume or product mix changes,it is easyto alter the number of people or their work assignments. It alsois easyfor peoplein the cell to communicate. Material flow is sometimesmore difficult in a U-shaped cell becausematerial must be brought to the interior of the U. ttrit arrangementmay not work well for intensiveassemblyworkwith many different parts and significanton-line storage. U-shape cells are limited in size. As the U becomeslarger, communication between workersdiminishes. The ability for workersto assist jobs alsodiminishes. eachother and interchange

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Figure4.22 - Stroight Line Cells

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Facilities Planning

The inverse U (fig. 4.25) is a variation that allows more line but is lessflexiblethan the and reasonably good communication storage cell. U-shaped Actual cellscan havemanyvariationsand combinationsof these basicshapes. When the amountofwork requiredon a product dictates ofcells,whereeachcell it maybebestto link a series manyworkstations, ofthe smaller, feedsthe next.Within eachcell,manyofthe advantages operationstill exist. self-contained Micro-space-planning for teams Teams, in their various forms, are one of the most important developments in the American work place since the Industrial structuresuitscurrent needsfor wide Revolution.Their freewheeling They pool the knowledgeof all members. information exchange. motivationwith intrinsicmotivation. monetary Teamscanreplace They can fulfill the higher needsof Maslow's Hierarchy: social,selfesteem,and self-actualizatron. Teams come in a great variety. They may be temporary or permanentand mayinclude membersfrom alllevelsofthe organization. Cross-functionalteamsbring peopletogetherfrom different parts of

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Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

155

Features High PeopleFlexlblllty EasyBalance/Rebalance Good Communlcatlon Good MaterialFlow Short Dlstances SingleMaterlalEntry Polnt Good QualltyFeedback Multi-skllled Operators

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156

Planning Facilities

emble fu nctio nally oriented or ganizations.Problem- solving teams ass to delve into a particularproblem or seriesof problems.Work teams function togetherin their daily tasks. Work teams are especiallyimportant from the facility planning A space plan canpromoteor inhibit teamwork.Conversely, perspective. for the proper functioning of many space closeteamwork is essential on teamworkis designed, the designer plan dependent plans.If a space will be in placeto support that the teamworkcapabilities shouldensure Conversely, plan will not perform effectively. it. Otherwise,the space a firm that attemptsto use teamsin an environmentwhere tasksand will find the efforts difficult and peopleare isolatedand independent disappointing. Cellular operations fit especiallywell with work teams where a workstogetherinthe samearea. smallgroup,usuallytwoto tenpersons, With minimal direction from a Often theseteamsare self-managed. supervisor, they plan and conducttheir own work. work team (SMWT) must be The membersof a self-managed interpersonal and managerial skills. Such trained to acquirenecessary growth cyclebeforethey teamsgo through a dynamic,but predictable, are effective.During this mafuration,they need skilled coachingand from management. patience promoteteamworkhavecertainfeatures. Work cellsthat effectively Among theseare:freedomofmovement,visualcontrol,visualfreedom, ational proximity, and bulletin boards. convers To assisteach other with normal work and interruptions, to members ofteam-orientedwork cells andto cross-train, communicate, must be able to move between tasks. Conveyors,walls, and other equipment can make such movement difficult. Without freedom of mloement,membersfall back on a one-person,one-task mentality. Production can declineand teamworkfail. Therefore,obstructionsto movementwithin the cell should be minimal. hasmany In a work cell,visualcontrol of inventoryand resources Everyteammemberhasthe same It is simpleand accurate. advantages. information. or actionto correctimbalauces Eachmembercantakeappropriate variations.Visual control takesmany forms-kanban boards,queues, andunbalanced locations. Te am members canseedelays and personnel identify and correctquality upcomingjobs, and can work, cananticipate problems. Such control requires clear lines of sight. It requires These mechanisms such as kanbanflags,warning lights, and queues. should be built into the work cell design. Visual communicationsbuild trust. Team membersshould be

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

157

able to see each other and all operations.A clear view of the total operation gives every member the meansfor controlling the overall process.Partitions, walls, and large equipment interfere with both teamwork and process control. Ongoing interactionis integral to teamwork.Members must be ableto converse during their work. This callsfor an areasmall enough for effectiveconversation. It alsorequiresa reasonable ambient noise level. while hand signals and electronic communications are parttal substitutes, face-to-face conversation is far better. Effective teams use bulletin boards for many purposes.Bulletin boardshelp ateamcommunicate with itse$ with oth.t ihiftr, andwith the outsideworld. Prominent space for a bulletin board shouldbe provided. The A-Teom designs o spoce plon From the process chart in figure4.r4 and the work cell operations plan in figure 4.18, the team identified ten SPUs. These are on the configuration diagram. Using judgment and consensus, the team membersdeveloped the appropriateaffinities,most of which resurted from materialflow or sharediobs. Following the procedure for Task 04.04, they developedthe configurationdiagramrn figure4.2L Finally, usingtemplates for the equipmentandworkbenches, the team membersprepareda layout. They sizedconveyors and queuing areas astheywent, fitting theseflexibleelements into areas befweenthe mainworkstations. Theygraduallymovedand arranged the spus to fit inside the area designatedon the micro-space-plan. They allowed clearance for movement of people.They positioned shelvingon the perimeterto avoid blocking visualcommunication.

Selecting the best plan

In Task 04.05, a selectionis made from among the micro-layout options.There may be a number of good alternatives for eachtask and procedure,alongwith several viable product groups and several good process options.There may be many waysto coordinate,control, and supervise a work cell. At the micro-level,designiterationis more significantthan at the higherlevels. Eachalrernative affects designdecisions. The resultcould be an infinite number of design options. The designeror leaderof a designteamwill makedecisions aboutthem asthe plan proceeds. Many options will be eliminated. Eventually, two to five fundamentally different designs will be decidedupon tlat givesthe evaluation team a good selectionand wide choice.

r58

Planning Facilities

Selectiontools for the micro-space-plan

of faciliry options, the evaluation in Chapter3 discuss sections Several an option. selecting and describinga rangeof tools to usein evaluating At the micro-level,the sametools are available. In practice, micro-level evaluation is simpler and more is The rangeof issues at higher levels. straightforwardthan evaluation easier mistakes are and morelimited, the materialflowis moreobvious, and other intangible issues considerations to correct.Socio-technical dominate the selection.These intangibles are less amenableto engineeringand financialanalysis. work cells, the For light assemblyor other easy-to-change of a less than evaluationcan be quite informal. The consequences sucha decision In thesecircumstances, ootimal decisionarenot severe. uit r"lly can becomea valuablelearningexperience. or fi nancial although material flow analysis For the abovereasons, toolsnormallyarelimited to the areused,selection methodssometimes following: ' simplified cost estimates; 'PNI analysis; ' simulation;and ' weighted factor analysis. In many situations,a simplified cost estimateand PNI analysis and further work is unnecessary. bring strong consensus place in certainsituationsand hasa special Simulationis valuable on existing in the evaluationof work cells.It testsproposedchanges It condenses systemsand predicts the performanceof new systems. for study.It rapid process slows a or few minutes to a lengthy processes can experiment where actual physical experimentation is difficult, or impractical. dangerous, expensive, a model for a realor Computer simulationusessoftwareto create the model to then subjects analyst A simulation system. proposed These statistical results. the and studies variousinputs and constraints of times.Almost any hundredsor thousands canbe repeated processes statisticcan comeiro- " simulationmodel. Examplesare:equipment utilization, throughput time, deliverytime, and labor hours. Computer simulation softwareusesanimation to depict system operationvisually.Patientsmovethrough a hospital complex.Products across the factoryfloor. Peoplego from taskto task.Animation advance presents simulation results dramatically and effectively. It reveals problemsor effectsthat would be unseenin pure statisticaloutput. with largeinvestmerits to companies Simulation is most valuable that are difficult to modify or change.An exampleis a paper mill where

Micro-Space-Planning and Work Cell Design

159

very large machinesare on specialized foundations. Once in place, rearrangement is almostimpossible. If a process is easy to change,such as a task in a light assembly cell, it may be easier to experimentin real life than to build a simulation. Simulation cannot model creativity, teamwork, and motivation, which are among the most important benefitsof work cells.Specific mechanismsthat result from these effects cannot be foretold and therefore cannot be simulated effectively. Weighted factor analysis can assistwith more difficult decisions and is probably the most universaland versatiledecision tool. The evaluationprocedure is the sameasthat for Task 03.2Lat the macrolevel(seeChap. 3).

TheA-Teom's finol micro-spoce-plon

The spaceplan in figare 4.27 is not the only one the A Team designed. There wereseveral other good options.Team membersused weighted factor analysis to make their decision. Team members discussed using simulation but decided they could build the actualwork cell fasterthan they could build a simulation model.They alsoreasoned that if the cell did not work asexpected, they couldeasilychange orredesign it. Theyknewthe experience ofthework team would be invaluablein any suchredesign. Betweenthe cell and the finished goodswarehouse, the kanban systemis used.The cell operateswith an averageof two lots per day; however, it can accommodate special lots at any time. As the team works on improved setups, the cell may reducelot sizesor evenshift to make-to-order. The team draws material and parts from upstream suppliersand the machineshop using a kanbansystem. Eachworker setsup his or her own area,changingfixtures,tools, and the partson their benches. The work teamfor this work cell is made up of four members, who havevarioustasks. "Wilson" subassembles heads, bodies,and coils.He placesthese subassemblies on a grav\tyroller conveyorthat takes them to Taylor's main assembly station. Wilson usesmarkings on the roller conveyorto determinethe speed ofhis work. Whenworkbuilds up on the conveyor, he can switch to restocking or other activities. 'Taylor" subassembles diaphragms oneat atime. He then assembles eachdiaphragmwith abody/coil subassembly andthe headsubassembly. Taylor places his completed work in the queuespace between his station and Washington'selectricalassembly station.When the queueis full, "Washington. " T aylor assists Washington hasthe longestseries of tasks.He must perform all

160

FacilitiesPlanning

his finishedproduct in the queueareaat He places electricalassembly. "Davis" with his left. In the eventthat he fills this queue,he can assist electricaltesting. Davis performs the electrical and flow tests and packagesthe completedpumps.He beginsby transferringa unit from Washington's outbound queueto the electricaltest fixture. He removesthe unit that the incoming unit in the testandplaces hasjust completedthe electrical test fixture. He records test results on the previous unit while the electricaltest goesthrough an automaticcycle.Davis then placesthe completed unit in the queue between electrical and flow test and removesone of four units that has been through the flow test. He this unit with the upcoming unit in the flow test queue. replaces Davis transfersthe unit he hasjust removedfrom the flow test to it on an outboundpallet. the packingtable.He packsthe unit andplaces work doesnot fillthe total designcycletime, he alsoassists SinceDavis's Washington with maintaining the proper stock of electricalparts. anycompleted The driver removes At intervals,a fork truck arrives. the basis cards become These cards. kanban outbound palletsand leaves removed . Theytellthe teamwhatmodelswere schedule forthe nextday's from finished-goodsstoragethe previousday.The work team arranges these cards on a kanban board. The information on the board tells memberswhich pump models havelow inventory and which have full kanban stocks.They plan their scheduleto replenishstocks.They also plan the scheduleto minimize set-up time by grouping similar models. At the workday's end, the team meets. They review their and plan the next day'sproduction.They alsochecktheir performance inbound stocksto ensurethat parts will be available.They may have a qualiry or other problems. problem-solvingmeetingto address

Conclusion
at the micro-level,Level howto plan space This chapterdemonstrated 4. The discussion included important new develoPmentsin the focus. workplace-work cells,teams,and operations (model plan, procedures, project the tools This chapteralsooffers In the beginning, techniques)to prepareviable micro-space-plans. following these plans and proceduresexplicitly and pedantically will a designteam With experience, ofgood designs. resultin the generation less formally. may usethem The next chapter covers the final level of space planning, workstation design,including how to placetools and equipmenqhow and how to to optimize the individual'sefficiencyand effectivenessl occupationalhazatds. similar minimize CarpalTunnel Syndromeand

Chapter5 WorkstationDesign: Writtenby The Sub-Micro-Space-Plan WilliamNelson

Sub-micro,orworkstation,designis the final space planninglevel.This is where the firm adds value to its product. The process involves examining tasks,operators,and tools; allocating tasks between the operatorsand machinesland selecting or designingtools and fixtures. During the process, optimum physicalarrangements are developed. Classicalworkstation designfocusedon the output of individual workstationswith singleoperators. Today's designrequiresa broader view. An optimum workstation design considers: productiviry, integration, operator comfort, operator variety, and safety. Productivity is the efficient transformation of materials and data into a product or service. It is the primary reasonfor a workstation to exist and, as such,is a primary designconsideration. Integration-technical, psychological, and social-fits the workstation into a larger production system. Tecbnicalintegration allowsthe occupant(s) of the workstation to perform work at a speed and in a manner that fits with prior and subsequentprocesses. Psychologicalintegration allows the workstation to meet the psychological needsof the operatorso that he or shehassomecontrol over his or her effort. It givesmeaning to the work. socialintegration in the workstation design allowsthe operatorto meshwell with other peoplein the productionsystem. Operator comfort is important. Comfortableoperatorsareinclined to work better. They are more likely to ensurequality output and are more likely to remain in their jobs. Perhaps more importantly,

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FacilitiesPlanning

comfortable workstations are less likely to damage the human body with cumulative traumas such as calpal tunnel syndrome. operators asindividuals. Most workstationsrarelyaccommodate Yet, the workplace is awashwith a wide mix of diverse individuals, genJers,and races.Sound designbasedon operatorvariety provides eachoperator-shift to shift andtask adjustments to accommodate easy challenge. to task.This is the designer's The contemporaryregulatoryclimate demandsmore attention to safery and health. In addition, the legal and insurance system can fines on employers that ignore the safetyand health of imposesevere workers. Cumulative trauma disorder(CTD) has becomeone of the health.PreventingCTD is often most important areas of occupational an important factor in workstation design. Integration, comfort, variefy, and safety are often seen as incompatible with productivity. However, productivity rarely needsto be sacrificedto attain theseother design goals.A safe,comfortable workstation that fits well into the larger production systemis usually highly productive. In this chapter,several areas thatprovide the necessarybackground Theseare:allocation knowledgeforworkstation designwill be reviewed. selection. This motion ergonomics, andworker offunctions, economy, knowledge will then be applied in a structured and systematicway. A is provided,and modelprojectplan similarto the plansin otherchapters an example from Diamond Products illustrates the application. The information in this chapter demonstrateshow to design workstations that optimize productivity, integratewith one another, and improve the work experience.Such workstations contribute to the overall goal-ensuring a productive, comfortable, safe, and healthy workplace. Allocation of functions It Allocation of functionsdividesworkbetween peopleand machines. determines, to a large extent, the quality of the operator'swork A well-thought-out allocationoptimizesthe interactionof experience. peopleand machineelements. In spaceplanning, allocation occursat severallevels.During the macro-space-planning, a processis selectedthat implicitly allocates many functions.During the work cell design(Level 4), the process is refined and more explicit allocations are made. At the workstation design level, spaceplanners should review theseprevious allocations. In a human-machinesystem,one or more equipment displays show the operatorthe internal equipmentstatus.He or sheprocesses

Workstation Design: The Sub-Micro-Space Plan

163

the information and makes decisions.Using motor responses, the operator alters control settingsto changethe machine. Continuing observationallows the determination of the effect of altering controls. Figure 5.1 illustrates. Person-machine systems arepervasive in everydaylife. For example, the driverofan automobiledepresses the accelerator. He or sheobseryes the speedometer displayto ascertain proper speed. If the speedneeds adjusting, the driver modifies the depressionof the accelerator. Achievement of systemgoalsnecessitates the driver'sattention. A lapse may result in flashing red or blue lights in the rearview display. These lights signif' a failure to achieveat leastone systemgoal-maintenance of speedat or below the postedlimit. In the above example, the system designers allocated speed control to the person. Cruise control reassignsthis function under favorable conditions, lessening the driver's workload and achieving another systemgoal-avoiding speedingcitations. An allocation has three objectives: . achievesystemgoals; . give the worker a coherent set of functionsl and . provide the worker with a reasonable workload. Some designerstend to allocate functions to people whenever a mechanizedsolution is not readily apparent.Sometimes,what may seemto be an over-allocationofwork to a personin the end provides variety and job enrichment. The variety may prevent injuries from repetitive motion and reduce the cost of workers' compensation insuranceand claims.This is an exampleof an apparentlyless-thanoptimum local systemactually bringing increasedperformanceto ^ larger business system. Other designers and managers have an inordinate faith in automation. They inappropriately allocatefu nctions to machines;that is, they over-automate. Automation, or predominantly mechanicalallocation, has many benefitsandmanydrawbacl.rs. NASA sindustryworkshopon automation reported by Boehm-Davis, Curry, Wiener, and Harrison (1983) identified five problems associated with automation: 1. Newly automatedsystems seldom provide all anticipated benefits. 2. Failure of automated equipment reducescredibility. Operators may not rely on equipmentthey do not trust. 3. Automation often increases the need for training. The user must learn to operate the equipment in both automated and manual

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FacilitiesPlanning

$
tl
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Figure5.1 - An Exompleof o Percon-Mochine Systern

plan Workstation Design: The Sub-Micro-Space

165

modesbecause the equipmentmay fail at somelaterdate.Increased complexity,common to automatedsystems, alsomay increase the training time. 4. Systemdesigners seldom anticipateproblems createdby the automation. They havefocusedmainly on the benefitsof the new system.

5. Automation may transform operatorsinto monitors rather than system controllers. As a result,the operatormay not be preparedto take control suddenlyif the systemfails. Awide rangeofallocationoptionsshouldbe considered. This prevenrs the designer from latching onto an initial conceptand ignoring others.

Motion economy
Motion economy helps achieveproductivity and reduce CTD. It shortens the human time and effort requiredto accomplish a task.The principlesof motion economy(fig. 5.2) list stepsand procedures that simpli$, and improve manual work. The fourth principle, bodysegment class, classifies movement with bodyjoints. Each movementafter class1 involvesbody partsfrom the previousclass(es), and more of the bodyparticipatesin ihe motion. It is desirable to accomplish taskswith the lowestpossiblemotion class. The best way to do ihis is to place everythingn.", the operator.In addition, items should be close together, lightweight, and easily positionedat the end of the motion. To applythe principlesof motion economy, iteration or synthesis may be used. Iteration involves examining an existing or prorog?e workstation, analyzingrhemotions, identi$ringandimplementingimprovements, and reanalyzingthe work. Severalrepetitions may be necessary. Synthesisuses predetermined time standard systemssuch as methods-time-measuremenr (MTM) and avoidsprotoryping. These systemsrefer activities to a standard set of well-defined elemental motions and associated executiontimes. The conceptof motion economyhas limitations. Both iterative and synthetic methods assume workers are not fatigued. Performance can abateovertime due to an activity'sdemands. Motion economyalso does not accountfor physicallimitations or differences in operators. Moreover,a movementthat appears ineffective from a motion economy perspectiveactuallymay prevent fatigue and possibleinjury from static postureloading.To overcome theselimitations, ergonomicprinciples should be applied.

166

Facilities Planning

1.0 us of HumanBodv
The trc hards shouH begin 6 rell 6 @mpbte their mtiore at th6 sare tim. Th6 trc handssh@H ml be idb at the sam tire x@pt durirE .est psrbds. Motiore ol th6 arro shouu be madein opposite and symretriEl dirctiore and shouH be made simultffiously Hand mtioN shouldbe @nfimd to the lore3t clssification with which it is possibleto porfom the rcrk salblactorily Morentum shouh be mpbyed to sist the rcrker wherever poasble, ard it shdld be redred to a minimumil it must b ovemm by mslil efiort. Sruth @ntiMus mtions ol the hards ar6 pf6rabb to zigzag mtioG or straight-lim rctioN involvingsuddena.d shap chares in direclion. Ballistb mvemnts ilg faster.66ir. atd mr6 ffirale thil BstrHd(fxation) or 'ontElld mvomnla. Rhythmis esntid to ihs s|mih ard iltomatic perbmam ol il oporatbn, ard the rcrk should be dmngd to psmil6sy and naturalrhythmwhoBvsr possblo.

. The heightot the rcrkpl@ and the char shouldpElenbly be arangod so that altemats sittingard standir at mrk are esily po$ible. . A chair of th6 type and hightto pomit good postuc chouldba provktdfor evary rcrksr. a. Deslcn of Tools and Equlpmefi . The hard6 shouH be Blievd of all mrk that mn be dom mE advantagsusly by a jb. a fixtum,or a foot oparalBddevice. . Trc or m6 t6b shouldb6 ombimd wh6mv6r posible. . Tmls and materialsshouu bE prepositbred wherevr poasblg. . Wher6eeh firEer porloms sre spocific mvemnt, such I in typewriting,the load with the shouldb6 dbtrihrted in a@rdre inhoEnt capsities of th6 fnge6. . Hardl$. such c thos u$d on crilks ard large$rcudrivec, sheH pemit 6 much of the sud@ of the handto @m in ontact with ths handls posible. Thb is panicularlytrue whanconsirerabl6tor is ererted in usirE the handl6.For light asrbly rcrk ths $rewdrivsr hardle 8hsH be s shapdthal it is small6rat the bottomthil at th lop. . LevsE. ffibars. ard handwhsls EhouHbe locded in srch posilirB that th opralor@ msipulate them with th lesl charu6 in body pGitbn and with th3 gca!6Et ffihanicd advantagg.

2.0 Arrangrmnt of,wort Plac

There shouH be a definitand txd pl@ lor all t@b and materials. Tmls. malariab. and @ntmls stuld b6 locald do* in and dicctly in foni ol th opralor. Gravity hodbiB ard @ntaimB shilld b usd posible. whGnover Dm dglivorsshouldba usd whonevor rebh. Matrialsand t@ls shouH bo bcatd to psmit the bost sequem of mibre. Provisiore shoH be madefor adeflate @nditioB for sirE. G@d ilbminationis th vigual first .eqJiGrenl br Eatistaclory pgrGption.

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Body S.gm.ni. {and, Fingm orm, Hand, Fingoc ,ppd Am, For.am, Hand, :inoffi

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Figure 5.2 - Principles of Motion Economy

Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study ofwork asit relatesto the human body and its harming limits. The usualgoalis maximizingoutputwithout physically the operator. To achieve this goal, designers adapt tasks and the and biomecbanics, workstation to individuals, not vice versa.Physiology, anthropometrics arethe areas of ergonomicsmost useful to the designer of workstations. Physiology to an automobile.In the human In somerespects, the body is analogous

Workstation Design: The Sub-Micro-Space Plan

167

machine,muscle s areboth cylindersand pistons,andbonesandjoints are the gears. The musclesoxidizenutrients (fuel) and give up energy,while generatingmetabolicbyproducts(waste). Physiotogy studies this process. Two categoriesof physiological demands usually are relevant during work: static and dynamic.Most activitiescombine static and dynamic postures. While some musclegroups have a static posture, othershavedynamicpostures. Staticwork occurswhen the body is in a stationaryposition for an extended period.The musculoskeletafsystem is unsuitedfor proionged static work becausethe body cannot supply fresh nutrients to the stressed tissues. In addition,wasteproductsremainat the stressed site. Musclesand tendonscanbecomeinflamed.Even at staticloadsaslow as 30 percent of maximum strength, fatigue developsrapidly. In dynamic work, the body is in motion. Nutrients and waste productsmoveto andfrom the muscles. Consequently, the muscles can work for extended periods if the maximum load on the body is significantlylessthan the maximum staticcapability.Enduranceusually limits dynamic work when loads are not extreme. Usually, tasksshould not require operatorsto exert more than 30 percentoftheir maximummuscle forcein aprolongedorrepetitiveway. A1l muscularexertions beyond50 percentofthe maximum levelshould be avoided. Biomechanics Biomechanics is the study of mechanical forcesin human movement, including the interaction berween individuals and their physical environment.Biomechanical principlesprimarily areusedto minimize joints, and tissues. damageto muscles, This damage may comefrom a one-time force,suchaslifting an objectthat is too heavyor moving an object from an awlaarard position. Damage also can come from an accumulation of small,repetitiveforces-CTD. There are three actionsin the work place that can causedamage: extremejointmovements, excessive force,andhigtrlyrepetitive movements. Extremejoint movements,suchasbending the wrist, amplify the forcesplacedon thejoint. They maypreventthe operatorfrom appb'rng maximum force and increase damagethat resultsfrom the force that the operatordoesuse. Excessive forceusedforlifting, squeezing, orpushingis aprimary causeofinjury. Often, suchexcessive force combineswith repetition or extremejoint movement. A need for excessive force does not always arisefrom a workstation's design:it may come from poor maintenance of tools and equipment or from operator practice or ignorance.

168

FacilitiesPlanning

The the damagingeffectof muscularforces. Repetitionincreases more frequent and constantthe repetition, the greaterthe damage. Even the small forceof operatinga keyboardcanproducethe debilitating effectsof carpaltunnel syndrome. these actiors. andavoiding for reducing methods Frgure5.3recommends Anthropometry Anthropometry studies the dimensions,weights, and strengths of human body segments.Anthropometric data aid in designing the dimensions. workstation to the operator's Anthropometry usesstatic (structural) and dynamic (functional)

1.0 Extngm Jolnt llovemnts

. Alter the tml or @ntrol- bendthe lool or handle instoadot ths wrist . Move the part- rctate ihe part in fronl of the rcrlcr to keep the wrist straight . Moveth6 Wo|ker- chare the rcrke/s position relativeto th6 pad . Avoil eaching above shouHerlevel . Avoid rerching behindthe body . Ksp dbore cbss to the sides . Plm th6 rcrk aca abod 2'4' bebw the elbow whsn standingor satd in m erccl m8$16 . For prcise or delicatet6ks, d# the rcfisurfae 4'-8" aboveelbow hight. . For heavy manual6smbly, pl@ the rcrksurtac 415' bbw ehow height. . Slad yourdsigntromthe.rcrkirEpointwherc th6 haffi sGtr mst ot tnetrum 2.0 Excsslv Force . K@pt.tgdttiru dges sharp and t@ls wll maintaired. . SDred Fo@- Altomat6 hands,us l6voG iBtead ol hJtlom. . lrcroe Mehani:dAdvantags- Us strcrE8r mu*le groupeand bng hatdlos . Us ji$ and ftdus whsmver possibls . Solect glovs @efully. They m rd@ gri) streruth up to l50/6. 5.O Rptltlv Movemnt . Tsk Enlargmnt- Giw rc*ere largerand mG viliodt4ks andi|m&qyclotim. . Mshanizatior Usa sD6cialtools with Etchets or Dorer drivE, lo mhimg Automatbr Allocal6 Ropetitiv Give the opstdor a mutra! poqluB. prevnt a static Allow vilialion ot mthod to pGhJE lor enandod perir&. Pemit sevralrcrkir posiliore jobs to rcdue rcPelition Re-sqEE 4.O PhYsblooy . Allow sff p*irE of rcrk when po$ible . Allow frequeni rest lor mst ac{ivmu$les . Starl mw emdoy@s at a sbrer rate 5.0 Hand Tools

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Provile handles Dasign For minimum mslil etfort Porerwith mtots mre lhil with muscls Berd ihs t6l ard mt the wrist K@p the olioclive reight ol th t@l low Alignthe t@l @nter ol gravity and th 6nler ol the g.6Fing har|d Ue pbtol grip6ryhenth tml ais i8 horizontal Us straiShtSrip6whn ths t@l ab b vertical Us tnggsr leveE nther than trigger hJtlore. oesiqn sp6cialus tmb it mdd 06sign tmh for u$ by either hand Us A Minimm handlelenqthOl 4' Uss propersize griFEwhich mmmodate diffoEnt size hands Springbad plieG and sis Us mn-porcus, rcn-slip, and rcn-@.ductivo snps T@ls shouHreigh les lhil 9 lbs Suspendheavyor awkwardt@ls

6.0 Posltbn Use a standing position when: . Krc Cbilffi ls Unavailable . ThaOpoBlorLiftsMorethil 10 Pounds o Thereare high, low, or 6rt6Idod reachs . The OperatorExrtsDowNard tors (wrappingand packing) . Th6 OperatorNedsirobility Use A svstand position when: . Rspsliliveoporatbre have frequent rerches beyondzoms 1 . The Operalorperlom both sining and standingtasks . The T8k RquiBs Pmbngd Static E fort Use a sitting positbn when: . lt6ro for a rcpetitivo,short cycle re in saled rcft3p@. . Handsrcrk ls$ than 6' abov6lhs surl@ . L4ge lo@ is mt required ; Hardlins reiSht b les tha 10 lbs . Th t6k is fine asmbry orwriting . Th opratorre6ds body stabilityand eqlililxilm . Th6 isk reqjiros prtrise f@t @nlrol
hs extended tire in a

Figure5.3 - Principlesof Ergonomics

Design: Plan Workstation The Sub-Micro-Space

169

measurements. Staticdimensions betweenspecific arethe measurements anatomical landmarks. Examples include stature, arm length, and shoulderbreadth.Dynamic dimensionsrelateto functional movement. Both measurementsare important. For example, static data might represent a person's reach when his or her shoulders and trunk are stationary.Dynamic measurementwouldadd the length ofthat person's reach from extended shoulders and trunk. In many cases, static dimensions maybeadapted to a specific problem.Dynamic dimensions, on the other hand, arebetter representations ofreality. The basis of the data should always be kept in mind. Does it include clothing and shoes? What specific population was included? What aboutthosewith disabilities? Designers shoulduseintuition and experienceaswell as raw data. Classicaldesignconsidered the average malethe standard.Today's designers may needto considereveryone from the smallestfemaleup to the largestmale.Different ethnic populationsshouldalsobe included. The rangeof anthropometricdata is great.Designersmust determine which criteria apply to the problem at hand. Dimensions for severalgroups of males and femalesare given in table5.1. How theywere takenis shownin figure 5.4. Several of these data groups were basedon U.S. Air Force flying personnel;therefore, very large and very small people probably are not represented. There arefour constraintsofergonomic anthropometry: clearance, reach, posture,and strength.Clearanceprovidgs adequateclearancefor those in the workstation. This includesheadroom,elbow room, leg room, and handle space on a hand tool. Clearancesare designedfor the maximum. For example, if the tallest person in a group has clearance, shorter peoplewill have it also. Figure 5.5 shows severaltypical workplace clearances. In most of the examples,three valuesin inches are given. The first is the minimum normal clearance, the secondis the clearance with normal clothing, and the third is the clearance required with heavywinter clothing. Reachingis a commonworkplaceactivity.Workers reachfor parts, tools,andcontrols.Reachconsffaints determinethe maximum acceptable distanceof the item-an exampleof designingfor the minimum. If the individual with the shortestreachcangrasp,thosewith longer reachcan alsograsp.The distances in figure 5.4 include static reaches. Figure 5.6 showsreachzones thatvary accordingto difficulty. Postural constraints often are difficult to identify becausethey dependon the sizeofthe person,his or her position,and the equipment dimensions.The height of a work surface,for example,dependson the height ofthe worker and the height ofthe worker's chair. With postural

17O

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Workstation Design: TheSub-Micro-Space Plan

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Figure5.4 - Typicol Anthropometric Dirnensions

Dimonsions ln Inch6s Minimum/Rccommond6dHcavt Ctothing Adaoled Fromr Mccormick. 1064

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Figure5.5 - Typicol Work Clearance

172

FacilitiesPlanning

constraints, designing for the extremesis the common methodolog'y. Figure 5.6 showsseveral posturaldimensions. Strength requiresfocuson the minimum in one situation and the maximum in others. It depends on the direction of force and the position of the operator, as well as the strength of the individual operator. Experience and a conservativeapproachwill help to ensure For a straight lift that the operator'sstrength limits are not exceeded. under ideal conditions,an operatorshould neverlift a weight of more than fifry-one pounds.

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Horizontal ReachZones

Vertical Reach Zones Figure5.6 - ReochZones

plan WorkstationDesign:The Sub-Micro-Space

173

Specialtopics severalspecifictopics ariserepeatedlyin the ergonomicsofworkstation design. Among these are band tools,material ltandling, zuork positions, and seating.In addition to the discussion below, figure 5.3 contains principles that apply to theseareas. Hand tool selection,design,and use are important elementsof manyworkstation designs. The useofthe correct handtools contributes to productivity and quality and can prevent CTD and other injuries. Almost everyworkplacerequiressomeform ofmaterial handling. Injuries caused by maneuveringmaterialsmanually cost industrieswell over $15 billion annuallyin direct expenses. The indirect costs^re an estimated at $60 to fi75billion. Productivitylosses from poor handling methods are probably even greater. Any tasks that require manual material handling should be carefully reviewed.Refer to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's (NIOSH) Revised Lifting Equation (1991). Operatorsmay sit, stand,or both. Work positionsthat combine sitting and standingpermit operators to shift their postures. This helps reducemusclefatiguefromprolonged staticeffort. Figure5.7 summarizes the relationship between severalworkplace variables and preferred seatingpositions.

Heavy Load/Forces

lntermittent Work

.A) \ B

Extended work Envelop. XQrc

Variable Tasks
Variable Surface Height

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,c) PSXI lDxBxc/

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Figure5.7 -Work Positions

174

Planning Facilities

and most designers have studied seatsextensively, Researchers a seatthat is seats. In general, with experience broad, practical have rly is ergonomically comfortablefor the taskand positionsthe armsprope satisfactory. factorsin workstationdesign Only the mostimportant ergonomic noise,and shift havebeen covered.Lighting, vibration, temperature, see Salvendy's further information, work also affect the design. For Handbook of Human Factors and McCormick's Human Factors In E ngine ering and D esign. Worker selection The physicaldemandsofeveryjob differ, asdo the physical,mental, and that performsajob. For opticharacteristics ofeachperson temperamental should match. and capabilities thesecharacteristics mum performance, required for eachjob An employer should identify characteristics for it. and identifr minimum criteria for thosewho might be selected the identification match.In somecases, an appropriate This will ensure a larger to accommodate may resultin ajob redesign of characteristics At minimum, employers shouldensure candidates. partofthe available that the peoplein a particularjob do not incur physicalharm because job requirements and worker characteristics. of a mismatchbetween to The Americanswith DisabilitiesAct (ADA) is anotherreason to accommodate, act requires employers This perform this analysis. within reason,peoplewith disabilitieswho can perform the essential functionsand the functionsof ajob. To do so meansthat the essential worker characteristics neededto perform them must be identified.

The workstationspaceplan
The tasksfor preparinga workstationareillustratedin figure 5.8. Task identifying project.The planincludes out aplanfor the design 05.01sets A participantsin the designprojectaswell astasksand their sequence. level. works well at this simple and informal plan usually fundamental space planelements: these The modelprojectplanuses tools, SPUsincludeoperators, and constraints. SPUs,affinities,space, Affinities evolvefrom the movementof parts,and machineelements. and other for observation, parts,movementof hands,and the necessity space, but in aworkstation,vertical indirect factors.Each SPU requires spaceis more important than it is at other levels.Constraintshave a different quality. They now include an operator's dimensional and regulatory limits. Process constraints limits and,possibly, physiological may play an important role. information. bring togetherthe necessary In Task 05.02,designers

Workstation Design: The Sub-Micro-Space Plan

175

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This includesa layoutofthe area, a process chartfor the overallprocess, information on the peoplewho willwork at the station,partslists,tool lists,andequipmentlists. Iftheworkstation designfollowsa celldesign, much ofthe necessaryinformation may aheady exist.Ifnot, itwill have to be obtained or generated. Chapter 4 shows how to acquire this information.

176

FacilitiesPlanning

Next, a detailed processchart for,workstation ^ctivity is created (Task 05.03). Figure 5.9 is the workstation processfor the head of the diaphragmpump describedin Chapter 4. The cellsubassembly asa single operation. Now, it is level chart identified this subassembly exploded into the next level of detail, and each component and each operation that usesa separatetool or instrument are documented. In serviceenvironments, information items go into the chart. T able5 .2 includesalist ofparts and tools for the headsubassembly. This spreadsheetis the heart of the layout analysis.As the design will be described. the other information and calculations proceeds, or functions to people machines.For the Task 05.04 allocates most functions go to the operator. The design head subassembly, volume is eighty-eight pumps per dayor about elevenpumps each hour.

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Workstation Design: The Sub-Micro-Space Plan

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178

FacilitiesPlanning

judgment, Moreover, two sizesmakeup this volume.In the designer's automationwasimpracticalat this volume.The onlymachineassignment is the tightening of fittings. The operatorusesan air wrench to do this. affinities.Most affinitiesarise Tasls 05.05through 05.08address The reaching, grasping, and moving. operatormayinteractin this from manner with parts, tools, or controls. A reach, followed by a grasp, is one of the most common workplace activities.Operatorsreach and grasp parts, tools and controls. Frequency, handling difficulty, and weight affect the reach affinity. Affinities also arisefrom other factors.The operatormay need to visualfield. se e objectsor displays, sothey shouldbewithin the operator's Someitems aremore important than others.For example,an emergency cutoffcontrol is usedonly infrequentlybut is veryimportant. Developing affinities alsoinvolves:the amount of accuraryrequired,duration ofuse, safety,the amount of force required, and operatorpreferences. The various tools, parts, displays, and controls compete for locationscloseto the operatorandwithin his or her optimum visualand reachzones.These zoneshavelimits. Figure 5.6 shows the horizontal and vertical zones for a typical "H" "V' or for horizontal or operator. These are designatedwith an items to both ahorizontd.andvertical vertical.Designersthen canassign znne accordingto their relativeaffinity needsand the spaceavailable. Horizontal affinity znne 1 (H1) is closestto the operator and can The zone be reachedcomfortablywhen elbowsareon the work surface. edge.A line extending45 archis about 15 to 17 inchesfrom the surface degreesfrom the shouldersbounds the zone laterally. This zone is the time. It and quickestaccess most comfortable,offering the leaststress should be reservedfor the tasks and items with the highest priority. Horiznntal affinity zone 2 (H2) is the area an operator can comfortably reachby extendingan arm with his or her trunk stationary. edge.It endswhen The zone arcis about27 inchesfrom the work surface abovethe horizontal plane. This zone requires the arm is at 45 degrees time in this position leadsto minimal access time. However, extensive rapid fatigue and upper musculoskeletal stress.Use this zone for light objectsthat the operatorcan graspeasilybefore returning to zone H1. Horizontal affinity zone 3 (H3) is reachedby extending an arm with full trunk flexion. The arc is about 42 to 44 inches from the work surface edge. It ends when the arm reaches45 degrees above the time and horizontal plane.This zone has significantlygreateraccess correspondingreduction in efficiency, productivity, and effectiveness. Operators must move their headsto seethe task, a movement that interrupts concentration.This zone should be used for infrequent

WorkstationDesign:TheSub-Micro-SpacePlan17g reacheswith low priority. Horizo ntal affinity zone 4 (H 4) require s fu ll bo dy movem ent and, possibly,one or two side steps.The operator expendsconsiderable energ'y to reachthis zone.Accesstime is significantly greaterthan other zones.It should only be used for taskswith the lowest priority. Vertical affinity zone ! (V1) extends from the work surftce to about 10 to 16 inchesabovethe seatpan. It is aboutheartlevel,hasthe lowest access time, and is the most comfortable.It shouldbe usedfor taskswith the highestprioriry. Vertical affinity zone 2 (V2) begins where zone VI ends. It extendsto the operator'sshoulders, about 16 to 24 inches abovethe work surface. This zoneis usedfor items and tasksthat supportprimary tasks.Accesstime is minimal, but extensive time in this zone causes early fatigue and musculoskeletal stress. Vertical affinity zone3 (V3) extendsfrom the baseof znneY2 to the maximum reachlevel.It may require upper trunk movement aswell as head movement,which reduces concentrationand increases access time. Using this zone interrupts vision and forces the operator to refocus. It is the least efficient vertical affinity zone and should be reservedfor taskswith the lowest priority. The first task for affinity development concerns reaches and frequency.From the initial information, designers should compile a list ofitems. In table5.2, this list is in column B. Next, designers shoulduse P-V information, the process chart,and bills of materialsto determine the number of times eachday an operatorreaches eachitem. In table 5.2, this is column I. The frequencies derivefrom the quantity per unit (column C) and the expected daily production (Column D). Column J is an affinity rating that uses the 0 to 4 weighted numeric scale. The rating is identified on a rankedbar graph,a process similar to that used for rating material flow affinities discussedin chapter 3. To construct this graph, the spreadsheet on column I is sorted in descendingorder. Column I is plotted on the vertical axis while the identifiing number, column A, is plotted on the horizontal axis.The next stepinvolvesassigning0 to 4 or AEIOU to the affinities and recordingthem in columnJ of the spreadsheet. The weight of eachobject, if significant, addsto the difficulty of a reach.Column K lists the weight carried for eachitem, which is then rated by the coresponding affinities (column L). Difficulty of a reachgraspalsodepends on the shape,size,and delicacyof eachitem. This affinity is rated in column M. For the diaphragm pump, the valvesare particularly small and delicate. Consequently, they carry a handling affinity of 4. Small washers carrya 3 affinity.

180

FacilitiesPlanning

of the diaphragm pump; no other For the head subassembly affiniry factors were identified. In different situations, this category to seegauges or controls.It could include could include the necessity many factors peculiar to each circumstance.Using the proceduresfor Task03.14 outlined in chapter3, affinitiesaremerged.Attheworkstation a ratingweight.Table level,this is Task 05.09.Eachaffinity is assigned 5.2 showstheseweights at lower left. Each affinity rating is multiplied weight and placedin column O. Next, the values by the corresponding in column O areplotted on a rankedbar graph,and the total affinities are rated and areplacedin column P. Task 05.10calculates the space for eachitem in the list. Table 5 .2 has dimensional information in columns F through H. Column E showsa containercode.For example,the BN1 containeris an openfront partsbin with dimensions of 6 inchesby 7.5 inchesby 12 inches. The spreadsheetformula calculateshorrzontal spaceand placesit in column R. The face areafor each item is shown in column S. The formula adds20 percentfor unusablespaceand clearances. the Task 05.11 assigns eachitem an affinity zone.This balances need for affinity with availablespace.Starting with the highest value to the most desirable zone.For the head affinities,eachitem is assigned subassembly,zone H1V1 was reservedfor the work fixture and The lower middle sectionof table 5.2 shows surroundingwork space. in eachzone.Because the total amount the approximate space available of spaceneededexceeds the spaceavailablein all the V1 zones,the designers use an elevated shelf in zoneH2V2 to storesomeparts. In this situation,horizontalspace dominates. In other situations, might dominate. For this suchasin an aircraft cockpit, the vertical space example, affinitiesbetweenelements other than the operatorhavebeen situations. In ignored.Suchaffinitiesmight haveimportancein special such cases,designersdevelop an affinity diagram like that used in Chapters3 and 4. Task 05.13 creates space plan options. One option for the head usedfigure 5.7 to selecta subassembly is in figure 5.10.The designers heads and for In this case, the operator assembles position the operator. assists other bodies.The operatoralsostocksmaterialand occasionally peoplein the work cell. The sit and standposition offers mobility but alsoallowsrest and variation. eitherofthe two Figure5.10showshowthe operatorcan assemble This pump sizeswithout set-up. precludes batching.At completion, the parts go on a roller conveyor at the operator's left. The roller conveyor and one-part container are in Zone 4, outside the usual afftnity zones. The operatorusestheseonly oncefor eachitem. A swivel

Workstation Design: TheSub-Micro-Space Plan

181

seatpreventsawlanrard bending for both reaches. A secondroller conveyorfeedsparts for the body assembly. This assemblyoccursat the workstation to the operator'sleft. It also carries the completedbody assemblies. The operator's airwrench hangson a tool balance. An adjustable task light reduces glare. Adjustable height on the bench and seat accommodatesall operators. The operator stocks material from the back side of the bench,which is adjacentto aisleand storageareas. Task 5.14 is the evaluation of the space plan.The evaluation tools from Chapter 3 should be used.

Figure5,10 - Worlstotion

182

Facilities Planning

Summaly A well-thought-out workstation optimizes productivity both within itself and in the larger production system. It improves the work for everyone. It ensures continuedhealth and safety.Such experience workstations are an essentialpart of a wodd-class operationsstrateg'y. consistent and highA structuredand systematic approach will ensure quality workstation design.

Chapter6
Written by Site Planning Arild Eng

and Location Amundsen

the location,acquisition,and planning of sites. This chapterdiscusses These are Levels 7 and2 in figure 2.I. At the global level, Level 1, managementdecidesthe approximategeographiclocation for the andrangeofactivity necessarilyinclude the scope site(s). Suchdecisions They includeintegration-how the issues. on eachsite,aswell asscale sitesrelate to eachother and the outsideworld. First, a desirableregion or areafor the site is located.Management then finds specific site the acquisition. and negotiates candidates, makesa selection, Level2, includesplanningthelocationof buildings The supra-level, on the site. Other significant site featuressuch as utiliry lines, roads, arealsopositioned. Zoningand neighborhood railways,and greenareas areexplored. anddevelopment andfuture expansions issues areexamined, are suchdecisions Because sitesareso permanentand expensive, hasthe authority Only top management both long-rangeand strategic. and responsibilityfor such decisions.Industrial engineerscan assist management with these decisions by gathering facts, framing the issues,and guiding the debate.They also can composesignificantly different and important options and provide the tools for evaluation. Ideally, site location and planning proceduresshould occur Fig. 2.7).However, sequentially andbeforeotherfacilitiesplanning(see a site, this may not happen.Management akeadymay havepurchased or an older, existing site may need replanning. Designers may have to rationalizethe scope,range,and scaleof activities for multiple existing sites.They must integrateand combinecompatibleproducts,markets, These less-than-ideal situationsare common. and activities. areoftenintangible,probablistic, Sitelocationandplanningissues

184

FacilitiesPlanning

from projectto project. or conditional.The tasksareseldomconsistent The methodologiesare inexact and often not amenableto engineering Most industrial engineersfacethesetasksonly occasionallyin analysis. sitelocationand planningrequiremore For thesereasons, their careers. ofspace planning. Otganizations maywish other levels than experience of specialistsin this field. to engagethe services This is the In this book, single-buildingsites are emphasized. most common situation, particularly for thosewho arerelatively new to facility planning. Large, multi-building sites arefar more complex and involve a more complex project structure.They also involve the larger issues of focus,detailedconstruction,and structuralengineering. Site planning and location canfollow the sameprinciples detailed in the previous chapters.A framework of detail levels translatesinto planning phases.For each phase, model project plans are used to developa project plan.

Site locationand acquisition

An existing firm that simply needsa more suitable site in the current on a global level. However, a firm region doesnot need to be analyzed planning an additional site or a move to a new geographicregion faces A sound site-locationproject is not strategicand long-term issues. criticalskills for cheap labor andlowtaxes.Increasingly, merelyasearch of a firm. Geopolitical in labor and support determine the success factorsmay influencethe decision. The phasing between Levels 1 and 2 may not be clear and sequential. For example, initial site plans may have to be prepared After the acquisition, before anyonecandecideamong final candidates. more detailed site plans assistthe architectsand civil engineersasthey design the buildings and key features. The model project plan for Level 1 activity is in figure 6. 1. It starts with a preliminary investigation. This information acquisition (Task with top managementin 01.01) usuallytakesthe form of discussion grosscost estimates may require finance. It and marketing, operations, to verify that expectationsare realistic. The deliverablesare project plans for Level l and2 and a report. Task 01.02 develops and defines corporate and operations When a firm previously has gone through this process,this strategies. task simply may be clarification. When the firm has not previously theseissues, the task can be arduous. considered Chapter 3 included some discussionof operations strategy.The strategystatementrequired for site acquisition is similar to the example issues but in broaderterms. manyofthe same in figure3.17.It addresses

SitePlanning and Location

185

0 1 .o l Acquire Information

01.o2 DevelopStrategy
0 1 .o 3 Dimension Site

01.o4 Locate Site

ol.os
Prepare Site Specification

01.06 ldentify Site Gandidates

0 1 .o 7 EvaluateCandidates

0 1 .o 8 Acquire Site

Figure 5. | - Site Location

186

FacilitiesPlanning

for developinga new site'sstrategyarebeyondthe The specifics ofthis book. The booksby Skinner,Voss,Hill, and Hayesnoted scope for further information. The deliverable sources areexcellent asreferences summaryfor the site. for Task 01.02 is a strateg'y In Task 01.03, dimensionsof the proposedsite are determined, planninghorizons. for several requirements includingunder-roofspace Typically, thesehorizons areone year, five years,ten years,and twenty This variesbetweenindustriesand firms. Fast-growingfirms in years. rapidly evolvingindustries-electronics, for example-work on shorter industries,suchaspaperor horizons.Stablefirms in capital-intensive havelongerhorizons. steel, suchasthe and other calculations From under-roofrequirements number of employees,outdoor space is computed. This includes Dimensioning alsoincludesa definition andgreenareas. parking,storage, of corollary requirementssuch as utilities, local skills, and other infrastructure. Task 01.04 locatesthe potential geographiclimits. Such limits might be country or regionwide.For heavymanufacturing, this analysis should include transportation costs and availability. For knowledgebasedindustries, it may include availability of critical skills or qualityof:life issues. In this example,a Figure 6.2 illustratesa transportationanalysis. brewingfirm wantsto locatea new sitethatwill be usedfor distribution per capita are constant.Shadingsindicate throughout Norway. Sales areaswhere nationwide distribution costsfall within the associated ranges.The mountainous terrain and differencesin transportation infrastructure clearly affect the shape of each area.The area around high ofits centrallocation, Oslo hasthe lowestdistributioncostbecause population density, and favorableterrain. A location in Bergen or distribution costsby about 50 percent. Trondheim would increase into a site specification the requirements Task 01.05 assembles or internal.External asexternal document.Sitefactorscanbe classified and internalfactorsin turn maybe identified astangibleand intangible. Tangible factorsarethosewith physicalforms suchassite boundariesor soil conditions.Intangiblesarelessdefinitive, and includefactors like the local work ethic, governmentalclimate, or site history. Frequently, the siteboundaries. Externalfactorsexistlargelyoutside tangible external of them. Examples has little control over the owner factorsare: ' transportationproximity; ' site access limitation; ' future street widening;

SitePlanning and Location . airport flight paths; . neighboractivities; . runoff/flooding; . prevailing wind; . freight transportation; . residentialproximity; . public transportationland . acquisitionprice and terms.

187

Intangible externalfactorsmight include: . zoning; . building codes/permits; . political climate; . police and fire protection; . neighbor attitudes; ' site and areahistory; . community power structure; . manPower; . natural resource restrictions; . environmentalissues; . grantsand aids; . tax exemption; . local taxes; . political stabiliry; . economicstabiliw: ' industrial tradition; . labor laws; . constructioncosts;and 'cost of living. Internal factors exist largely within the site boundary. The owner may havesubstantial ability to modi4, or mitigate the effectsof them. Some tangibleinternal factorsmight be: 'topography; 'soil conditions: . existingbuildings; ' existing traffic areasl . utility systems; and . water table. Someintangibleinternal factorsare: 'landscaping; . security; . safetyi . appearance/image;

188

FacilitiesPlanning ' managerialstyle; and 'tract shape.

reducesthe possibility of overlookingan Focusingon eachsub-class factor. important The site specificationgives real estate agents and site-search potential site candidates. expeftsthe information they needto screen This activitytakesplacein Task 01.06;the resultshouldbe a list of t"vo to eight candidates. Tools for evaluation the site candidates. Task 01.07 evaluates include weighted factor analysis,financial analysis,simulation, and materialflow analysis. Qralifiers are the absoluteminimum requirementsfor the site' limits. Qralifiers that canvarywithin reasonable Decidersarefeatures of land or 10,000 might include items suchas:a minimum of 4.5 acres Decidersmight include additionaloptions for KVA electricalservice. that passthe expansionland or lower electricalrates.All candidates but will requirements initial screeningshould meet the qualification vary with respectto deciders. To assistwith the evaluation,preliminary site plans may have to be prepared.For example,a site that is otherwisedesirablemay havean A siteplan can determinewhether the siteis suited odd config,rration. The site'spossibilitiesand for the planned buildings and operations. limitations must be analyzed.While most evaluationfactors are in the somemayonlybecomeknown asthe sitesare original sitespecification, investigated. Acquisition (Task 01.08) includes negotiation and purchase. These negotiations often involve owners, lawyers, environmental Union officials. officials,anddevelopment localgovernment specialists, may also participate. The negotiating processmay representatives When acquisition changethe decisionfactorsand forcea reevaluation. can begin. space planning is complete, Site planning A siteplan showsland use-today and in the yearsto come.Buildings, The plan reflects are delineated. parking, and greenareas open space, utilization' space showing strategy, the physicalresultsof the business expansion and transport routes, utilities, maintenancesystems' possibilities. Space planning for Level2-the site-positions buildings,parking Industrial engineers lots, drives,utilities, and many other sitefeatures. civil engineeror facility often perform this taskjointlywith an architect, siteis acquired. after aspecific This taskis bestaccomplished engineer.

SitePlanning and Location

189

However,havingapreliminarysite plan mayhelpduringthe acquisition process.The task also may involve replanning an older, existing site. A good site plan assists with orderly expansionand growth. It helps place short-term layout and facility decisions into a long-term strategicperspective. It is essentialto the long-te rm missionof a facility.

Transport Gost Index

I W - 1.25 1.00 - 1.35 1.26

- r.so F ir.so [---l r.sr- r.ze f__-.] r.zs*

Figure5.2 - Tronsportotion Anolysis

190

Planning Facilities

The fundamental macro-space-planelements, SPUs, space' affinities, and constraints, apply at the site level' However, there are differencesbetween site-level planning and spaceplanning at the macro-level.Site-levelspaceusually meansexterior dimensionsand dominatethe use.Affinities aresimpler,and constraints exteriorspace layout of most sites. The site-level model Proiect Plan Figure 6.3 is the model project plan for a single-building site' As large,complex,multi-building sitesusea different mentionedpreviously,

02.o1 Refine/Gonfirm Information

02.o2 StrategY Refine/Gonfirm

02.03 Dimension Site

02.o4 LayoutInitial Site

02.05 Layout Saturated Site

02.06 Layout Intermediate Sites

02.o7 Evaluate & Select

Figure5.3 - Model Proiect Plon

SitePlanning and Location

191

approachand considerable sitd planning experience is needed.such complex sitesare beyond the scopeof this discussion. For additional information, see wrennall and Lee, Handbook of comrnercial and Ildysnll planning Of Managemenr or Muthe r, Systematic lacility Industria I Facilities. Information neededfor the site plan is obtained during Task 02.07.Much of it may already existif the planners areprogres sirigfrom the site acquisitionphase. Task 02.02 of the model project plan develops operationsstrategy. Tli.s mal simply be a confirmation of earliei work, possibly wiih additional detailmore suitedto localconditions.The deliverable for Task 02.02 is a strategysummarysimilar to the one illustraredin figure 3.1g. once the backgroundinformation has been collecteJ and the operationsstrategyis in place,the site is dimensioned(Task 02.03). This processdefines, analyzes, and quantifies those factors that affect key featuresat eachplanning horizon, including: . space requirements by class; . number of employees; . shippingvolume; . production volume and mix; . utiliry requirements; . organization structure; . traffic access: and . designconstraints. The /nitra/ Srte and Site Saturat/on p/ans The initial site is plannedin Task 02.04.For a new site,this would be the firstbuildingphase.Foran existingsite,itis the currentconfiguration. Figure 6.4 illustrates for Vinyl-X, an extruder of vinyl prodults. Task 02.05is the sitesaturation plan,which placeithe maximum production spaceon the site. Also included are appropriatesupport spacessuch as docks, parking, offices, and warehousis. Figuri 6.5 showsthe site saturationplan. After an initial plan and a site saturation plan are in place, intermediatedevelopmentplans can be filled in during Task dz.oo. 6.6, when joined with figures 6.4 and 6.5, i=ompletes the fig"_t. developmentplanforthe vinyl-Xsite. Awritten plan shouldaccompany the graphic layouts developedduring Tasks 02.04 throu gh 02.06. The model project plan showsTasks 02.04,02.05,-and.02.06 as individual tasks.However, designers probablywill work on layouts for all three at the sametime, creatingseveral distinct setsof siteplans.In Task 02.07' spaceplanners evaluatethese options and serectfrom

192

Planning Facilities

Slte

1,6
Figure6.4, 5.5 - Site Pfon Development

/ / |

Site Planning and Location

193

among them. Decision tree analysisis a viable addition to the usual panoply of evaluation tools. Other Site Planning lssues rvVhile developing the initial site saturation and intermediate plans, spacefor immediate useis laid out first. Future space plans alsomust be anticipated and the transition costsminimized F or example,loading docks are expensiveto build. Therefore, they should be placed where they will not be affected during future expansions.Conversely,light assemblyworkstations areeasyto move.Their position is not ascritical. Space flexibility, or the cost ofmoving a spaceand the complexity ofthe facility, must alsobe considered. Figure 6.7 illustrares.The SPU's flexibility is low if it has special facilities and representsvery heavy production. The SPU'sflexibility increases with lighter production and simpler facilities. For the development plan, designers can choose from several types or variations: zone,block,duplicate,and stripe. Figure 6.8 shows thesespace plan types. A zone plan begins with a central core of space. Each SPU, function, or activity has a related zone. As spaceneeds increase,the SPUs expand outward but within their designatedzones.Zone plans

Figure6.7 - Site Plan Development

194

Planning Facilities

alloworderlygrowth without alteringproductionorganization.However, asSPUsbecomelarger and larger, coordination and control difficulties may develop, especiallyif growth also brings more product variety. A block plan begins with blocks of land designated for each function or are^ with long travel distances between SPUs. Each building may then expandwithin its block. Block planswork well when each SPU is a largely self-contained entity. A duplicate plan startswith an initial facility, which is then cloned however, scalel the problemof increasing land.This avoids on adjacent in largeincrements. it meanscapacityincreases

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Figure5.7 - Processond Facility Flexibility

SitePlanning and Location

195

Zone Plan
Areas are reservedfor expansion from a center core outwards.

Block Plan
Areas are blockedout by functionor space type. Each facilityexpandswithin a designated block.

l Z-l
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Areasare reserved in stripes across the site.This is a sp e ci aty l peof zoneplan.

i*-Er i ;

Figure6.8 - Site DevelopmentStyles

196

FacilitiesPlanning

A stripe plan is a specialversion of a zone plan where each SPU expands horrzontally. This is a good approach for simple, linear that expandas new production units are added.It may not processes work well for more complex products and processes.

E@
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service Personnel
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Same Fire Hazard

Same People

B y S p e c i a lR e q u i r e m e n t s
Figure5.9 - SPU GrouPing

Site Planning and Location

't97

The Site Plan The planning processfor the site plan is similar to the processfor macro-layouts.The first stepis identifting the Spus. Relatid activities or featuresar-e grouped into logical SPUs basedon function, product, of building, or specialrequirements(Figure qp. 6.9). Figures 6.10 through 6.14useBCD Industries,Ltd., "r "r e""-ple. Figure6.10lists the namesand acronyms of eachmajor SPU aswell asthi initial space requirements. If an existingsitewerebeingreconfigured, cuffent space would be shown at this point.

ti! t : l =

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Figure5.10 - SPUSummary

198

Planning Facilities

Figure 6.11 is the affinity chart that identifies the affinities betweenthe SPUsin the siteplan. Someofthe SPUs,suchasrail siding and road, are site features.This is typical for site level planning.

UTTING
z

L I G H TM A C H ( L M )

i 4

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,IATR.FLOW
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SUNNEL o IKATT

T R U C KT R A F F I C

Figure5.1l - Affinity Chart

SitePlanning and Location

199

Next, a configuration diagram and the layout primitive should be (f\5.6.72). Figure 6.13 showsthe samediagramcodedfor constructed flexibility and building type. coded diagramshelp in the preparation of the site saturationand development plans.

HEAVY MACHINING

TECHNICAL SERVICE

RAW MATERIALS STORAGE

z
UTTING PARTS STORAGE

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Today's Space FutureExpansion

Figure5.12 - Layout Primitive With Expansion

Planning Facilities plan is shown in figure 6.74.Itconsists of an initial BCD's space space plan with a subsequentexpansion.The top portion_of the illustraiion shows operating departments at stageI and stageII. The

lrTl-T]-lr,rovi
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Figure6.13A - Layout Primitive Coded For Mobility

SitePlanning and Location

199

Next, a configuration diagram and the layout primitive should be (fig.6.72). Figure 6.13 showsthe samediagramcodedfor constructed flexibility andbuilding type.coded diagrams help in the preparationof the site saturationand development plans.

HEAVY MACHINING

TECHNICAL SERVICE

RAW MATERIALS STORAGE

fF

Today's Space FutureExpansion

Figure5,12 - Layout Primitive With Exponsion

2OO

Planning Facilities

plan is shown in figure 6.14.ltconsists of an initial BCD's space spaceplan with a subsequentexpansion.The top portion_of the illustration shows operating departments at stageI and stageII. The

ffi

Inexpensive

Figure6.13A - Layout Primitive Coded For Mobility

SitePlanning and Location

201

middle portion showsthe rypeofbuilding. The bottom portion shows the mobility ofspaceat both stages. In the expansion, few SPUsreguire movement.None of the lessmobile areas require movement.

TTING PARTS

Z Z

FTNT'HED
STORAGE

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Figure5.138 - Loyout PrimitiveCoded For BuildingType

202

Planning Facilities

Phase I
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5.14-SpocePlan Figure

Conclusion
This chapter has set out the fundamentalsof site selectionand site fit into the total facility how thesedetaillevels planning,demonstrating the stepsrequiredto select planning cycle.Model projectplansoutline andplan a small,single-buildingsite.When all the tasksarecompleted, thoseindividualswho participated the resultis a plan that shouldplease in the process.

Chapter 7
Writtenby OfficeSpacePlanningHerbert Tuftle

The shift from manuallabor to knowledge-based work has increased the need for productive offices. Office personnelare no longer simply typists and clerks. Office work now also includes accounting, administration,manufacturingsupport,information services, human resources, engineering, customer services, andteammeetings. It includes many t)?es of knowledge-based and information-intensive work. Simultaneously, manufacturingoperations arebecomingde aner,smaller, and more sophisticated. Many factoriesare cleanerand more userfriendly than typical offices.The peoplewho makeproducs often work elbow to elbowwith engineers, schedulers, and designers who now sit on the manufacturing floor. The distinctionbetweenproduct and service hasblurred. Service providers use the manufacturing principles of Henry Ford. Manufacturersinclude a package of services aspart of their products. Thesemayincludespecial designs, customization, financing,repairs, or applicationassistance. Flexibility in manufacturing has spread to flexibility in office layout and design.It is not uncommon to rearrangeentire floors of offices in a weekend.Many advances in furniture, telephones,and computersystemdesigns havebeenmade.Thesenew systems provide design flexibility, are easy to install, and can accommodate the increasingly rapid changes in the workplace. Office structure has undergone considerablechange.The office may now have teams rather than functional departments.These temporaryof pefmanentteamsmay managea process or project. The office structure and companyculture affect office planning and design.

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will sewepeoplewith variousneeds. The office being designed Their performance-be it clerical, administrative, or intellecfualdependsin part on how they feel in their surroundings.Designers usually want the employeesto be involved in the design of the layout, as well as the selection of furniture and fixtures. When users help determinetheir environment,they feel more comfortablein it, which in turn contributesto their motivation. Every employeemay not agreewith every aspectof a particular Peopleusually however,to get a group consensus. layout.It is possible, can agreeto adopt the chosenlayout. This chaptergivesa designeror designteam the foundation for planning ofoffice space plan.The fundamentals creatingan officespace Included of the offices. or location remain the samewhateverthe size layout alternatives,andhazards.It demonstrateshow are approaches, to all users. a team may be used to developan office layout acceptable Approaches to office planning riential, to space planning: expe common approaches Chapter 1 discussed Office and strategic. masterbuilding, cloning,bottom-up, systematic, planning frequently uses the same approaches,along with others such as interior design, organization-based,spacerationing, and information flow. on artisticdesignandcreativity. focuses The interiordaignapproach The outcome is a pleasingenvironment,but it may not be the most andmeeting andreception,lobby, offices efficient.Ithas meritfor executive to productivity. contributes and rarely Typically, it is expensive areas. a??rnacbis the most common. It The organization-based the organization chart over the floor plan, starting with superimposes in a corneroffice with disproportionate or top executive president the reportingdirectlyto sitsnearby,and thosemanagers A secretary space. the executiveare along outer walls. Support staff is then shoehornedin officesasillustratedin figure 7.1. outsidethe executive is often part of organization-based rationing approach The space plans. Rank in an organizationdetermineswode spacesize.Each space person has a specified area correspondingto their position in the corporatehierarchy.They often havespecificequipment and furniture. usuallydeterminethe space often in remote areas, Corporateleaders, standards. Layouts basedon hierarchy may allocatewindows effectivelybut rarely contribute to productivity. They facilitate communication, but only along official channels.Hierarchical layouts rarely fit in a team environment.

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Many office layouts evolve from the infornationflow apptoach' Two paradoxical trends are influencing this approach. First, communication technology is reducing the importance of physical location for some types of information. Second, team-based organizationsare increasingthe importance oforal and interpersonal communication. This interpersonalcommunication is sensitiveto physicallocation. principlesandprocedures the same planning for anofficeuses Space ofthe traditional the bestfeatures planning.It incorporates asother space asmacro-sPaceusing the sameprinciplesand procedures approaches, sitelocation. global apply, beginningwith levels ofdetail The planning. ofwork cell levels detailed The follow. plans Siteplansand macro-space as for a office for an design and workstation design are as important factory. At each level, spaceplanning units, affinities, space,and in the designProcess. constraintsassist The specialneedsof office environmentschangethe emphasis Among the most important plan approach. and applicationofthe space are: differences ' spacestandards space; areusedto allocateand calculate ' affinitiesdependmore on communicationand than on material movement personnel:movement ' constraintsoften havea psychologicalor organizationalbasis rather than a physicalone; and ' politics and personalities carry more influence. Team-based offi ce layouts Team-based organizattonshave many characteristicsuncommon to that affectthe layoutinclude: Characteristics traditional organizations. ' frequent meetings(twice daily) of small groupsfor an hour or less; . the generationof more charts,graphs,or project communicationmaterialsthan traditional organizations; ' substantial training (40 to 120 hours); annualemployee ' frequentpresentations and other teamsl to management ' project-orientedtemporaryteams; ' varyrngteam membership; and ' direct team input on workplacelayout. by teams.This is congruent Offices usedby teamsshouldbe designed with the empowered work team philosophy. However' some organizationshave not adopted empowered work teams. An office spaceplanner should realizewhat is appropriate for the organizatron.

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The office layoutteam

Team-designed layouts help overcome difficulties that arise from complexity, human factors, and organizational maneuvering. If empoweredteamsare not used,peoplefrom eachdepartmentshould participatein other ways. When a team doesthe work, Task 03.01 may requiremore than gro:;c1 llanning. Organ izing an offi ce layout team involvesexpanding Task 03.01 to include the following steps: 1. Appoint a facilitator. 2. select team memberswith good interpersonal skins.preferably, they should have training or experiencein teamwork. The membershipshould represent all major departments and areas. 3. Develop an agreeable team name. 4. Developa brief missionstatementthat satisfies an team members. It shouldstatewho, what, when, where,why, and how. Here is an example:"The Building BlocksTeam for Foxmann Manufacturing Co. will design one office layout byJune. It will have the ,pprorr"1 of all internal customers and achieve budget goals." 5. Assign responsibility. The team leaderassigns tasksand responsibilities. He or sheis often an engineerand shouldcoordinate assignments for team members.For example,eachpersonshould be the liaison for his or her departmentor home team. someone shouldwork with thosedepartments or teamsnot represented on the layout team. Other assignments include meetingagendas, minutes, contactwith suppliers, drawing coordination,sketches, and layout. someoneshould be the communicatorand reDortro management and other teams. 6. Agree on team meeting dates,times, and duration. 7. Develop ground rules for the team's operation.

The layout project

For the office macro-layout,a model project plan (seefig. 3.1) can be used. chapter 4 explainshow to design work cells and lepartmental space plans.office plannersshouldusethe taskprocedures tutlined in both chapters, applying them directly to office layouts. several tasks

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probablyshouldbe modified,however,sothat theymeetthe requirements ofan office project. Office user sulvey users-the Part of acquiring information is a surveyof the office space "Office lJser internal .rrtto-.tt. This should be calledTask 03.09A, Survey,"and shouldbe addedto the model project plan. Figure 7.2 rs an exampleof an office user surveythat can be Managementshouldreviewany survey tailored to meet specificneeds. even who will usethe office,perhaps beforeit is distributedto everyone vendors,and visitors.To supplementthe survey, outside customers, team members may wish to interyiew senior executivesand other key people. It canhelpwith space tasks. in manysubsequent assists The survey to identifi opportunitiesfor process and it allowsplanners calculations, constraints.The data collected identifr helps It also improvement. The datafrom the office format. adsheet in spre shouldbe documented user survey also should be used to develop affinities and space requirements.These affinities then shouldbe reviewedwith many or all behindtheir layout. the rationalprocess rs sothat they maysee ofihe use builder. consensus This review is an important Material and information flow Tasl's03.12 therefore, materialflow is inconsequential; In most offi ces, AIso, planningprocess' the office unnecessaryin through 03.14maybe the product. visualize to is difficult in ceriain serviceenvironments it This may mean more diligence,focus,and effort than it would where the product is tangible. Information flow, on the other hand, m y waffant significant analysis.Acquisition of the latest communicationstechnology may of forproximiry. The purchase traditionalneeds eliminatea company's a new computer system,for example,could significantlyalter layout reouirements. It may be worthwhile to develop a task that deals with -key The task could be substitutedfor Task issues. information processing "Handling Issues." 03.20, Constraints and characteristics There are specificoffice planning considerations that affect the office planning process.These are: multi-use afeas' furniture, andsecurity, safety services, shared systems, communications construction' new greenery' lighting' interaction,working hours,decor,

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To: From: RE:

Ms. Deb Jones Building BlocksTeam,Foxmann Div.of Arron Elf, lnc. Office Design(layoutor redesign) Survey

We need your help in designing an efficient new off ice layout.pleasecomplete this surveyand submatto Jane Plow of your home department.Jane plow is the representative of your area on pleaseadd any additional the Office DesignTeam.We need your survey by February. comments 1. What are the three departments(teams,areas)withwhich you have the most interaction?

2. ln the Deparmtnets listed in Number 1above, what are the names of the peoole or tjtles of the people with whom you have the most frequent contact? A1--A2--=-A3_

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Pleasecheck the items you use daily. Desk _Telephone Work Surface _Computer Bookcase -Fax Desk Light _Others {List)

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_File _Speakerphone -Copy Machine _Adding Machine _ln Basket _Conference Room

Pleasecheckthe items you use,but not every day. Desk _Telephone _File Work Surfaces _Fax _Copy Machine Computer _Speakerphone _ln Basket Credenza _Desk Light _Others (List) Checkwhatyouhavenow. Off ice with lockingdoor Of f ice with no door Cubicle, mediumwalls (<5 feet)

_Adding Machine _Conference Room _Bookcase

door _Off ice with non-locking _Cubicle, tallwalls {>5 feet) _Open or low-walled cubicle

6. What percentage of the work week do you spend in meetings in your work space (office)? _ 7. What percentage of the work week do you spend in meetings outside your work space {office/cubicle)? _ 8. What percentageof the work week do you spend in meetingsaway f rom your work space (office/cubicle)? _ 9. lf your work spacewere to be changed, what would you Iiketo see arranged differently?

10. What do you dislikeaboutthe presentoffice layoutor arrangement?

'11. What do you like aboutthe presentoffice layoutor arrangement?

12. What is the most important aspect of off ice layout the Off ice Design Team should consider?

Figure7.2 - Exampleof on Office User Survey

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and receptionareas. rest room and utility areas, areimportant for anyoffice.The utility ofthese Multi-pulpose areas to be eliminateddue to They arethe frst areas is often over-looked. areas budgetaryconstraints.Multi-use areasserveas private meeting rooms, rooms,teammeetingrooms,training faciiities,and temporary conference boardsor chalk They needwriting sufacessuchasdry-erase work areas. and data separate telephonejacks, light control switches, boards.Separate jacksshouldbe installed.Sliding doorsshouldbe built in aspanels.Small or additionsaswell. They maybe usedastraining desks tablesaredesirable a conference table.The maybepulledtogetherto create work tables; several alsoshould be accommodated. equipment for multimedia presentations Seethe exampleof a multi-use areain figure 7.3. arenecessary andtelecommunication Plansfor information systems computers' Mostpeoplewill needtelephones, in the officelayoutdesign. be considered. also should devices Wires andconnector or otherdevices. installershouldbe invited A personal computeror telecommunications like faxesand small copy to a team meeting for input. Shareddevices machinesshould be locatedin a centrallocation. Plannersshould developan office securityand safetyplan. Video at low security canenhance andotherdevices monitors,metaldetectors, "Secured" areassuch as laboratories,archives,and computer cost. equipment should be part of the plan. Power failure, fire, earthquake, rising water, tornadoes,civil disturbance,bomb threat, strikes, and shouldbe considered. other emergencies

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Figure7.? - An Exompleof o Multi-use Area

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Office space planners ni:ed to develop a relationship with a supplier of furniture and office fixtures that has provided competitive bids andquality service in the past.Ideally,office situationrepresentatives should be made part of the office planning team. Figure 7.4 is a check list for office layout. In a multi-floor office situation,peoplewho interactwith groups on other floorsshouldbe locatedneara stairor elevator. Cubicles. work areas, and traffic areas should be integrated. Making the office comfortable aswell asproductive is the goal. Designersmust allow for flow in horizontal and vertical dimensions. Flexiblehoursandjob sharingarebecomingmore common in the work place.Typically, flexible hours mean employeesmust be at work for a setof corehours(for example, 10:00a.m.to 2:00p.m.) or they may work any pattern aslong asthey work at leasteight hours a dayor forty hours aweek. With job sharing,two or more peopleshareonejob. This work force flexibility, while seeminglyunrelated to office planning, is a worthwhile consideration. As morecompanies adoptflex-time,job sharing,casual overtime, and contracted projects,the special circumstances they needand cause should be considered when planning an office. They affect peak facilities usageand on-the-job safety and security.They should be considered when schedulingjanitorial or maintenanceservices. It is difficult to work with the roar of vacuum cleanersoutside a cubicle. Most employees want natural lighting and windows that open for fresh air. These are not always possible. Economical heating and cooling may outweigh the need for individual control of windows. Window blinds or shadesshould be provided. Again comfort and productiviry are complementaryhere. Lighting position and intensity should correspondwith the configuration and position of desksand computer terminals. Various coversor diffraction devices can control lighting in computerareas. In somecases, task lighting works well. Plantsaddmuch to an office andshouldbepartofthe layoutdesign. Large plantscanprovidegeographic barriersand addfragrance and color. It is an eyefor suchdetailsthat makesthe office attractiveyet functional. The designof a new office is an opportunity to correct problems in an existing office and to accommodatefuture growth. However, an office layout that allows for new construction requires long-range planning. Staffing levels over the next ten years are top priority. Without a growh plan, officesbecomecrowded and inefficient. Plans for expansionwithout disruption to the office also should be made. Rest rooms, closets, and utility areas are a necessityfor every

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usuallybefore determinesuchlocations, office.The building architects team should the office planning If at all possible, layout is complete. a work with the architectsto ensurethat theseareasare conveniently locatedfor the users. The lobby or receptionareaof an office is where the public gets its first impressionof a company.An architect or interior designer should work with the spaceplanner(s) on the design, and senior aboutthe imagetheywant to portray. management shouldbe consulted of a company's It is a good placeto displayproductsor representations and excellence. to quality and its commitment historv Moving Day The team has successfullycompleted a survey, prepared alternative layouts, and receivedapprovalfor an office layout and budget. But the day of the move or relocation requires planning, too. What files will move,when, and where?What utilities, data,telephonewires will be moved and when? The move should probably take place during a A"dry run" beforethe moveis a good weekend,or holiday,if possible. idea. Upon completion of the trial move, the planning team should it with all involvedpartiesand identif' any forgotten details. discuss

OFFICE FURNITURE - ls there a desk or work spacefor eachpersonon the organization chart? - Do the type, style, andcolor match? - Do utility runsmatch in cubiclewalls? ADA REOUIREMENTS - Canwheelchair-empowered customers, andvendorstravel about employees, vour office lavout? - How muchstrengthdoes it take to open the doors into the office? - Are alarmsconfiguredwith flashing employees? strobes for hearing-impaired - How will you communicate the new layoutwith visuallyimpairedemployees? - Do the restroomscomplywith the code andADA requirements? FACILITIES MAINFRAMECOMPUTER - Are the floor andceilingdesignedto accommodatethe additional wires? - ls temperaturecontroladequate? - What type of fire sprinkler is available? RECEPTION OR LOBBYAREA - ls there security? - Does the areapresentthe properimage? SOUNDCONTAINMENT - Who is next to the lunchroom? - Where are the printerandfax machines located? - Who is next to the conferenceandtrainingrooms? ERGONOMIC DESIGN - ls the workstationdesignedfor a personto spendat least eight hoursthere?

Figure7.2 - Example of on Office User Survey

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- What are the chair,desk,andkeyboardheight relationships? - ls the heightof the computermonitor in eachwork areaadiustable? LIGHTING - Hasthe ceilinglighting been relocatedto correspond to desks,tasks,andaisles? - Are the levelsadequate for meetingandtrainingrooms? HEATING, COOLING, ANDCLEAN AIR - Will a changein loadreduceefficiency? - Will the air f low patternneedto be changed? - Did you cleanthe ductsT - Where are the thermostats? STATIC ELECTRICITY - Where is the floor covering? - Are the work surfaceand cubicles qrounded? MAILROOM - ls it secured? - Who has access? LUNCHROOM - Are there tablesandchairsfor all? - How andwhen will the vendingmachines be serviced? RESTROOMS - Do the numberand type of fixturesmeet zoning codes? - Canthey be easilymaintained? - Where are the supplies stored? FLOORLOADING - ls the cumulative weight within limitsT - ls the sub-floorfor the mainframecomputer adeouate? EXERCISEAREAS - ls the ventilation adeouate2 - ls there adequatelockerand rest space? TELEPHONE EOUIPMENT - ls the ventilation adequateT - ls the electrical serviceadequate? - ls it reallylargeenough? EMPLOYEE ENTRANCE - ls there a time clock or sign-inarea? - What is the security? - Are there cameras? - ls there a waiting area? HUMAN RESOURCE OFFICE - Inan adjacentplant,is the Human Resource Office nearestto the olant? - ls there privacyandconfidentiality? MEDICALFACILITIES - Are they locatedin the areamost likelyto use them? - Are they accessible by a wheelchair andstretcher? JANITORIALFACILITIES AND SERVICES - ls there adequate storagespace? - l s l l a d e q u a t e lv ve n t i l a t e d ? - W h e nw i l l i t b e u s e d ? - When will cleaning be performed? LIBRARY - What is the lightinglevel? - What is the noiselevel? - ls there spaceavailable for ten yearsof periodicals? CLOSETSAND STORAGE - What will they be usedfor? - Will they be adequatein ten years?

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Summary
This chapter has provided the basic elementsfor organizing a office The relationship ofinternal customers' a survey layoutteam,conducting is illuminating. space planning betweenfacilitiesplanning and office to officespace planningmakesdesigning approach Using a macro-level assistwithan activitythat and examples Checklists officelayoutseasier. andtools career. Thesetechniques mayonly occuroncein aprofessional and meetthe flexible, are logical, layouts that to help create aredesigned needsof internal customers.

Chapter8 A FinalNote
In this book we havetried to covera complexand ambiguoussubject. inexperienced andmethodsthat allowrelatively We suggest approaches industrial engineers to designgood facility plans with efficiencyand The methods of this book will also help experienced effectiveness. faciliry planners. in historical Chapter 1 placedfacilitiesand the planning process It explained why facilitiesare so important. and business perspectives. It tracedsomegeneraltrendsin facility design.It looked to the future ofworking facilities. a framework for the planning process. It Chapter 2 established It explained to planningphases. definedlevels ofdetail that correspond the four fundamentalsof spaceplanning: units, affinities, spaceand ofplanning. It defined conventions usefulin all phases constraints. how to designa macro-layout.Macro Chapter 3 demonstrated areas or other large-scale features layoutssizeand locatedepartments, that is usuallymostimportant within abuilding.This is the layoutphase We introduced the Model Project Plan to for industrial engineers. guide designersthrough their tasks. We examined the important essentials of an operationsstrategy. We explainedhow to synthesize information and strategyinto workable facility layouts. the details of equipment and furniture Chapter 4 addressed location. It presenteda methodology and principles for designing effective work cells. In Chapter5, we examinedthe lowestdetail of space planningthe workstation. Here we explained how to design the workspacefor safetvand health. efficiencv.effectiveness.

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of in Chapter 6. The specialissues Site planning was addressed office space planning were exploredin Chapter 7. We would like to leaveyou with somekey points to remember as you work through your next facllity project: ' isolate the levelsand focus on only one level at a time; ' try to work from the highest to the lowest level unlessspecial conditionsdictate otherwise; . rememberthe four fundamentals: and SPUs,affinities,apace constraintsl ' follow the Model Project Plans.Accomplish each task in sequence and do not look too far ahead.Uncertaintieswill eventuallybe clarified; . know thy process; ' remember that people ate an integral part of every work process; ' the most successful space plansareinteractiveandparticipative projects. Users supply information, insight and needs; managementdevelopsstrategy;the designerssynthesizea range of workable plans; and all participate in the evaluation and selection; and ' a clearand appropriate is your beaconin operations strateg'y the night.

Glossary
activity areas. (See spaceplanning units.) affnities. Various factorsthat demand closeness betweenany two cellsin a spaceplan. Forexample, communication orpersonal interaction. Inworkstationdesign, aftinities evolvefrom the movement ol-parts,movementofhands, and the necessity for observition,and other indirect facrors. aftinity diagram. An idealized spatial arrangement that evenrually becomes a spaceplan. Also called a configuration diagram. affinityzones. Locations in a workstation that arewithin an operatois optimum visual and reach zones. allocation of functions. Divides work between people and machines and largely determines the quality of the operaror's work experience anthropometry. The study of the dimensions, weights, and strengths of human body segments. biomechanics. The stud.yof.mechanical forces in human movement, including the interaction berween individuals and their physical environment. block plan. In site planning, a developmentplan that beginswith blocks ofland desienatedfor eachfunction or areawith long traveldistaniesbet*.en SPUr. Each building may thEn expand within its block. bottom-up. Facilities planning.that startswith the details. Deparrmenral units are designed first and, evenrually, the overall faciliry plan is built. broadcast. In this system for coordinating production, a schedule dictates the rate and product mx lor the tlnal oDeratron, business architecture. The design and development of facilities, organization, products, and processesinto a functioning, interactive business system. Also known as manufacturing strategy and corporate reengineering. cells. (Seespaceplanning units.) channel route structure. A fixed route with various stops along which equipment moves. At each stop loadsoriginating at that point arepicked up and thbse desiined for that point aredropped off. circulation. A material flow method that usesmobile operators to ceuryd product or transfer a batch through separateoperatlons.

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cloning. Duplicating an existing facility or portion of!t. composite cell. A work cell made up of severalsmaller cells' configuration diagram. (Seeaffinity diagram.) constraints. Those conditions that limit an ideal space plan. For example, building size and shape, columns, floor loading, utility configurationi, and external features' architecrure) corporate reeingineering.(Seebusiness that allows products to move from the first to the direct link. A physical link between processes start and stop together. ,..ond p.oce., without queues,bufiers, or delays.The piocesses direct route structure. A route structure that allows materiai to move from its origin directly to its destination. is duplicate plan. In site planning, a development plan that starts with an initial facility, which ta n d ' then clonid on adiacenl dynamic lot size. The balance between operations from work piece to work piece. dynamic work. Tasks that require an operator's body to be in motion' elementalcalculation. One of six methods usedfor calculatingspacerequirements'Each piece assigned to an SPU is measured and added together for the total :lff::$"r$:.-ipment and instinct' experientialfacilityplanning. Planningfacilities basedon pastexperience'common sense, external factors. In site planning, those site factors that exist largely outside the site boundaries. FacPlan. A facilities planning model that focuseson-both strategic issuesand minutiae, using a model project plan io guidJand stmcture each project. floating task assignments.The hierarchical assignmentof primary and secondarytasks. As the worklo-adfluctuaies, the operator may move from the primary to the secondary' functional cell. A single processwork cell that operateson a wide variety ofunrelated products' global site location. The site location level of spaceplanning where the firm decides where to I'ocate facilities and determinestheir missions. group technologycell. Awork celi inwhich a seriesofoperations for severalproducts takes place in a single cell. show the oneor more equipmentdisplays human-machine system.In a human-machinesystem, inteinal equipment starus.The op..rtor alters contio_lsenings io changethe -Corrtiroine operator rhe ob'r"i.r^tior, allows the determination of the effect of altering controls' "iJi;;. internal factors. In site planning, the factors in the site boundary' charts,toglean information intuitive charting/grouping. Examiningproducts, oftenwith process and assignproducts to logical groups. word for card.This production coordinationssystemusesa small mixed stock kanban. Taoanese tiom whici items are pulled frequently. At the time of each withdrawal, the production center is signaled,sometimeswith a card. key manufacturing task. A task that manufacturing must do well to survive in the market. layout. (Seespaceplan.) macro-spaceplanning. The spaceplan levelat which the building, structure,or other sub-unit ofthe i)..ig?.r, d.fine a'ndlocate operating departmentsand determine overall material ;i;;p[;;;J.

Glossary

219

flow' The most important level of planning"it sets the focus, or basic organization, of the factory. manufacruring focus, The organization of products and processes. manufacturing stratery. (See businessarchitecture) masterbuilding. Facilities planning that focuseson construction and buildings. 'he material flow. f movcment of Parts,products, and,/or servicesfrom work cell to work cell and rnrougnout the taclhry(s). ma^terialflowanalysis. Using collected data to calculatematerial flow befween eachcombination oI Jru Darrs. Using computer databasesto schedule and track production, :f:.::*T1.^T^.itsp-lanning. plan capaclry,coltectcosts,and provide many other functions. levelatwhich the location ofspecific equipment and furnirure 1i;ro-space planning. Thespace-plan rs oetermlned l ne emphaslsshfts from grossmaterial flow to personal spaceand communication. model project plan. A framework of detail revelsthat translates into planning phases. motion economy. Steps and procedures that simplifi and improve manual work. non-flow affinities. Intangible factors that give rise to affinities (q.v.). Suppons operations for all or mosr of a product rine but does not j"t*rrlcrure.. l!:1P contrlDute dlrectlv to the Drocess. *1*g;.I|:study metabollc byDroducts. of the human machine. including oxidizing nurrients and generatrng

Usingbrainstormingtechniques todevelopthe positive,negatrve, f:t::,.--l:.C,1ll:11-elest1nS. anc lnrerestlngpolnts to choosebetweenseveral spaceplan options. process charts. Show the type ofactivity that acts on a product. process focus. A manufacturing focus that allows each department to specialize in their particular process or craft. product focus. A manufacturing processwhere operations are grouped into departments that focus on prodr.rcts'Each departm*enrmust have itt op"r"tionr ?quiiil;;rd :kil,1", o'ty process a single product. product-volurne a.nalysis.Examines the current and future time frames for the products and rnerr volumes so that the relationships between various products may be understiod. production flow.analysis. using spreadsheets, computer analysis,or manuar methods to group parts that have similar routings. project cell. A work cell that produces a wide variety ofunrelated products using multiple processes. of six methods used for carcurating spacerequirements.The spacefor a l,l:^l"flglirg.one glven bl,U comesfrom the calculationofanother space. ;::::"?,"rH:::*' A method of calculating space requirements, it uses historical trends to

maintain asignificant stock of each item. As userswithdraw rtems, :::t9^1ryI:t-l19d1cti9n rne remarnrng stock decrlnes.when the stock reachesa pre-determined level-the reorder point-a signal initiates a purchase order or shop order to ieplace ttr" rto.r..plan. A plan that placesthe maximum production spaceon the site. Also included :1t-"-t1*o.i9i are appropnate support spacessuch as docks, parking, offices, and warehouses.

220

Planning Facilities

into oneunit- Socialsystems socio-technicalsystem.The integration ofsocial and technicalsystems irJ"a. "."of. uld th"ir habirui attirudes,values,behavioralityles, and relationships.Technical and their physicalarrangement(layout). procedures, incfude machinery,processes, systems spaceplan primitive. An affinities diagram (q.v.) with spacerequirements added to it. plan. Determinesand laysout the use ofspace in and around a facility, ranging from site sDace pi.nning to workstation design. Also known as a layout. spaceplanningunits. The entities arrangedby spaceplan designers.Also called cells and activity areas. on space.standards. One. of six methods used for calculatin-g.space^t:1:,t:"^Tt:-t: -Based expeflence,spacerequrrementsthat relate to some parameterofthe businessare established recordinq to iob clasiificationsor placesin the hierarchy' over the entire product mix, averaged static balance.when the equipmenttimes for operations, are similar or the same. for an static work. Tasks that require an operator's body to remain in a stationary position period. e-xtended strategiclayout planning..Top-down.facilitiesplanning that setspolicy first and then arranges the technology,organizatlon,and tacll; / to supPortlt. stripe plan. A special version of :zone plan (q.v.) where each SPU expands horizontally' and task, operators atwhich aworkstationisdesigned; sub-micro-spaceplanning.Thespace_planlevel or oeslgneo' and tools and txrures areselected too.lsare examinedltask are a]located; plan levelatwhich site planning takesplace.This includesnumber, planning. The space supra-space and eventualsrte sanuatron. sire, a.d locition of-buildings, infrastructure,plant expansions, to plan a conventions,and phases systematiclayout planning, Using step-by-stepprocedures, layout, adding systemand structureto the plan. loads' terminal route structure. A route structure thatworks wellwith long distancesand partial then Loads move first to severalterminals, often on different equipmenifor each terminal, and on to their destination. takes a transformation. One of six methods used for calculating spacerequirements. A designer fo, "n existing SPU and usesthat asihi basis for projecting future needs' ;;;;;q;ir";"r,i -d visual estimating. A method of calculating.space needs. Templates representing :qYpT:"t pfi.edon alayoutaccordingto "-'doig".;..ludgt"entand knowledgeofsimilarinstallations. fun.l*----rr. on a combinationofthe raniousfactors,both qualitaweightedfactorana\sis, Decision-makingbased ,iu.-*i qu-,itrtive'. Judgesfrst identi$ihe factors,decidea weight for each,and rate eachoption. work cell operations plan. A form for recording infrastructure decisions' work cells. Small, self-contained work units. job and the minimum worker selection. The process of identifing characteristics for each criteria for those who might be selectedfor it. workingfacilities.The land, buildings, and equipmentthatprovide the physical capabilityto addvdue' workstation. The spaceor areaofa faciliry in which individuals-or operators perform tasks' This ranges from an assimbly station in a faciory to a cube in an office' Each zone plan. In site planning, a developmentplan that beginswith a central core ofspace. ;, i.tiuity f,as , ,.lateb zone.'As sp".. neEdr incr.^se, the SPUs expand outward Sijij.?;,i.^ but within their designaiedzones.

Bibliography
Adair,John. 1987.Effectiveteambuilding. London: Pan Books. AiLg'"' T. H., sr. 1984.Matriats handting pinciptes andpractice. New york van Nosftand Reinhold. ANSI/HFES 100-1988.1988.Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. Apple, J. M. 1,972. Materialsbandlingsystems design. New York: Ronald press. Baetz,Mary L. 1985: The ltuman imperatiae: Planningfor peoplein the erectroni ofice. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart,and Winston. Barnes, R. M. 1968.Motion and timestudl.NewYork Wiley. Bolz, Harold A. and GeorgeE. Hagemann.7958.Mateials bandting bandboai. New york: RonaldPress. Baston tecbnical bandboo&.. 7994.4-o. furniture application Brandt, Peter B. 1,992.Ofice desrgz. New York: Watson-Guptil. Buffa, Elwood s. 1984. Meeting the competitirechallenge. Homewood, Ill.: DowJonesIrwin. Bureauoflabor statistics. 1993. Doll' william J. and Mark A. vonderembse. 1990. The evolution of manufacturing systems: Towards the post-industrialenterprise. Proceedings of the5th International conference oftheoperations ManagementAssociatioz. warwick, England:universityof Warwick Press. Duf$', Francis,Andrew Laing, and Vic Crisp. The responsible tsorhplace:Tberedesign of toorkand offces.Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heinemann. Durand,Jacques.T9T2.Anewmethodforconstructingscenarios. Futures.325-330. EastmanKodak co. 1986.Ergonomic design at work. New York van Nostrand for people Reinhold. Eastman Kodak Co. 7983.Ergonomi designfor people at ztsork. t: I5-IZ. Ford, Henry. 1926. Todayand tomorrozu. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. Francis, Richard L. and John A. white. 7974.Facititl lalout and location: An anajtical a??roac h. Englewood Cliffs, N.Y. : Prentice-Hall. Fraser,M. 7989. Thezaorker at uork. New York: Taylor and Francis. Frederickson, efectiu ofice;A guideforfacitities JackM. 1989.Designingtbecost planners and managers. New York: Qrorum Books. Friedman,Arnold, John F. Pile, and Forrestwilson . !982. Interior design: An introduction

222

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interiors'New York Elsevier' to architectura! Philadelphia:Chilton' Haynes,D. O. 1953.Materiak handtingapptications. New York: edge. competititte Restoringour Hays,RobertH. and stevenc. wheelwright. 7984. Wiley. New science. and management . Introductionto industrialengineering Hicks, Philip E. 1977 York: McGraw-Hill. Hill, Terry. 1985.Manufacturingstrategl.London; MacMilian Education' handbook.4thEdition. Hodson, i^zitli"- K., rd. 1992.-Moynird'sindustrial engineering New York: McGraw-Hill. Sons. of industrl.New York CharlesScribner's Hudson,Kenneth.!976. Thearchaeologl Ga': Norcross, terminology. engineering Industria! 1983. Instituteoflndustrial Engineers. Engineers. Industrial Of Institute NewYork E' P' Dutton' Knobec,Lance.7987.Officefurniture. design.Columbus,Ohio: Grid Publishing' Konz, S. 7979. I4/ork New York Van Nostrand pbysiotogy' Kroemer, H. K. E. and U. J. 1990. Engineering Reinhold. 2nd edition. New York wileyKulwiec, R. A. 1985. Materials bandling handbook. Interscience. Lee, Qrarterman. March 25, 7986.Layout for the just-in-time plant. National Plant rence Proceedi n gs'Chicago' Engi neering and M ai ntenance Confe Lee, Qrariermrn.'1986. Qrality andproductivity trends.Latin American Qtaiity Contfol Mexico' Imecca, Congress. plantlayoutwithreal-timematerialflowevaluation. Lee,elarteiman. 1988.Computer-aided joumal of Engineeing ComputingandApplications CAD/A4M ManagenentStrategies. 1.:559. Manufacturing 1990.Manufacturingfocus:Acomprehensivev'rew. Lee, Q;rarterman.June -strategy. Voss, ed' London: A' Christopher Publishers. Technicaland Medical Chapmanand Hall Scientific. class Lee, Qrarterman. october 1991. Integratedplan layout for just-in-time and-world FL.: orlando, Proceeding\ conferente JIE Management manufacturing. Engineering International. for just-in-time a warehouse Lee, ' Qrarterman.November 19-20, lgg7. Reconfiguring IL. presented Schaumberg, Engineers. Manufacturing of at Society ip..rtionr. March 16, 7987.Layoutforthejust- in-time plant. Lee,Q,arter-an andM. Niedenthal. Chicago, IL. Proceedings. Conference and Maintenance kational ptant Engineering focus for Manufacturing 1990. 28-37, October Wrennall. fr. and Lee, erarterman confere"rt o:!_societ| for Integrated strategic advantage. JIE Intergratedsystems SanAntonio, TX' Proceedings' Manifacturing and Conference Reoieu. SloanManagement forcapacityenpansion. Strategies 1987. B. Summer M'awin Liberman, 28:4. es.New York: Taylor and Francis. Lueder, KageJu. 1994.HardfaXs aboutsoftmachin Mass':MIT Press' Lynch, K. 1992.Site Planning'Cambridge, and directory.1990.cleveland, ohio: 1gg0-1991handbook Materiat bandtingengineering 44:13. Publish\ng. Penton Design' in engineeringand . Humanfactors 1987 McCormick, ErnestJ.andMark S. Sanders. NewYork McGraw-Hill. NewYork Van Reinhold. manufacturing. Miller, StanleyS. 1988. Competitive handling.New York Taylor and Mital, Nicholson Ayoub. 199i. A guideto manualmateriat Francis. Morris,w.T. lg62.Anatlsisforrnateriakbandlingmanagement.Homewood,Ill:RichardD. Irwin. New York IFS Publications. guidedvehicles. Muller, Thomas. 1983.Automated

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Index
A A affinities 81 accelerator 163 accounting 203 acquisition 188 activity area. 24 administration 203 aerospace engineers 54 aesthetics 9l affinities 23 affinity diagrams 23 airlines 138 aisles 85 all-salary systems 146 allocation 163 allocation of functions 162 American National Standards Institute 24. Americans with Disabilities Act 174 anthropometric data 168 anthropometrics 166 architects l3 archives 210 artwork 32 assembly lines 139 B backtracking 52 balance 142 bar chart 81 bills of material 139 biomechanics 166 block 193 block plan 194 body segment class 165 Boehm-Davis 163

bottom-up 9 brainstorming 98 broadcast 138 building outline 91 bulletin boards 157 C CAD systems 25 carpal tunnel syndrome 162 casualovertime 211 Catholic Church 8 cell definition 69 cells 22 cellular 46 central system 138 channel route structure 138 channel structures 138 character positions 127 Charles Sorensen 152 checklists 214 circulation 141 city buses 138 classicaldesign 169 clearance 169 cloning 9 codingand classification 118 commandand control 145 communication 24 communicationssystems 208 companyculture 203 compatibility 115 compensationsystem 136 computer simulation 158 computers 210 conceptual framework 29 connectordevices 210 consensus78

226

FacilitiesPlanning
elbow room 169 elemental calculation 84 emergencies210 empowerment 146 environment 5 environmental specialists 188 EPA 99 equipment 56 equipment balancemethod 136 equipment batching 142 equivalent flow unit 71 ergonomics 162 Eric Trist 6 ethnic populations 169 excess capacity 149 expansionpossibilities 188 experience 9 experiential 9 explicit strategy 53 external lot size 131 F facilitator 207 facilities 57 facility mission statement 15 FacPlan 2000 11 faxes 210 fear ofpunishment 146 Federal Express 138 frnancial analysis 97 inventory 111 finished-goods fixed assignment 143 frxed route 138 flex-time 211 flexibility 109 flexible hours 211 float 143 Florida 125 flow calculations 71 flow calibration 77 flow complexity index 101 flow/non-flow ratio 81
tocus b /

constraints 23, 27 containers 63 contracted projects 211 conventions 112 conventions 29, 74 coordination 56, 109 copy machines 210 Cosmos Products 32 cost control 56 cross-functional teamwork 8 cross-training 145 crossovers 52 cubicles 211 cumulative trauma disorder 162 cumulative traumas 162 Currl' 163 customer services 203 customers 55 cy'bernetic work team 146 cycle time 142

D
data acquisition 30 deciders 97 decision criterion 97 decision tree analysis 97 decision-makers 33 decor 208 dedicated cell 112 delay symbol 39 deliverables 28 derived elements 24 design iteration 157 design team 109 design tools and aids 29 design volume 133 designing for the extremes 1?2 development officials 188 Diamond Equipment Company 119 diaphragm pumps 119 direct labor 132 direct link 56, 138 direct route structure 138 dis-economies of scale 55 distributors 138 doors 210 duplicate 193 duplicate plan 194 dynamic 142 dynamic balance 142 d1'namic dimensions 169 d1'namic imbalance 142 d1'namic posture 167 E E affrnities 81 economic lot size 134 economies of scale 55 Edward DeBono 98

focus opportunities 54 focused factory 55 forecasts 22 fork trucks 138 fortresses 4 freedomof movement 156 functional cell 112 fundamental 24 furniture 208 G Gantt chart 33 Gator Steel 125 geographic areas 55 geopolitics 16 global economics 8

Bibliography
go/no-gocriteria 97 grasprng 178 greenery 208 group incentive system 147 Group Technology(GT) Cell 112 group technology cells 63 groupedproduct profrle 37 H hand tools 173 Handbookof Commercialand Industrial Facilities M 55 Handbook of Commercialand Industrial Facility Man 191 Handbook ofHuman Factors 174 handcarts 76 handle space 169 handling and product cells 24 handling symbol 39 Harrison 163 headroom 169 Heisenberg 98 Henry Ford 55 Hierarchical organizations 8 horizontal affinity zone 178 horizontal space 180 hourly wages 146 Human FactorsIn Engineeringand Design 174 human movement 167 human resources 203 human-machinesystem 162 hybrid systemsof compensation 147 I I affrnities 8l identifier 24 implicit strategy 53 inbound material 149 Individual incentives 146 Industrial engineers 12 Industrial Revolution 3 Information 5 information services 203 infrastructure 16, 57 inherent 144 inherent method 143 inspecUreject 144 inspectionpoints 144 instinct 97 intangibles 186 integration 161 interaction 24 interior design approach 204 intermediate plans 193 internal customers 214 internal lot size 131 Inventory Analysis 42 inventory costs 131 inventoryreduction 104 inverted-U 153 item or SKU numbers 40 iterative improvement 26 iterative process 25 J job sharing 211 joints 167 K Kanban 56 kanban 138 key dimensions 54 key manufacturing tasks 54 knowledge 4 L laboratories 210 Large 113 Layout 8 layout planning 30 lead times 139 "leapfrog" 143 legroom 169 lighting 208 line 68 line production 46 logic flow 30 long internal idle time 143 long moves 52 long-distance truckers 138 lot size 131 low-costequipment 142 M

227

macro-layout 29 macro-space plan 16 Maintenance 65 management 13 manufacturers 203 manufacturing orientation 36 manufacturing support 203 marketing 36 markets 55 Maslow's Hierarchy 154 mass-production technology 4 master building 9 material flow 52 material flow analysis 97 material flow charts 39 Material flow values 71 material requirementsplanning 138 material supply 16 McDonald's 9 medieval guilds 8 Medium 112 merged ratings 81

228

Facilities Planning
personnellocations 156 PERT chart 33 Peter F. Drucker 5 phases 21 physical infrastructure 50 physical infrastructure checklist 51 physics 98 physiology 166 Pickering Piano Factory 3 piececosts 131 pilot cells 22 plant expansions 16 plant-within-plant 63 politics 16 polycodesystem 125 positive-negative-interesting 97 posture 169 Practiceof Management 5 preliminary product segregation 122 primary task 143 problem-solving teams 154 process 57 processcharts 39 process elements 57 process engineers 13 process time 131 processes55 product mix 143 product profile 121 product selection 115 product-focused55 product-volume (P-V) analysis 35 production class profrle 44 productivity 161 products 55 project cell 112 proportioning 84 prototyping 165 psychologicalintegration 161 purchase 188

metabolic byproducts 167 metal detectors 210 methods 28 165 methods-time-measurement micro-level evaluation 158 micro-space plan 17 Middle Ages 4 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 6 mission 57 mission statement 58 modei projects. 28 monocode system 125 motion economy 162, 165 motor responses 163 moving 178 Moving Day 272 MRP 56 multi-use areas 208 muscles 167 musculoskeletal system 167 N NASA 163 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 173 negotiation 188 new construction 208 Norway 186

o
O affinities 81 office layouts 86 office planning 204 office user survey 208 operation cycle 131 "strings" operation 63 operation symbol 39 operational cells 69 operations strategies 11 operations strategy outline 58 operator assignments and skills 136 operator comfort 161 operator mobility 144 operator variety 161 organization analysis 48 organization chart 48 organization charts 22 organization-based approach 204 OSHA 97 outbound container 149 outputs 15 P partitions 157 pay-for-knowledge system 147 payback 97 payout 104 people balance method 136 perations strategy summary 54

a
qualifiers 99 qualitative analysis 104 quality 65 quality assurance 736, 744 quality standards 144 queues 4l R random sampling 74 ranking 97 ratio forecasting. 84 reach 169 reaching 178 receptionareas 210 reengineering 3 Renaissance5 reorder point 138

Bibliography
repairs 41 resources 28 rest room 210 restructuring 3, 8 return on rnvestment 97 Revised Lifting Equation 1?3 Richard Muther 24 Robert McNamara 54 Rocroi 4 roll products 32 Roman Legions 8 S safety 161 safety and security 208 salary 146 salary wages 146 sales volume 37 Salvendy 118 schematic flow diagram 72 scope 28 seating 173 secondary task 143 selfactualization 146 self-managed teams 145 serpentine 153 set downs 41 set-up costs 131 set-up times 129 set-ups 129 shared services 208 sheet products 32 short internal idle time 143 "Silicon Valley" 6 simulation 158 simulation software 158 single piece 112 site boundaries 186 site drawing 16 site factors 186 site features 198 site plan 188 site saturation 16, 193 site specification document 186 srtes 183 small 112 social integration 161 social system 6 socio-technical systems 6 space 23 space flexibility 193 space plan primitive 23, 27 space planning units 23 space rationing approach 204 space standards 84 SPC/TQM 144 speedometer 163 spreadsheet 80 static 142 static dimensions 169

229

static posture 167 statistical process control 144 steering committee 30 storage 85 straight line 151 strategic 9 strategy development 30 strength 169 stripe 193 stripe plan 196 structural engineers 13 sub-tasks 30 supervision 109, 136 support requirements 55 support spaces 191 supra-space plan 16 symbol 24 symbols 24 synchronizedoperations 141 system goals 163 systematic I SystematicPlanning Of Industrial Facilities 191 T tables 210 tally 41 tangible factors 186 task procedures 29 tasks 28 Tavistock 6 team spirit 146 teams 6 teamwork 6 technical integration 161 technical system 6 telephones 210 the Prussian army 145 throughput 142 tissues 167 tool production 16 tools 13 total cost curve 132 Toyota 68 TQM 6 traffic areas 211 transfer time I42 transformation 84 transport routes 188 transport symbol 39 transport work 101 transportation 186 trends 206 two-dimensionallayout 109 two-tier class system 146 typewriters 142 U U-shaped 153

230

Planning Facilities

U.S. Air Force 169 uncertainty principle 98 unfocused factory 54 union representatives 188 United States Postal Service 4 utilities 188 utility areas 210

v
value added index 41 value-adding elements 41 variable flow paths 56 vertical affinity zone 179 vertical integration 55 vertical space 180 video monitors 210 visual communications 156 visual control 156 visual estimating 84

w
warehouses 138 weighted factor analysis 97 weighted numeric scale 179 Wichita, Kansas 6 Wickham Skinner 54 Wiener 163 wires 210 work 4 work cells 111 work positions 173 rvork product 38 work product activity 38 work teams 156 work-in-process 44 workbenches 142 worker selection 162 workers 18 workforce 4 working hours 208 workload 142 workstations 13 writing surfaces 210

z
zone 193 zone plan 193

Aboutthe Authors
Inc., a consultingfirm. Qrarterman Lee is the presidentof Strategos, He was an editor ofthe HandbookofCornrnercial andIndustrial Facilities Managernenland is the author oi numerous articles in the fields of industrial management and engineering.He hascreatedtraining courses for the Institute of Industrial Engineers, the Societyof Manufacturing Engineers and the U.S. Postal Service and assistedorganizations worldwide with the application of innovative managementmethods. Arild Amundsen is president of Plancraft, AS, and has an extensive backgroundin mechanical engineering, consulting,and management. He resides in Oslo.William Nelson is president ofHumatech, Inc., and specializes in bio-socio-technical He also designsproducts, systems. industrial equipment and workstations. Herbert Tuttle is an assistant p;ofessorin the GraduateEngineeringManagementProgram at the University of Kansas.He has over 15 yearsof experiencein industrial engineeringand plant management.

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