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Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups and they are primary manufacturing processes and secondary manufacturing processes. The former ones provide basic shape and size to the material as per designers requirement. Casting, forming, powder metallurgy are such processes to name a few. Secondary manufacturing processes provide the final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface characteristics etc. Material removal processes are mainly the secondary manufacturing processes. Material removal processes once again can be divided into mainly two groups and they are Conventional Machining Processes a nd Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes. Examples of conventional machining processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping, broaching, slotting, grinding etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Water Jet and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro discharge Machining (EDM) are some of the Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes. Classification of Non Traditional Machining Processes: Classification of NTM processes is carried out depending on the nature of energy used for material removal. The broad classification is given as follows: Mechanical Processes Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) Ultrasonic Machining (USM) Water Jet Machining (WJM) Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) Electrochemical Processes Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG) Electro Jet Drilling (EJD) Electro-Thermal Processes Electro-discharge machining (EDM) Laser Beam Machining (LBM) Electron Beam Machining (EBM) Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 m grit size would impinge on the work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of I.D. of 0.5 mm with a standoff distance of around 2 mm. The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles would be sufficient to provide material removal due to brittle fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting by the abrasives. Equipment: In AJM, air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a pressure of around 5 bar is used as the carrier gas as shown in Fig. 9.1.4. Fig. 9.1.4 also shows the other major parts of the AJM system. Gases like CO2, N2 can also be used as carrier gas which may directly be issued from a gas cylinder. Generally oxygen is not used as a carrier gas. The carrier gas is first passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the desired working pressure. The gas is then passed through an air dryer to remove any residual water vapour. To remove any oil vapour or particulate contaminant the same is passed through a series of filters. Then the carrier gas enters a closed chamber known as the mixing chamber. The abrasive particles enter the chamber from a hopper through a metallic sieve. The sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker. The mass flow rate of abrasive (15 gm/min) entering the chamber depends on the amplitude of vibration of the sieve and its frequency. The abrasive particles are then carried by the carrier gas to the machining chamber via an electromagnetic on-off valve. The machining enclosure is essential to contain the abrasive and machined particles in a safe and eco-friendly manner. The machining is carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles are issued from the nozzle onto a work piece traversing under the jet.
Process Parameters and Machining Characteristics: The process parameters are listed below: Abrasive Material Al2O3 / SiC / glass beads Shape irregular / spherical Size 10 ~ 50 m Mass flow rate 2 ~ 20 gm/min Carrier gas Composition Air, CO2, N2 3 Density Air ~ 1.3 kg/m Velocity 500 ~ 700 m/s Pressure 2 ~ 10 bar Flow rate 5 ~ 30 lpm Abrasive Jet Velocity 100 ~ 300 m/s Mixing ratio mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas Stand-off distance 0.5 ~ 5 mm 0 0 Impingement Angle 60 ~ 90 Nozzle Material WC / sapphire Diameter (Internal) 0.2 ~ 0.8 mm
The important machining characteristics in AJM are The material removal rate (MRR) mm /min or gm/min The machining accuracy The life of the nozzle
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Applications: For drilling holes of intricate shapes in hard and brittle materials For machining fragile, brittle and heat sensitive materials AJM can be used for drilling, cutting, deburring, cleaning and etching. Micro-machining of brittle materials.
Limitations MRR is rather low (around ~ 15 mm /min for machining glass) Abrasive particles tend to get embedded particularly if the work material is ductile. Tapering occurs due to flaring of the jet. Environmental load is rather high.
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Problem: 1. Estimate the material removal rate in AJM of a brittle material with flow strength of 4 GPa. The abrasive flow rate is 2 gm/min, velocity is 200 m/s and density of the abrasive is 3 gm/cc. 2. Material removal rate in AJM is 0.5 mm /s. Calculate material removal per impact if mass flow rate of abrasive is 3 gm/min, density is 3 gm/cc and grit size is 60 m as well as indentation radius. Solutions to the Problems:
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B=Volume of Material removal v = velocity of the abrasive particle mg= mass of a single abrasive grit dg = diameter of the grit g = density of the grit MRR=metal Removal rate N=number of impact H=Hardness
USM process is indicated in line diagram shown in Figure 5.3. Details of the process are discussed below.
The basic mechanical structure of an USM is very similar to a drill press. However, it has additional features to carry out USM of brittle work material. The workpiece is mounted on a vice, which can be located at the desired position under the tool using a 2 axis table. The table can further be lowered or raised to accommodate work of different thickness. The typical elements of an USM are: Slurry delivery and return system Feed mechanism to provide a downward feed force on the tool during machining The transducer, which generates the ultrasonic vibration The horn or concentrator, which mechanically amplifies the vibration to the required amplitude of 15 50 m and accommodates the tool at its tip.
The ultrasonic vibrations are produced by the transducer. The transducer is driven by suitable signal generator followed by power amplifier. The transducer for USM works on the following principle: Piezoelectric effect Magnetostrictive effect (Commonly used) Electrostrictive effect
Process Parameters: Amplitude of vibration (ao) 15 50 m Frequency of vibration (f) 19 25 kHz Feed force (F) related to tool dimensions Feed pressure (p) Abrasive size 15 m 150 m Abrasive material Al2O3 SiC B4C Boronsilicarbide Diamond Flow strength of work material Flow strength of the tool material Contact area of the tool A Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry C
Applications: Used for machining hard and brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides etc. Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions. Machining, wire drawing, punching or small blanking dies. It is used for tool making and punch and die making. It is widely used for several machining operations like turning, grinding, trepanning and milling, etc.
Advantages of USM Its main advantage is the workpiece after machining is free from any residual stress as to concentrated force or heat is subject to it during the machining process. Extremely hard and brittle materials can be machined, their machining is very difficult by conventional methods. Very good dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be obtained. Operational cost is low. The process is environmental friendly as it is noiseless and no chemical and heating is used.
Disadvantages of USM Its metal removal rate (MRR) is very low and it cannot be used for large machining cavities. Its initial setup cost and cost of tool is very high, frequency tool replacement is required as tool wear takes place in this operation. Not recommended for soft and ductile material due to their ductility.
Equipment: The major components of Jet equipment (WJ or AWJ) are: Pump Nozzle Orifice Control System
A pump is used to create pressure in the liquid in the range of 1500-4000 bars. In achieving this purpose, an electric motor of 50-100 HP rating is used. Nozzles are used to convert the high pressure liquid to a high velocity jet. As there is a possibility of erosion in the orifice of the nozzle due to the high pressure of liquid in WJM and that of abrasives in AWJM, a high wear resistant material is used for nozzles. Control system in the equipment helps in optimum settings for various parameters. Process Parameters: The general domain of parameters in entrained type AWJ machining system is given below: Orifice Sapphires 0.1 to 0.3 mm Focussing Tube WC 0.8 to 2.4 mm Pressure 2500 to 4000 bar Abrasive garnet and olivine - #125 to #60 Abrasive flow - 0.1 to 1.0 Kg/min Standoff distance 1 to 2 mm o 0 Machine Impact Angle 60 to 90 Traverse Speed 100 mm/min to 5 m/min Depth of Cut 1 mm to 250 mm
Applications of WJM and AWJM The Water Jet Cutting (WJC) process is mainly made used in cutting low strength materials like plastics, wood and aluminum. With the addition of abrasives, the AWJM process can be used for stronger materials like tool steels. Following some applications in different purposes. Paint removal Cleaning Cutting soft materials Cutting frozen meat Textile, Leather industry Mass Immunization Surgery
Advantages of WJM and AWJM In cases where the excessive heat generated can cause changes in the material properties, AWJM and WJM are very useful processes for hard metals like cutting tool steels. The water jet cutting process does not produce any dust or such particles which are harmful if inhaled like in the case of machining and grinding operations. No further secondary or finishing operations are required in most cases. In AWJM process, the cutting forces generated on work pieces are typically low. Typical surface finish achieved is in the range of 125-250 microns Ra. The tooling requirements are limited The material wastages are reduced due to smaller kerf sizes. There is no heat affected zone. There is no cutter induced metallic contamination Eliminates thermal distortion There is no tool re-sharpening cost It can cut metals, plastics, stones, composites, glass, ceramics and rubber
Disadvantages of WJM and AWJM: Cannot cut materials which degrade quickly with moisture. Higher cutting speeds are frequently used for rough cutting purposes which degrade the surface finish. There is a strong possibility of cracking in brittle materials and only few varieties of materials could be cut economically. In thicker materials the taper generated is also a problem The equipment used are quite expensive There are safely concerns due to noise and high pressures
ECM Fundamentals The electrolysis process being the most fundamental activity in ECM, its characteristics are to be well understood before proceeding further into its other process details. Electrolysis, as the name suggests is a chemical phenomenon that occurs between two conductors dipped in a suitable solution when electric current is passed between them. Example two copper wires, dipped in a copper sulphate solution are connected to a source of direct current. This solution of copper sulphate is termed as the electrolyte and it has electrical conducting property. The entire system of electrolyte and electrodes is called as the electrolytic cell. As per the polarity, the chemical reactions occurring at the anode and cathode are called as anodic or cathodic reactions respectively. Electrolytes are different from the metallic conductors that conduct electricity. In electrolytes, the current is carried by atoms or group of atoms and not by the electrons. The atoms have either lost or gained electrons, thereby acquiring either positive or negative charges and such atoms are called ions. The ions that carry positive charges are attracted by the cathode and they move through the electrolyte in the direction of the positive current and are referred to as the cat -ions. The negatively charged ions get attracted to the positive electrode i.e. anode and they are referred to as the anions. Due to the potential difference appl ied, the movement of ions is accompanied by the flow of electrons, in the opposite sense to the positive current in the electrolyte, outside the cell. In the electroplating process, which is a very popular application of electrolysis, the metal coatings are deposited on the surface of a cathodically polarized metal. An example of the anodic dissolution operation is electro-polishing. In this polishing process, the workpiece which has irregularities is made as the anode in the electrolytic cell. The work-piece gets polished and irregularities on its surface are dissolved preferentially so that after the process, the item gets shining effect and becomes flat.
Process Parameters: Power Supply Type -direct current Voltage - 2 to 35 V Current - 50 to 40,000 A 2 2 Current density - 0.1 A/mm to 5 A/mm Electrolyte Material = NaCl and NaNO3 o o Temperature = 20 C 50 C Flow rate = 20 lpm per 100 A current Pressure = 0.5 to 20 bar Dilution = 100 g/l to 500 g/l Working gap = 0.1 mm to 2 mm Overcut =0.2 mm to 3 mm Feed rate =0.5 mm/min to 15 mm/min Electrode material = Copper, brass, bronze
Advantages of ECM Process: Following are the advantages of ECM process: Machining of hard and brittle material is possible with good quality of surface finish and dimensional accuracy. Complex shapes can also be easily machined. There is almost negligible tool wear so cost of tool making is only one time investment for mass production. There is no application of force, no direct contact between tool and work and no application of heat so there is no scope of mechanical and thermal residual stresses in the workpiece. Very close tolerances can be obtained. No heat affected zone is formed.
Disadvantages and Limitations of ECM There are some disadvantages and limitations of ECM process as listed below: All electricity non-conducting materials cannot be machined. Accurate feed rate of tool is required to be maintained. The cost of tooling is high. Energy consumption is high: Power consumption is more as the ECM processes operates at high current and relatively low voltages (5-15V). The saline electrolyte poses a risk of corrosion to the tool, workpiece and the equipment. The electrode design is complex and has high initial cost but however it has a long life. Sharp corners or flat bottoms are not suitable through the ECM process, as there is a tendency of the electrolyte to erode away the sharp profiles.
Applications of ECM Process This is applied in internal finishing of surgical needles and also for their sharpening. Machining of hard, brittle, heat resistant materials without any problem. Drilling of small and deeper holes with very good quality of internal surface finish Machining of cavities and holes of complicated and irregular shapes. It is used for making inclined and blind holes and finishing of conventionally machined surfaces.
electrodes come closer to one another, the electric field intensity increases beyond the strength of the dielectric enabling it to break and thereby allow the current to flow between the two electrodes. As a result of this effect, intense heat gets generated near the zone, which melts and evaporates the material in the sparking zone. As the flow of current is momentarily stopped, some fresh dielectric liquid particles come in position between the inter-electrode gap which restores the insulating properties of the dielectric. The solid particles (debris) are carried away by the flowing dielectric. Flushing refers to the addition of new liquid dielectric to the inter-electrode volume. The sparks occur at spots where the tool and the workpiece surfaces are the closest and since the spots change after each spark (because of concentrates the spark energy to a small cross sectional area under the electrode. the material removal after each spark), the spark travels all over the surfaces. These results in uniform removal of material, hence exact shape get reproduced on the workpiece surface.
Advantages of EDM: This process is very much economical for machining very hard material. Maintains high degree of dimensional accuracy so it is recommended for tool and die making. Complicated geometries can be produced which are very difficult otherwise. Highly delicate sections and weak materials can also be processed without may risk of their distortion, because in this process tool never applies direct pressure on the workpiece. Fine holes can be drilled easily and accurately Appreciably high value of MRRR can be achieved as compared to other non-conventional machining processes. Edge machining and sharp corners are possible in EDM process The tool (electrode) and workpiece are free from cutting forces
Disadvantages and Limitations of EDM Process: This process cannot be applied on very large sized workpieces as size of workpiece is constrained by the size of set up. Electrically non-conducting materials cannot be processed by EDM. Due to the application of very high temperature at the machining zone, there are chances of distortion of workpiece in case of this section. Rapid electrode wear makes the process more costly.
Applications of EDM Hardened steel dies, stamping tools, wire drawing and extrusion dies, header dies, forging dies, intricate mould cavities and such parts are made by the EDM process. The process is widely used for machining of exotic materials that are used in aerospace and automatic industries. EDM being a non-contact type of machining process, it is very well suited for making fragile parts which cannot take the stress of machining. The parts that fit such profiles include washing machine agitators; electronic components, printer parts and difficult to machine features such as the honeycomb shapes.
Deep cavities, slots and ribs can be easily made by EDM as the cutting forces are less and longer electrodes can be used to make such collets, jet engine blade slots, mould cooling slots etc.
Laser beam machining process uses highly coherent light source. Laser is an electro-magnetic radiation. This is a beam of light of same wavelength. This beam can be focused by means of a lens on a very small spot in the work piece. The high power radiation of laser gives rise to high temperature on a small area of work piece. This initiates the cutting process in the work material. The equipment consists of ruby crystal placed inside a flash lamp. The flash lamp is used to produce high intensity light rays. The ruby crystal is thus simulated and this produces highly spatial laser beam. When the rays hit the work surface it causes partial or complete vaporization of surface material.
Advantages of LBM process It can be used for melting any type of material. Exact location of work surface is achieved. Welding dissimilar metals is easy using this process.
Machining any type of material like metals and non-metals. It is also faster than conventional tool-making techniques Laser cutting has higher accuracy rates over other methods using heat generation, as well as water jet cutting.
Limitations of laser beam machining It is not suitable for machining highly conductive material in general. Very high capital investment is an issue. Smaller metal removal is only achieved. Machined surfaces are not very perfect. The material being cut gets very hot, so in narrow areas, thermal expansion may be a problem.
Applications of LBM It can be used to remove minimal material in operations like milling, drilling, boring etc. Used to drill holes of smaller diameter in nozzles and other instruments. Holes in needles can be made using this process. Difficult to machine metals are easily machined. Micro level of holes can be machined using LBM. Spot welds are achieved in train parts