Syntax, Lecture 2 Applied Modern Languages II THE SIMPLE SENTENCE The Principal Parts of the Sentence THE SUBJECT

Definition: The subject is that principal part of the sentence which shows who/what performs the action expressed by the predicate or to whom/to what a feature or characteristic expressed by the predicate is ascribed. (Banta 1996: 95) The subject is the independent part of a two-member sentence denoting things, persons or notions spoken about and determining the number and the person of the predicate. (Salapina et al. 1979: 25) As a rule, the subject is expressed in English sentences (as different from Romanian sentences). There are two main exceptions to this rule: Imperative sentences: Try and test it! Elliptical sentences: Care for a walk? Got a match? (Banta 1996: 91, 94)

Ways of expressing the subject:

(A) A noun/noun phrase A noun in the Nominative case: His sister is here. The city is close to the border. A blind man will not thank you for a looking-glass. Beauty is but skin-deep. Mary has called to say hi. A noun in the Genitive case: Johns is a brilliant essay. A substantivised indefinite or past participle: The dying do not care about this. (Wilde) The accused were charged with theft. A fixed group of words indicating the title of a work or of an office, institution etc.: The Prince and the Pauper is a fine story by Mark Twain.

(B) A pronoun He heard the noise and got out of bed. This book is yours, mine is at home. What does that mean? Who knows but the world may end tonight? (Browning) The leaves of the trees that grew in the garden were very thick and green. All is not gold that glitters. Some people are wise and some are otherwise. Everybody cheered the Queen. (C) A numeral The three were unable to do anything. The first and fourth stood beside him in the water. (D) An infinitive or an infinitival construction: To promise and to give nothing is comfort to a fool. To scare a bird is not the way to catch it. For him to do this is rather difficult. Louisa had been overheard to begin a conversation with her brother. The boy was seen running. (E) A gerund or a gerundial construction: Seeing is believing. Winning the war is what counts. (F) A group of words whose nature may differ widely: Not a soul was anywhere visible. Your late was misheard as light. I am too busy is his usual reply to any request. (G) A subordinate subject clause: What is worth doing is worth doing well. What may be done at any time will be done at no time.

(for the classification and most of the examples, see Banta 1996: 95-98; Galapina et al. 1979: 25-28) Subjects can be classified from two points of view: Semantic content/value Composition structure and form (Banta 1996: 98ff.) I. (1) According to the semantic content, subjects can be (1) grammatical, (2) logical, (3) impersonal. Grammatical/formal subjects are directly linked to the predicate and determine its agreement with the subject: John travelled around the world. (2) (a) Logical/real/notional subjects point to the agent, i.e. the real doer/performer/perpetrator of the action: passive constructions:

New victories have been won by our sportsmen. (grammatical subject) (logical/real subject)

(b)

constructions with introductory elements (with it, there, here) Anticipatory/introductory It constructions with it anticipate/introduce the real subject: It was interesting to watch that bird. Its nice of you to have come. There constructions with there place emphasis on the existence or absence of the real subject. The predicate is mostly be, but other verbs may be used, as well (seem, appear, come, arrive, exist, live, grow etc.): There are many people in the room. Once upon a time there lived a little man Announcing or exclamatory (they emphasise the approach or the coming of the real subject by a sort of interjection which calls attention rather to the subject than to the predicate): Here/There is Tom. Here come Dick and Clara. Look, there it comes again! Emphatic it (underlies or singles out various parts of the sentence): It is he who broke the window. It was his sister that I met in the hall. It was to him that I spoke, not her. It was about you that I was talking, not about him. It is but reluctantly that I gave my consent. It was at the library that I lost my man. It was 10 years ago that I came to Timioara.

(3)

Impersonal subjects, which do not refer to a definite/wellestablished person or thing. Such objects may be used to denote time and weather, distance or the state of things in general:

It was nearly the time of full moon. Its a month since we met. It is cold. It is raining. It is five miles to the next town. Its wonderful/awful! II. (1) According to the criterion of composition, subjects may be classified into simple, compound, coordinated, complex, double: Simple subjects one word, possibly accompanied by attributes: My father has just come home. (2) Compound subjects although expressed by two or several elements (nouns), represent one person or one thing agreement in the singular: Here comes my lord and master. Strawberry and cream is delicious. (3) Coordinated subjects comprise two or more elements which refer to several notions joined by coordinating conjunctions agreement in the plural: A boaster and a liar are not far from each other. (4) Complex subjects made up of heterogeneous elements (generally, one nominal, one verbal, but inseparable): For me to go there is impossible. (5) Double subjects both a noun and a pronoun redundant and generally considered incorrect: The land it is the landlords

THE PREDICATE Definition: The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence. It serves to assert something about the subject, with the exception of the sentences with formal it as subject, in which the predicate expresses the state of weather, time, distance etc. and the subject only makes the sentence structurally complete (Galapina et al. 1979: 30) The predicate necessarily includes a verb in a personal mood, either expressed or implied. [] Normally, parts of the sentence which do not include a verb in a personal mood, but only a non-finite or non-personal form (infinitive, gerund or participle) are not considered to be a predicate. (Banta 1996: 122) Classification of predicates: I. II. III. I. Verbal predicates Nominal predicates Mixed types of predicates Verbal predicates include at least one personal form of a notional or auxiliary verb generating simple predicates or a non-personal/non-finite form of a notional verb preceded by a semi-auxiliary of modality (modal verb) or of aspect generating compound verbal predicates. (Banta 1996: 123) Simple verbal predicates state an action and possibly the time when they are effected; they are expressed by verbs in a personal mood, in a certain tense: He travelled to Paris last year. I have been looking for you everywhere. Have you hurt yourself? Such predicates may also be expressed by phraseological units:
7

(1)

The man gave a violent start. We got rid of him at last. (2) Compound verbal predicates consist of a finite semi-auxiliary of modal or aspective meaning (or a finite notional verb or even a phrase synonymous to the semi-auxiliary in meaning) plus a notional verb in a non-finite form: mostly an infinitive, sometimes a gerund (Galapina et al. 1979: 31; see also Banta 1996: 124) The Compound Modal Verbal Predicate a modal verb (or modal phrases with a verb) in a predicative mood + a verbal (non-finite form) of the verb to be conjugated: We are to meet at seven. You may go. We intended to go to Paris. He was able to climb to the top. (b) The Compound Aspect Verbal Predicate - a personal form of a verb denoting a lexical aspect and a non-personal form of the principal/predicative verb: Have you started working yet? Keep smiling. A little girl came running down the lawn. II. Nominal predicates

(a)

Nominal Predicates Proper the greatest majority consists of a finite link verb and a predicative. It is the predicative that characterises or qualifies the subject, the link verb only connecting the subject with the predicative. The link verbs or copulas have a grammatical function mainly, indicating the aspect, voice, mood, tense, person and number of the predicate, whereas the meaning is expressed by the predicative.

The ground was wet with dew. (link verb of being or state) The soup smells delicious. (link verb of being or state) The weather continues fine. (link verb of remaining or continuing) The river runs dry in summer. (link verb of becoming or transition) The leaves were turning gold and red. (link verb of becoming or transition) He appeared upset. (link verb of seeming or appearing) In the examples above, the predicatives are expressed by adjectives. The predicative can also be expressed by: A noun: She is an actress. A pronoun: It was him. He is somebody, you are nobody. A numeral: We were only three. A prepositional phrase: They are at work. An infinitive or an infinitival construction: To see is to believe. Our aim is to master English. A gerund or a gerundial construction: Seeing is believing. Our aim is mastering English. A predicative clause: The truth is that I dont like it at all.

Double/Complex Predicates contractions of the predicates of two sentences or clauses, easily to be reconstituted (Banta 1996: 127) The moon rose red. (The moon was red when it rose or The moon rose. It was red.) That house has long stood empty. The tents lay silent in the moonlight. The sun came out hot.
9

III.

Mixed types of predicates

Rainy days can be unpleasant. (compound modal + nominal predicate) I began to feel hungry. (compound aspect verb + nominal predicate) References: Banta, A. 1996. Descriptive English Syntax. Iasi: Institutul European. Salapina, G., M. Popa and G. Schmidt. 1979. Limba englez contemporan. Timioara: Tipografia Universitii din Timioara.

Exercises State the nature of it in the following sentences: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Its a terrible thing to be blind. I looked at my watch. It was eleven oclock sharp. It was a rare pleasure to see the old hills again. Whats the title of that song you were singing? Its called: Green Fields It is windy today. Dont keep the child out too long. The telephone rang. I went to answer. It was Joe. It is in Stratford-upon-Avon that Shakespeare was born.

Use the emphatic it to rephrase the following sentences: (1) He showed me the way. (2) I recognized him only when he came up to me. (3) His broad smile made me remember him immediately. (4) I went to bed early because I was feeling worn out. (5) Then I found I couldnt get back to sleep. (6) Do you enjoy the humour of her stories?
10

Insert the introductory there or it in place of the blanks: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) ... is a storm coming. The version was easy enough; took me very little time. has been no rain for a few days. At that momentwas a knock at the front door; was the postman. can be no doubt about it.

Point out the simple and the compound predicate (nominal or verbal): (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) I have been working since this morning. He became a teacher after graduation. The time may come when my advice might be of some use to you. He tried to be both firm and friendly. Charlie kept quiet. He seemed glad to be back again. We decided that we would not wait for them any longer.

11