LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION SGDU 5024

Issue : The Teachers Workload Dealing with Poor Leadership in School Organization Situation : Sungai Limau Primary School School Background The Sungai Limau Primary School are located at District of Kuala Muda/Yan. In here,there are 457 pupils. For administrative section,teachers and supportive staff have 40 people.

1.0

INTRODUCTION Vicissitudes and advanced failure of a school depends heavily on commitment and

enthusiasm of the headmaster and the teachers in carrying out their duties in school. This is because all the action and task and activities that occur on school triggered by the headmaster and it is driven by the teacher. Teachers cannot afford engaging in any activity or program alone without the participation of the teachers. Commitment teachers of the tasks entrusted to them is to start with comfort and enjoyment of their work. All their actions are due to several factors makes the existence of an atmosphere and environment they work in schools, including style leadership of school managers (head teachers). The school is an institution of formal education structure organization, led by the headmaster as the key leadership in the school. As a leader, this individual will determine the rise and fall of a school thus play a very important role in determining the direction of the success of the school. Leadership in tandem with information technology, smart schools, school effective, the target of 60% science students and efforts to make Malaysia a centre world-class educational excellence. Educational leadership is very important to lead organizational goals. Image is determined by the image of school education and image of leadership. According Bardford (1981), a less capable leader will lead to job dissatisfaction among teachers. Leaders determine the degree of influence effectiveness of the plan, decision and action strategies. Actions of a leader is not It only affects the organization he leads even

LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION SGDU 5024

in terms of job satisfaction staff especially teachers under his control should also be emphasized because it involves a person's credibility. The teaching profession is a profession that requires commitment and determination high in order to produce human capital that is useful to society and the nation. Performed by the process of educating teachers is a continuous process undertaken in all ages begins at primary, secondary and tertiary levels. Institutions education at all levels play a role in each stage in order to produce quality of human capital based on the National Education Philosophy. Based on the background of the above problems and realize the fact that the question leadership and job satisfaction is an important issue and should be viewed from the concept responsibility that has major implications on the success of the organization, thus affect the future of the country. Hence this research is to examine the level of job satisfaction among teachers associated with the headmaster's leadership style in schools in Educational of District Office, Kuala Muda Yan .Although there are many factors that determine the comfort and satisfaction of teachers in school, however, this study only focuses on the headmistress's leadership style. This study was done to see the level of job satisfaction is closely related to the style factor Headmaster leadership and how leadership style favoured by teachers for create job satisfaction in school.

THE JOB SATISFACTION ARE RELATED TO THE WORKLOAD OF TEACHERS

Assume the role of a teacher is not as simple as throw the word guru itself. If look at the National Education Philosophy (1989), there is a phrase which sets education as an ongoing effort to produce a balanced and harmonious in terms of intellectual, spiritual, physical and emotional. If we were to work for the realization of this the National Education Philosophy is severe. It is difficult for the human form and mould a variety of spiritual

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backgrounds toward a common goal. Therefore teachers should be competent in human tasks, able to deal with the problem of students and constantly change with time (Fitri, 2006). The teaching profession is a demanding career fields. Teachers are considered experts in the field (Abdul Rahin et al.2000) job teachers do not just go to class teaching and marking exams, but more extensive than that. Teaching profession is a profession that demands seriousness disseminate knowledge in order to build a highly civilized society. Such large impact on the teaching profession nation-building. So mainly the responsibility of a teacher then so greater the burden should rest with the teacher. Workload can be defined as a trust entrusted to the teacher whether it is done in the classroom or outside the classroom and aims to complete the work associated with the school (Shukri, 1998). This workload is measured by looking at the tasks allotted time in a week. Looking at the definition of this workload can be concluded that the tasks assigned to the teacher is able to pressure especially if the task is given in excess. Task charged to the teacher must take into account the priority of the teacher's responsibility. Along with the development of education, teacher experience increases. However, the teacher's ability to cope with a given workload depends on the individual. Too large workload will interfere with emotions and in turn affects the quality of the teaching (Fitri, 2006). Various measures have been taken to overcome this problem. This is to ensure that the focus of the teacher to educate not disturbed. No doubt teachers also need to be responsible for a variety of data on students, but teachers also need to know his student data to help teachers adapt teaching methods, but so do other than educate teachers should be given to thrift with the primary responsibility of a teacher. The teacher is not subject to teach only. Teaching is a fraction of the tasks to be performed by the teacher. According to Shukri (1998), in addition to teaching, teachers role is

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to plan, organize, manage and evaluate. Based Handbook of teachers and staff (2011), the teacher can be divided into ten sections, namely: i. Teaching ii. Administrative classroom iii. Internal examination iv. External examination v. Disciplinary care vi. School administration vii. Activities, extra-curricular activities viii. Semi-professional tasks ix. Non-professional tasks x. Other tasks

2.1

Duties of Teaching Teaching requires teachers to teach certain subjects according to teacher

qualifications. However, teachers also need to master the skills needed to teach the subject and be able to describe the contents of the syllabus and the Syllabus. In addition, teachers also need to provide a complete lesson record book with a lesson plan for one year / one term / week / day and implement lessons based on the plans ahead. Teachers also need to provide training to students as well as check book training before being shown to the administrator. If teachers can detect flaws in studies among students, it is the responsibility of the teacher to conduct coaching classes in addition to providing test to detect the weaknesses of their pupils. Tests and records must be recorded in the record books teach. As a teacher who teaches the subject, teachers need to become an expert in the subject committee and attend and participate in meetings and activities undertaken by the committee.

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If the Ministry of Education, the State Education Department or the District Education Office to organize a briefing or meeting, the teacher concerned should attend and spread the information obtained to the teachers who teach the same subject. Place unlimited teach in the class, but for certain subjects such as Life Skills requires students moving and learning in a specially prepared room. Individual teacher to be responsible for the safety of students as well as the cleanliness and safety equipment used. 2.2 Administration Classrooms In administering the classroom, some of the tasks to be performed by the teacher. This includes carrying out various collection of the fees charged by the school. In addition, teachers also need to ensure that relationships with parents continue to do all correspondence if necessary. Teachers also need to keep a list of other classes keep students 'personal information such as students' personal files, books consolidated progress reporting books and extra-curricular provision and certification letter. In addition, teachers also need to be controlling and supervising the classroom situation. 2.3 Internal Examination The duties include the provision of internal examination questions. These questions need to be provided in accordance with the examination calendar provided by the school. Time of examination, the teacher should monitor the ongoing examination that there was no fraud and the results more transparent. After completing the exam, the teacher should check the answer scripts of students' answers to be scored and conducted grading. After that, the results of the analysis will be conducted to look at the overall student performance. 2.4 External Examination External examination means examination conducted and administered by parties other than the school and the examination usually conducted simultaneously throughout the

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country and involve all students in certain years such as the Primary School Assessment Test (UPSR). Therefore, the teacher simply involves the collection related fees, fill out the entry form and exam invigilator should be directed. 2.5 Care Discipline Scopes of work in the care of discipline include supervision of students discipline in general. This means that teachers are allowed to reprimand or demonstration if there are students who do wrong. Hygiene is also contained within the scope of duty of care discipline. Teachers are responsible for ensuring the cleanliness class and pupils as clothing is always awake and obey school rules. 2.6 Administration School Through field work proved that the teacher does not stop at teaching only. Teachers also need to be involved in the administration for the smooth functioning of the school. Among the things to do is help corporate rooms such as science labs, art room, music room, workshop and so on. In addition, teachers are also involved in administering such thing as a textbook distribution, the distribution schedule for teachers and coordinating the work of multiple classes or subjects. It is important to avoid conflicts and duplication of time and work.

2.7

The activities of the Co-curriculum Activities, extra-curricular activities should be conducted in the school and to comply

with the rules and instructions given. Extra-curricular activities include uniformed bodies, associations and clubs. In addition to carrying out the activities of the co-curriculum, teachers are also required to record and supervise all activities.

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2.8

Semi-Professional Duties Semi-professional tasks means that tasks are not directly related to the student. In

other words, the semi-professional tasks refer to activities to benefit students or students who need a teacher as a governor or actuator activity. These tasks involve things such as visits to schools outside the area either with the purpose of competition, sports games or educational visits. In addition, teachers are also responsible for organizing festivals and special ceremonies and school development projects. Although there are activities that do not involve students in particular as school projects, but the end result of the project benefits the entire school community, including students.

2.9

Non-Professional Duties The duties of this profession are not seen as a task that is not in contact with the main

task of the teacher as an educator to the community. This task can also be seen as a social responsibility of a teacher to the school and community. Among the items contained in the non-professional tasks are school buildings and landscaping care and hygiene school. Teachers need to ensure that school places are always clean and cheerful so that the students who come to school to learn in a comfortable environment. In addition, teachers also need to control the traffic and maintain security of schools and students. Therefore, teachers should report any damage in the school and set the traffic to the students and parents who attend the school. If there are special cases such as student illness or have a problem that prevented to attend school, teachers have visited the home of the student. Besides getting clear information about the situation and problems of students, teachers also indirectly strengthen the relationship between teachers and parents. Next, to help students in their studies, teachers are required to sell books to the students training.

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2.10

Other Duties As the head of an organization of schools, the headmaster has the power to direct the

teachers to do certain tasks if the task that will benefit the school. Therefore, these other tasks are tasks related headmaster directed by from time to time. Based on this teacher to-do list it is clear that the teacher is not just to teach but to cover the entire course related to students. In summary the teacher can set consists of two parts, namely the management of teaching and learning as well as the management and administration of the school. However, under each section comprises a variety of other tasks demanding field breakdown endurance teachers to implement. Headmaster of the school as the head of administration should take aware of this scenario. Thus headmaster should be more concerned and do a more fair division of labor as well as emphasizing the welfare of teachers felt that teachers who shouldered his burden can be reduced.

3.0

LOAD DUTY TEACHER In addition to the parents at home, teachers are the ones responsible for developing

soul and character grinding to determine the rise and fall of next generation. Therefore teachers should play a responsibility to educate with the passion and sense of responsibility. If the teacher negligent in discharging its trust, the greater the possibility to see the next generation of life in the soul and humility personality flaws (Shukri, 1998). Centered on this matter it is clear that the teacher is an important component in making the country filled by people who are not only knowledgeable but also has a soul and an outstanding personality.

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Education system and the educational goals that have been set seen so noble goals. Yet teachers as implementers need to have a good quality performance to ensure the FPN can be realized. However, stress and workload will affect the quality of teaching and thus affect the performance and efficiency of the teacher (Sazali, 1997). The situation is exacerbated by pressure from the community and high expectations given to teachers (Soh, 1987). Today the teacher not only in the classroom but also involve clerical work (Moran, 1998). Based on studies conducted by the Salwa (1996), the average hours of work of a teacher is 65.77 hours per week. Of the total 37.67 hours used to manage and conduct academic affairs while remaining 28.10 hours was used for non-academic tasks. This task assignments dtambah again with the positions held by the teacher. On average a teacher holds six posts covering the role of classroom teachers, the task associated with extra-curricular activities and special tasks assigned. The research also shows that teachers generally expressed shouldered workload is heavy. The report submitted by the Special Committee Addressing Load Master (2010) of 17 teachers showed that 8 out of 17 times the number of teachers assigned to teach more than 29 hours a week. 9 out of 17 teachers expressed their hours of duty that includes teaching and learning time is over 66 hours a week. The report also said the 17 teachers agreed that they do not have a specific list of duties and responsibilities are not clearly real and actual work time. In addition, all 17 teachers agree that the main burden being shouldered is clerical work.Load teacher is varied. Even nowadays many clerical work that had to be done by the teacher. This coupled with the question of discipline, classroom management, timetable and lesson planning and teaching material (Lim, 1995). Due to this common work of teacher brought it home. Indirect work time, teachers are beyond working hours the other office bearers.

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The teacher on this very important day because the teacher is part of an important subject for sketching portraits of the country's success. Too great a burden placed on the shoulders of the teachers are able to cause the teacher missed the runway to create a brilliant student. This is because the main task of educating cannot be done as effectively as possible (Moran, 1998). Therefore, it is very appropriate that the relevant parties can review more closely related to this issue. It is meant to prevent teachers feel pressured to unnecessary workload. Fear stress experienced by teachers will affect the quality of service of a teacher's knowledge. Undeniably the burden of teachers keep pace with the country's dream of achieving developed nation status, but so should be a priority to produce quality human capital and these efforts should start from school. It is a loss to the nation if these efforts retardation and disturbed since the beginning.

4.0

HOW TO REDUCE THE BURDEN OF TEACHER JOB The issue of teacher workload has opened the eyes of many teachers over the years

have been charged with a variety of tasks that should not affect the main focus for educating teachers. Not only that, the workload is able to bring a lot of stress for teachers. According Sazali (1997), many teachers reported that they face pressure and burn out at some stage of their careers. This in turn affects the level of professionalism in the handling of the case. Thus, the various parties including academics have given some recommendations to address this problem. Among them is Tan Sri Dr Abdul Rahman Arshad, former Director General of Education as described in the Daily News newspaper dated May 24, 2010. Four recommendations given by him is fully capitalize on the success of the role of parents in school activities, optimize private sector involvement in the development of education, promoting the contribution of former students and teachers create retirees association. He added that the proposed recommendation is triggered by the concept of "socialization of

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education" and did not involve any additional cost to the government. However, these efforts need to involve the private sector, parents and the government to look at this concept can be realized. Effort to address teacher workload can also be seen through the formation of the Special Committee Addressing the burden of teachers in 2010. Through the establishment of this committee which aims to list the duties and responsibilities of teachers, identifying the factors that lead to increased teacher burden besides recommending measures to address teacher workload among others. He has recommended 13 steps you can take to reduce the workload of teachers. 13 steps are: i. Laboratory tests conducted once during the exam. ii. Shrink the size of the class. iii. Add the number of teachers. iv. Create a workshop assistant positions. v. Reduce the time to teach teachers (including teacher discipline). vi. Fair distribution of tasks. vii. Give priority to the welfare of teachers. viii. Provide suitable facilities according to the specifications of other civil servants. ix. Reduce activities Saturday or exemption from duty on Saturday as other public servants. x. Make special leave right teacher. xi. Create a special position for co-curricular activities. xii. Increase cooperation with the community and PTA through smart partnerships. xiii. Creating a teacher assistant positions for clerical work. Of recommendations proposed by the Special Committee Addressing Load more comprehensive Teacher's seen. In addition to regular teachers involved in addressing this

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issue, submitted proposals also involve other school administrators involve the government as policy builder. Furthermore, the proposed recommendations also concern for the welfare of teachers. This point concurs with the suggestions made by Shukri (1998) proposes to set up a support staff to assist the work of clerical allowance of teachers and the need for teachers to do the work over time. He added that the task given to the teachers to match their abilities and skills available to the teacher and the teacher does not result in overburdened. Salwa (1996) suggest, reduced class size to 35 people for a class. In addition, he also suggested that academic work should be limited to 39.80 hours per week and non-teaching duties reduced to 4.23 hours per week. The recommended time is significantly different than 66 hours off duty (by combining academic and non-academic assignments) as reported by the Special Committee Addressing the Burden of Teachers. Suggestions made should not be ignored. The parties concerned should take proactive measures to help address the problem of teacher workload. This matter should be taken seriously to help teachers achieve high job satisfaction without stress by not burdening teachers with extreme workloads. It is time profession is lifted back the prestige and quality, not just a victim of ridicule and criticism of society. To accomplish such intention, of course, the quality of teaching needs to be improved first by priority focus for educating teachers. With the intention to produce knowledgeable and high moral no longer be an empty promise.

5.0 CONCLUSION Workload issue is no longer a new issue. In fact no exaggeration to say that this issue is an issue like endless bad. Every year teachers will continue to complain of workload experienced to interfere with the primary responsibility for educating

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Solving this issue can not be done with the involvement of only one side. Sequential solution must start from the policy makers (government) until the policy implementers (teachers). Hence, the government through the Ministry of Education to review the tasks entrusted to the teacher. Unmanageable task execution will cause problems for teachers and students also receive impact. Further, the curriculum has been designed not to be too frequently changed. This will result in teachers not well prepared with the skills of the new curriculum demands to suit a variety of business infrastructure available at the school. This situation coupled with the pressure of parents who always want good results regardless of what experienced by teachers. Whereas, if we examine all sides agreed examination results is not a determinant of success (Sazali, 1997). Tendency on the part of policy-makers who only emphasize the goal to make the welfare of student teachers neglected. True the teacher is educating students but must be relevant to the existing ability. Party policy makers need to look back on things that need to be implemented to realize the intention of the founding fathers rather than recklessly policies. This means that all prospective and existing constraints faced by the teacher should be seen. Other parties, especially the parents can not assume the task is the task of educating teachers alone. Parents need to play a role monitor their children in terms of discipline and provide basic education to ease the burden of teachers. In Finally, extensive cooperation from all parties need to make this issue can be resolved and thus make improved the quality of teaching as well as the country can produce human capital that is able to propel the country towards success and material and spiritual progress.

Is the workload of teachers related to leadership style?..... Are they concerned about this issues?

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3.2

Leadership and teacher satisfaction Research conducted by UKs Institute of Public Policy Research (West & Patterson,

1999, p. 22), based on an 8-year long study of 100 companies, concluded that "an employee's satisfaction with their work and a positive view of the organisation, combined with relatively extensive and sophisticated people management practices, are the most important predictors of the future productivity of companies." The people-management practices referred to here include ones that concentrate on enabling staff to actually enjoy their work rather than feel oppressed by it; ones that encourage questioning and thinking; ones that develop cooperation through investing in social capital and mutual trust within the organisation. Recent research in England suggests that such conditions may not be a strong feature of schools. A report by the think-tank for the National Union of Teachers in that country (Gardner, 2001, p. 8) found that younger teachers in particular felt pay prospects and lack of control over the way they taught as a result of government initiatives, were causing them to question their commitment to the profession. Most teachers argued consistently that centrally driven educational reform meant that they experienced change as never-ending barrage of externally imposed, randomly timed and badly managed initiatives that they had little constructive role in helping to shape. As stress was purported to be a widespread feature of work in teaching in England, Troman (2000) studied an opportunity sample of 20 teachers referred to a local authority Occupational Health Unit as experiencing stress. The study found that the intensification of teachers' work was involved in eroding positive staff relationships. Changing trust relations in high modernity (including public distrust of expert systems, professionals) were found to be shaping the social relations of low-trust schooling and impacting negatively on teachers' physical and emotional well being and their collegial professional relations. School leaders

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can be a major influence on such school-level factors as well as help buffer against the excesses of the mounting and sometimes contradictory external pressures. As the analytical framework for OECDs Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers Project (OECD, 2002, p. 8) argues, A skilled and well-supported leadership team in schools can help foster a sense of ownership and purpose in the way that teachers approach their job. conferring professional autonomy to teachers will enhance the attractiveness of the

profession as a career choice and will improve the quality of the classroom teaching practice. (OECD, 2002, p. 14) Spencer (2001, p. 814) makes clear that the single most powerful recruiter of teachers are schools themselves. People who have had positive experiences in school can prolong that experience by becoming teachers. Once in the profession, intrinsic rewards are consistently rated highest in studies of teacher satisfaction. For example, annual surveys administered to teachers over the past several decades reflect teachers altruism as one of the most common reasons for entering teaching. Teachers who work together in a meaningful and purposeful way have also been found to be more likely to remain in the profession because they feel valued and supported in their work. (Beane 1998; Bath 1999) Little (1995) is one researcher who has found clear evidence of the positive effect of teacher leadership on teachers self efficacy and levels of morale. In contrast, Blas and Blass (2002) study of 50 exemplary teachers in U.S.A. and Canada who believed they had experienced significant principal mistreatment found that the adverse effects included early and long-term psychological and emotional problems, physical and physiological problems, damaged schools, and ultimately leaving the job. Unfortunately these researchers also found that workplace abusers often target the bold, best and brightest teachers.

3.3

Leadership and teacher role/performance

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In decentralised school settings principals have the autonomy to develop two very different leadership models: a more hierarchical and directive model, or a more inclusive model which brings teachers in particular, and the local school community into the frame. (Riley & Louis, 2000, p. 216) Research on decision making in Australian primary (Mulford et al, 2000) and secondary (Mulford et al, 2001) schools found that the more positively teachers viewed the decision making processes in the 18 school the higher the degree of influence and control they perceived to be exerted by education staff groups in the school. Ongoing analysis of this data base (Mulford et al, in press) shows that where decision making is perceived by teachers in secondary schools as collegial, cooperative and consultative and providing adequate opportunities for participation it will be more likely to lead to positive student perceptions about their school and teachers as well as perceptions about relationships and their own performance than where decision making is more topdown, executive, or does not foster widespread teacher involvement. However, the results also show that while decentralisation may have occurred from the system to school level it had not necessarily occurred within schools and where it had it tended to be about administrative rather than education matters. These results are supported by other research. Gray (2001, p. 13) points out that in England teachers note considerably greater changes in areas to do with their schools management and organisation than in ethos, culture or teaching classroom-level changes were far less frequent than school-wide initiatives. From case studies in nine Scottish secondary schools Adler et al (1997, Pp. 6-7) also concluded that implementation of devolved school management has, so far, fallen short of transforming the culture and working patterns of schools but had contributed to a dramatic change in the role and status of head teacher. Schools seemed able to respond more quickly to changing needs and priorities, but this was mainly in terms of repairs,

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maintenance and equipment. Teachers will be attracted to, and stay in, the profession if they feel they belong and believe they are contributing to the success of their school and students. Louis and Kruse (1995) have shown the important role of school-level leadership in the development of a professional community. Teacher morale, efficacy, conditions of work, and professional autonomy have all been shown to be crucial to the emotional lives of teachers. (Hargreaves, 2000) There is no doubt that teachers themselves prefer principals who are honest, communicative, participatory, collegial informal, supportive and demanding and reasonable in their expectations with a clear vision for the school - principals who work with rather than through. (Day et al, 2000, p. 20) Day et al (2000, p. 160) conclude that, Research findings from diverse countries and different school contexts have revealed the powerful impact of leadership processes related to school effectiveness and improvement. Essentially, schools that are effective and have the capacity to improve are led by head teachers who make a significant and measurable contribution to the effectiveness of their staff. Research on school leaders in Denmark, Scotland, England and Australia by MacBeath (1998, p. 63) identified a number of characteristics of effective leaders including Good leaders are in the thick of things, working alongside their colleagues, respecting teachers autonomy, protecting them from extraneous demands, and look ahead, anticipate change and prepare people for it so that it doesnt surprise or disempowering them. Durland and Teddlie (1996) posit a Centrality-Cohesiveness Model of Differentially Effective Schools. Differentially effective schools can be distinguished by the cohesiveness of the staff (webbed versus stringy) and the centrality of the leadership within the school. Wellwebbed structures and central leadership where found to be more effective than those based on cliques, or stringy structures, and a perceived lack of leadership

Great leaders see beyond their egos.

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There is no argument that strong leadership is critical for organizations to flourish. In current business environments, it is almost a daily event to witness the exposure of poor leadership in the largest companies worldwide. Whether you agree with media infiltration or not, the length of time between when initial concerns are brought to the forefront about companies and/or leadership and full transparency as the exposure unfolds is getting shorter and shorter.

Accountability and responsibility have never been more important as the landscape of corporate transformation alters in response to the turmoil in the economy. There have always been weak leaders and those who cripple organizations with their lack of leadership skills. However, the high visibility factor may have a tendency to provide a check and balance affect in strengthening how leaders lead.

The book, Good to Great, by Jim Collins, has become, for some, the final word in what strong leadership should look like and how leaders should lead. Jim Collins states, Greatness is not a function of circumstance. Greatness is largely a matter of conscious choice, and discipline.However, the confidence required to lead complex organizations doesnt always provide an infrastructure for supporting a Level 5 Leader, as defined in Good to Great. Often this high level of confidence is accompanied by an ego that, if not kept in check, will take over and compromise effective decision-making. You can pick up any newspaper and read about the fall of a CEO due to greed, ego and/or compromised integrity. The discipline described by Jim Collins may be the most difficult behaviours to sustain.

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Below are a few signs that indicate poor leadership is present.

Leadership expects the workforce to tighten the financial belts, but does not tighten their own. This is especially serious if the organization is in financial crisis.

There is little communication and transparency from top leadership. They choose to be removed from all levels of the workforce. This may result in a deterioration of trust by the workforce.

The organizational strategy is inconsistent and changes frequently. The strategy is not understood and is not integrated throughout the organization. Without clear direction, you run the risk of spinning your wheels and getting nowhere.

The top leader takes credit for success and no responsibility for failure. The lack of understanding or belief that all levels of the organization are of equal value in the grand scheme of things.

While there tends to be more focus on the results of poor leadership than strong, I believe there are many more strong leaders than weak. However, as our economy begins to turn around, the requirements for success will demand the best of leadership skills. Isnt it relevant today to assess todays leadership and the leadership of tomorrow? Training, assessments, succession planning and development are the focus of smart leadership and are systemic to organizations that will thrive in the future. Workload and Work Pace The experience of being overworked is not new, and, if anything, some would suggest that it is increasing within particular sectors (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997). The strains associated with being overworked have been

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found to be uniformly negative across behavioral, psychological, and physiological outcome domains (e.g., Jex & Beehr, 1991). Measures of role overload are empirically linked to assessments of both context-free (e.g., Kelloway & Barling, 1991) and context-specific mental health (see, for example, Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992; Posig & Kickul, 2003). Issues of workload and work pace become increasingly important in an environment in which hours of work are increasing. The data suggest that working couples have seen their average work year increase by nearly 700 hours in the past two decades and that up to 30% of the workforce is exhausted by the end of the workday (NIOSH, 2002). Organizational leadership is clearly linked to workload and pace in most organizations. By establishing the pace of work and the amount of work that is required, and by specifying deadlines, organizational leaders effectively establish workloads and work pace for most individuals. Thus, when leaders set tight deadlines or assign extra tasks without considering existing workloads, they become a source of workplace stress through the experience of overload. To the extent that passive leaders are unaware of the concerns of their employees, they may be less attuned to the amount of work that their employees can reasonably manage and thus endorse a heavy workload or unmanageable work pace. Similarly, abusive leaders who in their actions display little concern for the welfare of their employees may also be more likely to set unreasonable deadlines and workloads than highly effective leaders.

Role Stressors (Conflict, Ambiguity, and Inter role Conflict) Role conflict exists whenever individuals face incompatible demands from two or more sources. Role ambiguity reflects the uncertainty employees experience about what is expected of them in their jobs; the opposite of role

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ambiguity would be role clarity. Inter role conflict exists when employees face incompatible demands from two or more roles. The most common form of inter role conflict is workfamily conflict in which the demands of work conflict with the roles of parent or spouse. Kelloway and Barling (1991) found that the experience of role stressors at work predicted mental health in the workplace. Considerable research has also now emerged documenting the stressors associated with inter role conflict and, more specifically, work-family conflict (see, for example, Kelloway, Gottlieb, & Barham, 1999; Gignac, Kelloway, & Gottlieb, 1996; Gottlieb, Kelloway, & Martin-Matthews, 1996). Because organizational leaders are tasked with establishing the expectations for employees, they are a potent source of role expectations for individuals in organizations. Thus, supervisors who fail to establish clear expectations or who promote conflicting goals actively promote increased role stress. Supervisors who establish expectations for long hours in the office may promote work-family conflict. Researchers have long believed managers play a key role in the presence of role ambiguity. Certainly, passive leaders may neither take the time to assure that their employees have clear role descriptions nor even realize that their employees are experiencing any type of role conflict. In many instances, however, researchers have argued that role ambiguity is the variable that might be most readily influenced by managers. Singh and Rhoads (1991) have argued that role ambiguity is most susceptible to managerial intervention in attempts to reduce stress in the workplace. With respect to abusive leadership, research by Monat, Averill, and Lazarus (1972) suggests that a hostile situation is even more stressful if one does not know when exactly it will occur (i.e., role ambiguity). Temporal uncertainty is yet another avenue by which abusive leaders affect the stress levels of those they lead. Temporal uncertainty refers to an individuals inability to know when a given event or action is likely to occur.

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Within the context of this discussion, temporal uncertainty refers to the unpredictability of the leaders behavior. This suggests that abusive bosses who have bursts of aggression not only have a direct psychological impact on individuals but also produce a chronic state of stress in workers as workers find themselves always needing to be on guard, not knowing when another outburst will be directed their way. As highlighted by the example at the start of this chapter, the worker is not shocked by his or her bosss escalation in anger but by the unpredictability of the bosss actions during his state of chaos (i.e., throwing a coffee pot out the window). Career Concerns Career-related factors such as job insecurity, fear of job obsolescence,under- and overpromotion, and, more generally, concerns about career development have been identified as stressful. For example, in their study of South African miners, Barling and Kelloway (1996) found that job insecurity was associated with both negative affective reactions and raised blood pressure. The importance of job insecurity as a stressor in the workplace is highlighted by observations that the temporary or contingent labor force is rapidly increasing and that job tenure has declined for many workers (NIOSH, 2002). Recently, the development of the effort-reward imbalance model has focused research attention on the role of organizational rewards as a psychosocial stressor. Siegrist (1996) proposed the effortreward imbalance model that essentially suggests that strain results when rewards are not consistent with efforts in work environments. In this view, efforts are described as the strivings of the individual to meet the demands and obligations of the job. Rewards are conceptualized as encompassing financial rewards, esteem rewards, and career rewards, including job security. Similar to its intellectual

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forebearer, equity theory (Adams, 1965), the effort-reward imbalance theory is based on the notion that individuals attempt to maintain a state of equilibrium and cannot maintain an imbalance between effort and rewards over an extended period of time. Siegrist does, however, involve an individual variable (i.e., over commitment) to explain potential discrepancies. That is, individuals who are overcommitted to their work may maintain a high effort, low-reward environment. Eventually, however, this condition will result in ill health (Siegriest, 1996). Initial results using cardiovascular risk as the outcome generally support the model propositions (Peter & Siegrist, 1999). The relative recency of the effort-reward imbalance theory has resulted in a lack of formal evaluation of the theory, although these initial results seem promising. Organizational leaders are, of course, the primary gatekeepers of organizational reward structures. Indeed the legitimate power (e.g., French & Raven, 1959) of supervisors is closely linked to reward power. Managers have the power to reward subordinates (Yukl & Falbe, 1991) or, alternatively, to deny such rewards. For example, bonuses, merit pay, and career decisions are frequently based on annual performance reviews conducted by organizational leaders (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995; Milliman, Nason,Zhu, & De Cieri, 2002). The empirical data suggest that such ratings are often a function of whether or not supervisors like their subordinates (Lefkowitz, 2000). For example, Scullen, Mount, & Goff (2000) found that over 50% of the variance in performance ratings was attributable to idiosyncratic rating errorsmore than twice as much as was attributable to true variation in employee performance. Work Scheduling Working rotating shifts or permanent night work results in a disruption of physiological circadian rhythms as well as disrupted social activities and has been identified as a work-

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related stressor. For example, employees who work nights or overtime report that this affects their mental and physical health outcomes (Ettner & Grzywacz, 2001), and there is a great deal of literature on how to schedule shifts so as to minimize these effects (e.g.,Tucker, MacDonald, Folkard, & Smith, 1998). These effects are sufficiently well established to provide the basis for labor law in the European Union that regulates the scheduling of shifts and rest days (International Labour Office,1988, 1990). On a more macro scale, researchers have examined the effect of scheduling of vacation time (Westman & Eden, 1997) on wellbeing. Related to issues of workload and pace, there has been concern expressed about the absolute number of hours required of some employees, particularly trainees and interns who may be required to work excessively long hours during the course of their training (e.g., Bartle & Rodolfa, 1999).Again, in many organizations, shift schedules are drawn up by those in organizational leadership roles, and supervisors can create or minimize stress by adjusting how they schedule shifts. Decisions as to when to require overtime or who is required to work overtime are also frequently left to managers and supervisors. To that extent, individuals who report to passive or abusive leaders may not receive optimal work scheduling options, as these leaders are likely less aware of or concerned about the importance of work scheduling for the well-being of individual employees. Interpersonal Relations Poor interpersonal relations in the workplace are consistently identified as a source of stress. Conversely, having well-established sources of social support (i.e., receiving support from co workers and supervisors) may actually reduce the effects of other workplace stressors (House, 1981). As we previously reviewed, leaders who are abusive, aggressive, or punitive are a clear source of stress for individuals in the workplace. However, such behaviours by a supervisor may also lead to individuals

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becoming isolated or rejected by the work group. That is, in order to win favor with, or avoid being a victim of, an abusive supervisor, co workers may harass, exclude, or engage in mobbing (Schuster, 1996) co workers. Supervisors may also affect well-being through their impact on interactional injustice. Interactional injustice refers to the perceptions of lowquality interpersonal treatment experienced by individuals within a work environment (Bies, 2001). A sample of behaviors exhibited by a supervisor that could be perceived as interactional injustice may include not paying attention to subordinates concerns, not displaying any empathy for an employees quandary, not treating employees in a fair manner, betraying confidences, and not interacting with employees in a civil manner. These examples are by no means exhaustive but are examples of forms of injustice that share the common thread of being interpersonal in nature and at the dyadic level.Although the other two forms of injustice (procedural and distributive) have received more empirical scrutiny, Mikula, Petrik, and Tanzer (1990) report findings that a large portion of perceived injustices concern the manner in which people were treated interpersonally rather than the procedural or distributive elements in a job.Organizational scholars have empirically linked justice evaluations to a host of organizational outcomes such as organizational citizenship (Skarlicki & Latham, 1996), job satisfaction (Parker, Baltes, & Christiansen,1997), and retaliation (Skarlicki, Folger, & Tesluk, 1999). However, research into the relationship between interactional justice and employee health variables is lacking (Elovainio, Kivimaki, & Helkama, 2001). Articles do exist, however, that link these two variables through indirect mechanisms. Thus, drawing on this thin literature, we reason supervisor interactional injustice to have negative impact on employee stress. More specifically, we propose that abusive supervisors through unjust interactions negatively affect

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employees pride and self-esteem, which serially affects the level of stress they encounter at work. Subordinates who experience interactional justice come to trust and respect their leaders. We argue that this, in turn, is likely to result in high quality relationships with their supervisors, which will have positive effects on employees psychological well-being and performance on the job. A meta analysis exploring this proposition found high-quality relationships between supervisor and follower to be positively correlated to job performance, satisfaction with supervision, overall satisfaction, commitment, lack of role conflict, and low turnover intentions (Gerstner & Day, 1997). Conversely, when passive or abusive supervisors behave in an unjust manner, employees may deem these interactional injustices to be a breach of the psychological contract. These employees, in turn, are more likely to feel stress and anger and be moved to retaliate (see Rousseau, 1995).

Job Content and Control As phrased by Sauter et al. (1990, p. 1153), narrow, fragmented, invariant and shortcycle tasks that provide little stimulation, allow little use of skills or expression of creativity and have little intrinsic meaning for workers are considered as stress provokers in the NIOSH content model of workplace stressors. There is now substantial evidence that job characteristics such as skill use, skill variety, and autonomy are associated with both motivation and individual mental health (Fried & Ferris, 1987; Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Kelloway & Barling, 1991; Parker & Wall, 1998). Because organizational leaders are responsible for job design and task assignment, they have the potential to influence the content of jobs. Perhaps most significantly, supervisors and managers directly affect the amount of control experienced by employees.The notion that personal control is beneficial to psychological and physiological well-being is not new. Organizational scholars have

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confirmed repeatedly the convincing relationship between job control and health and lack of job control and ill health (e.g., Bosma, Stransfeld, & Marmot, 1998; Shirom, Melamed, & Nir-Dotan, 2000; Tetrick, Slack, DaSilva, & Sinclair, 2000). Control, autonomy, and decision latitude are increasingly referred to,often interchangeably, as organizational practices that promote job performance. Within research circles, control has long been regarded as a critical element in job redesign research to promote performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1980) and worker mental health (Wall & Clegg, 1981). Not surprisingly, the role of job control in stressstrain process has been receiving increased investigation. The primary impetus for this line of research has largely been a result of Karaseks (1979) demand-control-support model. Karasek and Theorell (1990) argue that a healthy workplace is one where the workers level of demand on the job is met with appropriate levels of control, promoting growth and development on the job. Conversely, a job in which demands are high and control is low is posited to result in job strain and burnout. Empirical findings, however, have not supported a moderating pattern between job control and employee health (Pomaki & Maes, 2002). Nonetheless, increasing empirical evidence accumulates in the literature on the importance of job control in promoting well-being (see Karasek & Theorell, 1990). Although certain organizational level policies restrain the amount of control one has on the job (Thomas & Ganster, 1995), following Karasek and Theorells (1990) model, we argue that an employees immediate supervisor, given behavioral and psychological proximity to his or her followers, has a vast influence on an employees perceived level of job control. Given that passive leaders either avoid the responsibilities of their position or only step in during crisis situations, it is unlikely that they will take the necessary time to engage in a stress prevention strategy such as attempting to positively influence an employees perception of control. With respect to abusive supervisors who occupy an immediate leadership role, we suggest that theirmunique position may enable them to

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significantly limit employees job control across two areasenvironmental control and perceived control.Environmental control refers to the measure of alternatives the employee is given by the supervisor, the organization, or the immediate work environment (Spector, 1998). In most instances, the specified amount of control remains at the discretion of the employees immediate supervisor. For instance, Johansson, Aronsson, and Lindstrom (1978) found that jobs that taxed employees cognitive ability while giving employees little control of the pace of work (machine controlled) resulted in increased health disorders, job strain, and job dissatisfaction. Abusive leaders exert tight control over their environment (Offermann & Hellmann, 1996), and by controlling their environment,mthey are able to control the people within it. It is this control these types of leaders mobilize in abusing their power. Environments in which leaders are granted the power to control work demands present an ideal situation for abusive supervisors to exercise their power. Perceived control is a measure of the alternatives individuals believe they have (Spector, 1998). It is possible, even with control, for the individual to perceive the situation to be out of control. For instance, Steers and Rhodes (1978) have shown a small degree of absenteeism to be healthy for an organization as it allowed employees to temporarily escape the stressful conditions. Many organizations subscribe to this notion and have set policies that allow employees to be absent from work when they feel it is needed, for example, for family or personal responsibilities. Nonetheless, individuals may not trust management (Kramer,1999) enough to exercise their control, instead fearing that they might be disciplined or punished. In a relationship that is already characterized by power and status differences, employees who have to deal with abusive supervisors may, out of distrust or fear, choose not to approach them. In addition, individuals may also feel low job control when they lack self-efficacy. Self-efficacy (a form of perceived control) refers to a persons conviction that he or she can accomplish a certain task successfully (Bandura,1997). Given the ability to change the pace

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of work, work environment, or resources, an individual with low self-efficacy will likely feel incapable of accomplishing the work. This problem is compounded when this same individual reports to an abusive or passive supervisor. Given that an individuals self-efficacy can be influenced by words and actions directed at the individual (Bandura, 1997), verbally abusive supervisors who constantly put down their workers are most likely to have an adverse effect on their employees self-efficacy. Passive leaders, relative to transformational leaders, are often out of touch with the needs of their employees. To that extent, they will be less likely to engage in encouraging conversations and provide the type of positive feedback that may elevate an employees self-esteem. In either case, when employees are faced with a jobrelated setback and must take control, their run-down self-efficacy will make this an arduous task. Parkes, Mendham, and von Rabenau (1994) found that a job that entails high demands but low control prompts ill health in employees only when support is low. This suggests that in jobs where there is an inherently high level of demands and low control and in jobs where supervisors have little influence on job demands or control, the amount of support extended by the supervisor to the employees has the potential to help cushion the psychological and physiological impact of the work environment. Thus, it is not hard to imagine an unskilled leader in this situation (a) failing to recognize employees struggle in coping with a highdemand, low-control job, and consequently (b) failing to extend the necessary support for the employees in such jobs. Drawing on past research (Tepper, 2000), it is also conceivable that abusive supervisors, recognizing employees struggle with the work conditions, intentionally withdraw support for their employees as a form of passive aggression toward them (Neuman & Baron, 1998).

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