The Problem of The Messianic Secret

T H E P R O B L E M O F T H E MESSIANIC S E C R E T
BY
DAVID E. AUNE
Chicago
WILLIAM W R E D E is still with us. His radical solution to the problem of the messianic secret in the Gospel of Mark is a vigorously debated today as it was when his book, Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien, was first published sixty-eight years ago 1 ). This continued interest is primarily due to the problems which W R E D E raised concerning the interpretation of the text of Mark in its present form 2 ). Those problems necessitated the annulment of the illegitimate marriage between the "Markan hypothesis" and liberal theology. ALBERT SCHWEITZER, whose book Das Messianitts- und Leidensgeheimnis also appeared in 1901, was in complete agreement over the relevance of the problems which were raised by W R E D E . Although his answers were diametrically opposed to those of W R E D E , SCHWEITZER clearly recognized that it was the assumptions held in common with W R E D E and himself which would prove fatal to liberal theology's version of the Markan hypothesis, and not one or the other of their solutions. The basic difference in viewpoint between W R E D E and SCHWEITZER is still maintained in a modified and developed form in current trends of New Testament research. While W R E D E worked from the standpoint of literary criticism and arrived at a position of ' 'thoroughgoing skepticism" 3 ), SCHWEITZER arrived at his position of "thoroughgoing eschatology" by means of historical criticism. Methodologically, W R E D E was one of the more significant predecessors of the later formgeschichtliche and redaktionsgeschichtliche schools of New Testament criticism. SCHWEITZER'S consistent eschatology provided the impetus for a new emphasis on the
x ) W I L H E L M W R E D E , Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien (Gttingen : V a n d e n h o e c k & R u p r e c h t , 1901). T h e b o o k w a s r e p r i n t e d in 1963. 2 ) A L B E R T S C H W E I T Z E R raised a l m o s t identical questions in The Quest of the Historical Jesus, t r a n s . W . M o n t g o m e r y (New Y o r k : T h e Macmillan C o m p a n y , 1909), p p . 334"36. 3 ) Ibid., p . 330.
Novum Testamentum, XI
DAVID E.
AUNE
eschatology of Jesus and the early Church on the part of New Testament scholars. The realized eschatology of C. H. DODD and R U D O L F OTTO arose in reaction to SCHWEITZER, while a more mediating position developed in the direction of the sich realisierende eschatology of JOACHIM JEREMAS. T. W. MANSON, a distinguished adherent of realized eschatology, was convinced that ". . . the farther we travel along the Wredestrasse, the clearer it becomes that it is the road to nowhere" 1 ). In his recent review of the second edition of the collection of essays in honor of C. H. DODD in which the quotation from MANSON was found, NORMAN P E R R I N rather sanguinely asserted that ' T h e Wredestrasse Becomes the Hauptstrasse" 2 ). The former has clearly rejected the stone, while the latter has made it head of the corner. Summary
WREDE
and Criticism of Wrede s
Hypothesis
The primary features of the Markan account which interested were those which were linked together by what he supposed to be a common secrecy motif: (i) Jesus commanded the demons to keep silence, for they recognized him (Mk. i 23 ff., 34, iii 11 ff., 6 f., ix 20), (2) Those who were healed by Jesus were enjoined to remain silent (Mk. 144, 43, vii 36, viii 26), (3) His disciples were ordered not to reveal that he was the Messiah after Peter's confession (Mk. viii 30), (4) Jesus asked his disciples not to speak of the Transfiguration until after the Resurrection (Mk. ix 9), and (5) Jesus frequently withdrew from the crowd to go on secret trips with his disciples and gave private instruction to them (Mk. iv 10-13, 34, vii 17-23, ix 28 ff., viii 1, ix 31, 32-34, xiii 3 ff.). W R E D E concluded that the messianic secret in Mark was a theo logical and apologetic device of the early Christian community which the second evangelist heightened and brought to literary expression 3 ). According to W R E D E , Jesus had made no explicit or implicit messianic claims during his lifetime. Mark ix 9 provided strong evidence for him that the belief that Jesus was the Messiah did not arise until after the Resurrection. St. Mark and his pre decessors firmly believed that Jesus was the Messiah, a fact that
*) W M A N S O N , " T h e Life of J e s u s Some T e n d e n c i e s in P r e s e n t - d a y R e s e a r c h " , The Background of the New Testament and its Eschatology, ed W D D a v i e s a n d D D a u b e (Cambridge T h e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1956), 2 i 6 2 ) N O R M A N P E R R I N , " T h e W r e d e s t r a s s e Becomes t h e H a u p t s t r a s s e A R e v i e w A r t i c l e , " Journal of Religion, X L V I (1966), 296-300 3 ) W R E D E himself t h o u g h t t h e messianic secret t o be older t h a n Mark, 145
THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET
was confirmed for them by his authoritative words and miraculous deeds 1 ). The historical traditions at their disposal, however, were non-messianic in character. Jesus had not fulfilled Jewish messianic expectation, but had been rejected and crucified. By resorting to the theory of the messianic secret, which viewed Jesus' messiahship as divinely concealed, Mark was able to reconcile the faith of the Church in Jesus the Messiah with the historical traditions which seemed to deny that belief. WREDE'S view of the nature of Mark as a source for reconstructing the life of Jesus and his emphasis on the priority of literary criticism form the foundation of his investigation. He was very conscious that the authors of our Gospels viewed Jesus from the perspective of their own time, and that they wrote of him from the standpoint of the faith of the Christian community and for the needs of that community 2 ). The decisive questions for WREDE were these: (i) What do we know about the life of Jesus? and (2) What do we know of the history of the oldest views and conceptions of his life ? 3) In other words, what elements of the synoptic tradition derive from Jesus himself and what elements from the earliest Christian community ? WREDE would certainly have agreed with one of his modern advocates, T. A. BURKILL: "St. Mark's gospel is essentially a soteriological document in which history is subservient to the ology" 4 ). With regard to the question of the priority of literary criticism over historical criticism, WREDE was insistent that the purely exegetical question of the understanding of the messianic secret by Mark himself was logically prior to the historical question of its place and meaning in the life of Jesus. 'The first task must always and only be to illuminate thoroughly the reports from their own spirit ; to ask what the narrator wanted to say to his readers in his time. This task must be pressed to its conclusion and form the basis of criticism" 5 ). In this formal claim for the priority of literary criticism WREDE was certainly correct, for in the interpretation of historical documents the question of meaning is always prior to the
) W R E D E , p. 16. ) W R E D E , p . 2. 3 ) W R E D E , p. I .
2 x
) T . A. B U R K I L L , " C o n c e r n i n g S t . M a r k ' s C o n c e p t i o n of S e c r e c y " , Hibbert Journal, L V (i956-57)> 5

5
) W R E D E , pp.
2-3.
DAVID E. AUNE
question of t r u t h 1 ). I have designated W R E D E ' S claim as "formal" for in practise he frequently raises historical questions which are methodologically irrelevant 2 ) Since literary criticism is itself incapable of making historical judgments, W R E D E ' S procedure is most vulnerable a t this point. His historical questions, however, were undoubtedly formulated in reaction to the romantic and psychological interpretations of the life of Jesus characteristic of his contemporaries 3 ) W R E D E himself stressed the necessity of moving away from the subjective interpretations of the Markan account, and stressed the need for dealing with the text as it is The publication of W R E D E ' S book met with immediate criticism in both Germany and England. One of the earliest and most
thorough criticisms of W R E D E was offered by A. SCHWEITZER in the
final chapter of his epoch-making book, The Quest of the Historical Jesus. SCHWEITZER was eager to recognize the critical objections which he and W R E D E held in common: (i) The impossibility of tracing t h e psychological development of Jesus in the Markan narrative 4 ), (2) The impossibility of distinguishing between the " k e r n a l " and the " h u s k " of purportedly historical events in Mark. The gospel is either historical or unhistorical as it stands, no mediating position is permissible, (3) The difficulty of discovering connecting links between the pericopes in the Markan narrative. There is a great deal of contradiction and unintelligibility in the narrative as it stands. (4) The problems raised by the self-contra dictory elements are similar. (5) The lack of connection is due to the fact that two representations of the life of Jesus are superimposed in Mark: the historical and the theological. "This dogmatic element is the Messianic secret of Jesus and all the secrets and concealments which go along with i t " 5 ) . SCHWEITZER then concludes,
The inconsistency between the public life of Jesus and His Messianic claim lies either m the nature of the Jewish Messianic conception, or m the re presentation of the Evangelist There is, on the one hand, the eschatological solution, which at one stroke raises the Marcan account as it stands, with all its disconnectedness and inconsistencies, into genuine history, and there is,
x ) KNOX C. HILL, Interpreting Literature (Chicago and London The University of Chicago Press, 1966), io 2 ) Cf E R I K S J O B E R G , Der verborgene Menschensohn in den Evangelien (Lund C W Gleerup, 1955), 133 ff
3
WREDE,
vi,
) Ibid., pp 13, 15 5 ) SCHWEITZER, pp 332-36
on the other hand, the literary solution, which regards the incongruous dogmatic element as interpolated by the earliest Evangelist into the tradition and therefore strikes out the Messianic claim altogether from the historical Life of Jesus. x)
The principle by which W R E D E distinguishes the historical from the theological elements in Mark is the contradictions which he finds everywhere in the narrative 2 ). Every inexplicable element in the narrative is related to the dogma of the concealment of Jesus' messianic dignity, which W R E D E considers to be the only dogmatic consideration underlying the narrative. SCHWEITZER finds three "messianic facts" in the Markan narrative which have forced W R E D E to go beyond the bounds of literary criticism: (i) the triumphal entry, (2) Peter's confession at Caesarea Philippi, and (3) the high priest's knowledge of Jesus' messiahship 3 ). " I n each case W R E D E finds himself obliged to refer these to tradition instead of to the literary conception of Mark. This tradition undermines his literary hypothesis, for the conception of a tradition always involves the possibility of genuine historical elements" 4 ). In spite of W R E D E ' S intention to analyze the Markan text in and of itself to discover the principle by which it was composed, he is forced to set aside the purely literary version of the messianic secret and to see in Mark the end result of a preliterary process of theological development 5 ). In each of the three events adduced by SCHWEITZER, W R E D E is forced to admit that another tradition which places a public messianic claim back into the life of Jesus has intruded into the Markan narrative. Each of these instances forced W R E D E to abandon the secrecy motif 6 ). A further criticism of SCHWEITZER was directed toward the assumption of W R E D E that Jesus' messiahship was not recognized until after the Resurrection :
But how did the appearance of the risen Jesus suddenly become for them a proof of his Messiahship and the basis of their eschatology ? That Wrede !) Ibid., p. 337.
2
) W R E D E , p . 21 : " I n general his description is t o o confused t o gain a clear

) S C H W E I T Z E R , p p . 340-42.
picture directly from it."

3
) Ibid., p . 342. ) It is precisely here that W R E D E approximates the form critical method. The necessity of form criticism arose because of the breakdown of the literary method. e ) This is also true of other pericopes such as Blind Bartimaeus.
5
DAVID E AUNE
fails to explain, and so makes this ' event an historical' miracle which in reality is harder to believe than the supernatural event x)
W R E D E ' S theory was also rejected by such contemporaries as A

JULICHER, J WEISS, W SANDAY, A S PEAKE, F C BURKITT,
A E J RAWLINSON and C J CADOUX Most of these scholars have followed t h e same line of criticism as that of SCHWEITZER I n England, WILLIAM SANDAY expressed a lengthy reaction to both
the works of W R E D E and SCHWEITZER m his 1907 book, The Life
of Jesus in Recent Research His basic criticism was that W R E D E immediately leaped t o the conclusion t h a t any appearance of contradiction or incoherence in the narrative was evidence for its unhistoncity 2 ) SANDAY'S criticisms paralleled those of SCHWEITZER and added nothing essentially new His arguments were accepted m England as proving the ''utter inadequacy of W R E D E ' S hypo thesis in its original form" 3 ) SANDAY, who referred to W R E D E ' S theory as a ''strange hypothesis' ' 4 ) , and claimed that his recon struction of gospel history was accepted by no one, would be quite surprised to witness the continued debate today 5 ) A E J RAWLINSON, on the other hand, followed a different line of criticism Recognizing a ''residuum of t r u t h " m W R E D E ' S theory, he made t h e following concessions (1) the demonic recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus represents a Markan theory of the super natural knowledge of demons, (2) Mark's representation of the disciples as spiritually blind was derived from the theory that their hearts were supernaturally hardened, (3) private instruction may have been a literary device for t h e insertion of catechetical in struction, (4) some injunctions to secrecy were the overworking of the fact that Jesus did give such commands 6 ) In contemporary New Testament research the situation is much the same as it was m 1907 English and American critics of W R E D E have generally not improved the arsenal of criticism offered initially by SCHWEITZER and then reiterated and expanded by
SANDAY and RAWLINSON
*) SCHWEITZER,
2
LIGHTFOOT and
BURKILL
345
) W I L L I A M SANDAY, The Life of Christ in Recent Research (Oxford T h e Clarendon Press 1907) pp 70 71 3 ) VINCENT TAYLOR ' Unsolved New Testament Problems The Messianic Secret m Mark" The Expository Times LIX (1947 48) 146
4
) SANDAY
75 47 f
5
e
) Ibid , j6
) TAYLOR,
remain among the few exceptions to the nearly unanimous rejection of W R E D E ' S hypothesis among the New Testament scholars of Great Britain 1 ). In a recent exchange between VINCENT TAYLOR and T. A. B U R K I L L in the pages of the Hibbert Journal 2 ), the traditional criticisms levelled at W R E D E b y TAYLOR in his commentary on Mark are answered seriatim by BURKILL. The inadequacy and superficiality of the latter's attempted refutations demonstrates the penetrating nature of SCHWEITZER'S line of criticism. TAYLOR himself sees the secrecy motif as penetrating the entire narrative, thus testifying to its historicity in the life of Jesus 3 ). This same view has been expressed by J U L I U S SCHNIEWIND : ' T h i s secret stands behind every single pericope" 4 ). And again, "W. W R E D E , who was the first to observe the messianic secret, considered all these traits as the reworking of the original figure of Jesus. I t will be shown, however, that this secret stands behind every narrative and every word of Jesus in our Evangelist" 5 ). W R E D E ' S hypothesis was accepted in varying forms by W.
BOUSSET, DIBELIUS. E. LOHMEYER, H. EBELING, R. BULTMANN and M.
The modification of W R E D E ' S theory by contemporary adherents of the form critical school has been motivated by the conviction that not all of the evidence adduced by W R E D E in support of his hypothesis is of the same kind 6 ). At the suggestion
of H A N S CONZELMANN and EDUARD SCHWEIZER, ULRICH L U Z has
recently attempted to distinguish between a Wundergeheimnis and a Messiasgeheimnis in Mark. While the latter is said to refer to the Christ of the post-Easter kerygma, Luz finds that the former is a product of the Hellenistic theios anr conception referring to the Jesus of history 7 ). The present situation in New Testament research, therefore, witnesses a continuation of the two solutions originally offered b y
x ) VINCENT TAYLOR, "The Messianic Secret in Mark: A Rejoinder to the Rev. Dr. T. A. Burkill", Hibbert Journal, LV (1956-57), p. 243. 2 ) B U R K I L L , "Concerning . . . " , a n d T A Y L O R , " T h e M e s s i a n i c . . . " , Hibbert Journal, 3 ) T A Y L O R " U n s o l v e d . . . , " p p . 148-50. 4 ) J. SCHNIEWIND, Das Evanglium nach Markus, Das Neue Testament Deutsch, ed. Paul Althaus (Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1952), p. 41. 5 ) Ibid., p. 45. e ) T. A. BURKILL, Mysterious Revelation (New York: Cornell University Press, 1963), p. 210. 7 ) ULRICH LUZ, "Das Geheimnismotiv und die Markinische Christologie", Zeitschrift fr die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, LVI (1965), p. 28.
DAVID E. AUNE
W R E D E and SCHWEITZER with one important exception. The rise of Formgeschichte has enabled a number of German scholars ostensibly to legitimize their frequent use of literary criteria to form historical judgments. In spite of the refinements made by both camps, there remains but two solutions to the problem, the literary and the historical.
The Messianic
Secret in its Historical
Setting
A number of theories have been elaborated in the attempt to interpret the messianic secret as an historical phenomenon in the life of Jesus. Each of the three which we shall summarize has met with a certain degree of success. None of them, however, has been completely satisfactory. The first and most influential attempt (at least negatively) to find an historical setting for the phenomena presented by the second evangelist was made by A. SCHWEITZER. Following the lead of JOHANNES W E I S S , he interpreted the life of Jesus from the standpoint of consistent eschatology. The theological elements of the Markan account which W R E D E ascribed to the early Christian community and primarily to the evangelist himself, were attributed by SCHWEITZER to Jesus. "For, after all, why should not Jesus think in terms of doctrine, and make history in action, just as well as a poor Evangelist can do it on paper, under the pressure of the theological interests of the primitive community" 1 ). The secrecy motif was thought by SCHWEITZER to cohere with Jesus' eschatologically-oriented conception of himself as the Messias Designatus. His account of Jesus' life is divided into two periods. During the first part of Jesus' year of ministry, he was convinced that the kingdom of God would break in by harvest time. The sending out of the Twelve was the prelude to this expectation. When the kingdom did not appear, the second period began in which Jesus realized that he himself would have to go to Jerusalem and die in order to compel the coming of the kingdom of God. He expected to be vindicated by God and return as the enthroned judge of the world in fulfillment of current Jewish messianic expectations. In one of the most comprehensive and constructive criticisms of SCHWEITZER which has yet appeared, H. B. KOSSEN has reduced
x
SCHWEITZER, p.
350.
SCHWEITZER'S position to three basic points of departure: (i) the succession of reports in Mark must be viewed as historically valid, (2) in the framework of Mark a series of speeches can be inserted (as in Matthew), (3) the chronology of Mark derives from insight into the eschatologically defined self-consciousness of Jesus. KOSSEN concludes t h a t each of these points is indefensible and asserts a . . . we must conclude t h a t no historically reliable overview concerning the public appearance [of Jesus] can be deduced from the synoptics, since the nature of the sources does not allow i t " 1 ) . Although KOSSEN has removed some of the major weaknesses of SCHWEITZER'S reconstruction, his attitude toward the sources would still be strongly contested by the English school of realized escha tology 2 ) . SCHWEITZER'S reconstruction of the life of Jesus, in spite of the refinements of KOSSEN, has been rejected by the majority of New Testament scholars. Yet another a t t e m p t to place the messianic secret into a coherent historical context has produced a theory with both a positive and negative aspect which is far older t h a n W R E D E ' S hypothesis. Negatively, the silence on the part of Jesus with regard to his own Messiahship has been attributed to a '"prudential" motive. Advo cates of this theory include A. S. PEAKE, H. J . HOLTZMANN, E. MEYER, M. GOGUEL, J . MACKINNON and C. J. CADOUX. According to this view, Jesus hesitated to make an open messianic claim for fear t h a t it would produce a political revolution and other unsavory results which would only hinder his ministry. Positively, it has been held t h a t Jesus did not openly claim to be the Messiah during his ministry because his own conception of the messianic office was quite different from t h a t of his contemporaries. Jesus spiritualized the Jewish messianic expectations, which were primarily politically oriented. Through the use of the relatively neutral title "Son of man", Jesus reinterpreted the messianic role and filled it with new meaning. Advocates of this view, which is popular in both England and America, include O. CULLMANN, E. STAUFFER and V.
) H. B. KOSSEN, Op Zoek naar de Historische Jezus: Een Studie over Albert Schweitzers Visie op Jezus* Leven (Assen: Van Gorcum & Comp. N.V., i960), pp. 267-68. 2 ) MANSON, p. 213: " I am increasingly convinced that the Marcan storypresents in the main an orderly and logical development; and that this development or framework has as good a title to be considered reliable his torical material as any particular anecdote incorporated in it."
IO
DAVID E AUNE
TAYLOR. Both W R E D E X ) and SCHWEITZER 2) disagree with this
position, claiming that there is no positive indication in Mark t h a t this is t h e case One of the latest and most comprehensive attempts to place the messianic secret withm its historical context is the study by ERIC SJOBERG, Der verborgene Menschensohn in den Evangelien, (1955) According to SJOBERG there were two mam forms of the concept of the hidden messiah m Judaism (1) the apocalyptic belief m a messiah concealed in heaven until the eschaton, and (2) the rabbinic conception of a messiah already born and who lives unknown somewhere on t h e earth until the time when he assumes the mes sianic office at the end of the age 3 ) Although SJOBERG considered the latter concept to be a rabbinic development which belonged to a later time than that of Jesus, the Dead Sea Scrolls now provide evidence t h a t the Essenes of Qumran held a similar conception (iQ Sa 11 n ) I t was SJOBERG'S view that "only the conception of a messiah hidden in heavenabove all the Son of man conception m apocalypticremains as a Jewish background for the early Christian faith in a concealed Messiah" 4) The title of SJOBERG'S book reveals the degree of his dependence on the pseudepigraphal writings I Enoch and IV Ezra, both of which develop the Danielle figure of the Son of man to a further degree In these writings SJOBERG sees a double revelation of the Son of man which further suits his purpose (1) a special revelation is given to the elect while the messianic figure is still concealed, and (2) a revelation is even tually granted to everyone at the eschaton 5 ) Further, secrets revealed to the elect should not be betrayed to outsiders, since the limitation of the revelation to the faithful occurs m accordance with 6 the divine will ) Beginning with the Jewish belief that the revelation of the Messiah signified the end of this age and t h e dawn of the eschatological age of salvation, SJOBERG assumes that if the Messiah should appear on earth before the eschaton, he must necessarily appear as 7 one hidden ) From t h e standpoint of Jewish apocalyptic, then,
*) WREDE
2 3
pp
14 41
18 332
) )
SCHWEITZER SJOBERG
) 5 ) ) 7 )
Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid
99 46 24 125
II
the early Christian belief in Jesus as the Son of man could only be expressed in terms of a temporarily concealed Son of man. 'The messianic secret was a necessary and thoroughly meaningful element in the early Christian faith in Jesus as the Son of manMessiah' ' 1 ). The Markan representation of the messianic secret can therefore be satisfactorily understood as an historical phenomenon in the life of Jesus 2 ). SJOBERG'S theory has not gone without criticism. R. E. C. FORMESYN has offered two main objections: (i) the notion of a hidden Messiah did not really exist in Jewish apocalyptic thought at the time of Jesus' ministry, and (2) the apocalyptic notion of the hiddenness of the Messiah is entirely different from the notion of secrecy in Mark 3 ). An earlier and more comprehensive criticism of SJOBERG was made by T. A. BURKILL 4). He finds many inadequacies in the book, especially those arising from a failure on SJOBERG'S part to recognize the "rich variety of motives entailed in the gospel traditions", and also to an overzealous desire to prove the ultimate historical basis that Jesus believed himself to be a temporarily concealed Son of man destined to be revealed in glory as God's plenipotentiary and judge of the world 5 ). These generalizations reveal only the prejudices of BURKILL rather than the weaknesses of SJOBERG. BURKILL concludes his criticism with this judgment:
Accordingly, while the evidence scarcely warrants the view that Jesus actually thought of himself as the hidden Son of Man, Dr. Sjoberg is on firm ground when he maintains that St. Mark's doctrine of the messianic mystery is not imposed ab extra upon an utterly alien tradition. Various secrecy motifs were already present in the materials he uses, and the notion of hiddenness, associated with a form of divine predestinarianism, may well have been exemplified, in the manner outlined, in the teaching of Jesus himself e ).
Perhaps SJOBERG'S weakest point is his assumption of the early date of the Similitudes of Enoch (I Enoch 37-71) and IV Ezra. The absence of the former from the Qumran discoveries may indi) Ibid., p . 126. ) Ibid. 3 ) R. E. C. FORMESYN, "Was there a Pronominal Connection for the Bar Nasha Self -designation ?", Novum Testamentum, VIII (1966), pp. 6-7. 4 ) T. A. BURKILL, "The Hidden Son of Man in St. Mark's Gospel", Zeitschrift fr die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, L H (1961), pp. 206-13. 5 ) Ibid., p . 206. e ) Ibid., p . 2 1 3 .
2 x
12
DAVID E. AUNE
cate t h a t they were not composed before the middle of the first century A.D. IV Ezra is generally dated toward the end of the first century A.D. In a recent article on the question of the messianic secret, EDUARD SCHWEIZER has confirmed BURKILL'S judgment that the most significant contribution of SJOBERG is the demonstration of the importance of the secrecy motif in pre-Markan tradition (though hardly in a manner BURKILL would have anticipated) ). According
to SCHWEIZER, SJOBERG'S remarks on such passages as Cor. ii 6ff. ;
Rom. xvi 25 ff. ; Col. i 26 ff., ii 2 f., Eph. iii 1 ff. and 1 Tim. iii 16 demonstrate the effects that the secrecy motifs from Jewish apocalyptic had on early Christian theology. "Here, in fact, is the background for Mark's own point of departure from which he brings into relief his own, essentially different emphasis" 2 ). Elements of the synoptic tradition which belong to pre-Markan tradition include: (1) Jesus' commands that the demons keep silence, (2) healings in secluded places, (3) perhaps the silencing of those healed until after they were certified by the priest, and (4) the idea of parables needing interpretation 3 ). This assumption demolishes BULTMANN'S contention that the literary location of the secrecy motif is only in the editorial sentences of the evangelist, not in the body of pre-Markan tradition itself 4 ). For SJOBERG, the fact that the secrecy motif must be located in pre-Markan tradition as well as in the Markan redaction was an important line of evidence which pointed to the historicity of the secret because of its multiple attestation. SCHWEIZER, on the other hand, has viewed the apoca lyptic influence on the early Christian community as the catalyst which eventually produced the messianic secret. This brief survey of attempts to interpret the messianic secret as an historical phenomenon in the life of Jesus leads us to a number of significant conclusions. First of all, none of the attempts to replace W R E D E ' S theory with one which more satisfactorily accounts for the phenomena recorded by the second evangelist has been accepted as being entirely convincing. The recent attempt by
) E D U A R D S C H E I T Z E R , " Z u r F r a g e des Messiasgeheimnisse bei M a r k u s , " Zeitschrift fur die neutestamenthche Wissenschaft, L V I (1965), p p 1-8 2 ) Ibid , 3 ) Ibid See B U R K I L L ' S discussion in " T h e H i d d e n . . ., " p p 198-205 4 ) R U D O L F B U L T M A N N , Theology of the New Testament, trans. Kendrick Grobel, I (Charles S c n b n e r ' s Sons, 1951), p . 32
x

SJOBERG
13
along different lines only serves to emphasize this point. Secondly, the most incisive and effective criticism of W R E D E remains that of A. SCHWEITZER, whose arguments have never satisfactorily been rebutted. SCHWEITZER'S own position has been substantially strengthened by the modifications of K O S S E N 1 ) . Finally it must be concluded that any attempt to view the messianic secret as historical shoud proceed along at least two lines: (1) it must be more closely demonstrated that the secrecy motif coheres with what is known of the words and deeds of Jesus, and (2) it must be demonstrated that the life of Jesus is not only coherent with his messianic self-consciousness, but convincingly so. This line of argument is necessarily a continuation of that originally offered by S C H W E I T Z E R 2 ) , but with one significant advantage. That is the availability of an entire library of an apocalyptic Jewish sect whose chronological limits can be fixed with a fair degree of certainty : the Dead Sea Scrolls of the Qumran sectarians. The Significance of the Qumran Texts
The discovery and continued publication of the Dead Sea Scrolls is an event of crucial importance for the student of Christian origins. For the first time the historian has ready access to an extensive body of literature which must chronologically be limited to the period bounded by the middle of the first century B.C. on the one hand, and the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 on the other. The historical significance of these texts is that they were produced with the community for the community 3 ). The possibility of distortion on the part of disinterested commentators, or unsympathetic redaction or interpolation is thus eliminated. Although the value of the Qumran texts for the historian of early Christianity is immense, it is quite safe to say that their potential has hardly been tapped 4 ). Whether or not an extensive use of the Qumran literature in the present context is justified will become evident in the three areas of comparison and contrast which I
) These essentially drop the two-fold division of Jesus' eschatological expectation, and rely more heavily on the place of the Old Testament in his self-consciousness. 2 ) Supra, pp. 4 f. 3 ) On the whole, the statements regarding the Essenes preserved in Philo, Josephus and Pliny are remarkably confirmed by the scrolls themselves.
4 ) F . C. G R A N T , Ancient Judaism Macmillan C o m p a n y , 1959), p . 19.
and the New Testament
(New Y o r k : T h e
14
DAVID E . AUNE
propose to discuss: () regard for and use of the Old Testament, (2) views on determinism and predestination, and (3) messianic beliefs. 1. Though the Essenes of the Dead Sea community constitute an apocalyptic sect, nothing is more remarkable than the dearth of historical prediction and the absence of cosmological speculation from their writings. This is primarily due to two factors: (1) they were consciously living in the final age which was a time of fulfill ment of previous prophecy and not a time for a renewed movement of the prophetic spirit, and (2) their rigorous adherence t o the Law and t h e Prophets left no room for t h e cosmological speculation characteristic of later heterodox Jewish and Gnostic t h o u g h t x ) . Since all life and thought were defined in Qumran in terms of their understanding of the Old Testament, t o that degree they were like their Jewish contemporaries 2 ) . If the Scriptures were of crucial importance for the self-consciousness of the Qumran sectarians and especially for their founder and early leader the Teacher of Right eousness, then their beliefs cannot a priori be relegated to t h e fanatical periphery of first century Judaism. The zeal which the community directed toward the rigorous study of the Scriptures may be typified b y the opening lines of the Manual of Discipline (iQ S). I n an allusion to Deuteronomy vi 4, they interpret the phrase " t o love God" by substituting the phrase " t o seek God". Since God can only be sought in the study and obedience of the Scriptures, their definition of "love" for God takes on a very unique connotation. I n a manner characteristic of Jewish apoca lyptic they viewed the Old Testament as a divine book which was partially " o p e n " to outsiders, b u t which also contained mysteries "closed" to those outside the community 3 ). The understanding of those mysteries were divinely revealed to the Teacher of Righte ousness and through him were conveyed to and perpetuated b y the entire sect (iQ ii 13-14; CD xx 31-32; i Q S 9). With the discovery of the Qumran scrolls, an entirely new genre of Biblical commentary was discoveredthe pesharim. In these commentaries,
x ) L E O N H A R D G O P P E L T , Jesus Paul and Judaism, t r a n s . E d w a r d S c h r o e d e r (New Y o r k : T h o m a s Nelson & Sons, 1964), p p . 48-9.
2
OTTO
BETZ,
Offenbarung
und
Schriftforschung
in
der
Qumransekte
( T b i n g e n : J . C. B . Mohr, i960), p . 3 . 3 ) O n t h i s whole q u e s t i o n see B E T Z , a n d also F . F . B R U C E , Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts (Grand R a p i d s , Michigan: W m . B . E e r d m a n s P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , 1959).
15
phrases of the Biblical text being studied are quoted together with their interpretation. The meaning of the text is usually applied to the history or present circumstances of the sect itself. This emphasis on the divine anticipation of the unfolding events of history is integrally connected with their view of divine determinism or predestination. 2. The Qumran community shares the apocalyptic emphasis on dualism and determinism 1 ). This consideration alone is not sufficient to place the Qumran sect at the periphery of Jewish thought. W. D. DAVIES has successfully demonstrated, in our opinion that it is impossible to make a rigid distinction between apocalyptic and pharisaic Judaism in the first century A.D. 2 ). The elements which really distinguish the Essenes from contemporary Jewish sectarian movements are two: (i) their rigoristic attitude toward the Scripture, (which included their emphasis on separation from the rest of Israel for reasons of purification), and (2) their consciousness of being the true Israel, an eschatological community to whom God had revealed his hidden mysteries. The esoteric knowledge of the community was based on their predestined election as well as on their belief that the will of God was limited to the Scriptures. Everything which happens occurs according to the will of God alone (iQ H i 20; i Q S xi 11). The entire course of world events has been entirely predetermined b y God (iQ H x i i g - n ; CD ii 7 ff.). It follows that man himself can do nothing to influence the will of God, directly or indirectly 3 ). These theoretical beliefs were also observed in practise. Although the community was completely prepared for the final eschatological battle in which they would play a prominent role, they nevertheless waited in readiness for God to initiate the conflict. Their faith in the certainty of God's intervention into the affairs of men produced an obedient and expectant passivity which stands in vivid contrast with the outspoken claims of contemporary messianic and eschatological movements (Acts viii 9 ff. ; Josephus Antiquities xx 5. 1 ; cf. Wars ii 13.4). In H E L M E R
1 ) MARTIN RIST, "Revelation: Introduction and Exegesis", The Interpreter's Bible, ed. George Arthur Buttrick et. al. (New York and Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1957), X H P- 347 if 2 ) W. D. DAVIES, "Apocalyptic and Pharisaism", Christian Origins and Judaism (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1962), pp. 19-303 ) HELMER RINGGREN, The Faith of Qumran, trans. Emile T. Sander (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1963), p. 50.
DAVID E. AUNE
RINGGREN'S discussion of Qumran's views of the acts of God in history, he cites i Q M xi 1-3, 9 f., and observes, We are here once again withm the framework of the Old Testament's teaching about God But against the background which has been sketched it is clear that even m this simple statement of God's acting m history there is an underlying idea of divine predestination of the course of the world and of history The fact that God's action is emphasized more strongly than the role of the human instrument m the event is probably connected with this idea of predestination x) In i Q S iii 13-iv 26, the double theory of predestination of the community is set forth, based on a dualistic system which is cos mological as well as ethical. Dominion [memsheleth] over the sons of light is in the hands of the Prince of light (iQ S iii 20-21), while the dominion over the sons of darkness is in the control of the Angel of darkness. The Prince of light influences the sons of light to act righteously, while the power of the Angel of darkness is such t h a t he causes both the sons of light and the sons of darkness to stray (iQ S iii 21-22). In addition to being characterized by dis obedience and stubbornness, the sons of darkness are also described as possessing ' 'blindness of eye and hardness of ear, stiffness of neck and heaviness of heart causing a man to walk in all the ways of darkness" (iQ S i v n ; cf. Mk. i v n - 1 2 ; Matt, xiii 11-16). A judicial blindness accompanies those who are predetermined to walk in darkness. The Qumran sectarians viewed their community as compre hending all of the sons of light who were identified with the full number of the elect. Those outside the community comprised the sons of darkness. The predeterminate will of God was revealed by an individual's membership (or lack of it) into the community. On the basis of this clearcut division, knowledge in the mysteries of God was believed to be limited to those within the society and withheld from those outside. As the leader of the original community, the Teacher of Righteousness was given divine insight into the mysteries of God contained in the Old Testament (iQpHab 7 4-5; i Q S viii 11-12). In the passage just cited from the Habakkuk commentary, it is claimed that God revealed all the mysteries of the words of his servants the prophets to the Teacher of Righteousness. Assuming the author of the Thanksgiving Hymns (iQ H) to be the Teacher of Righteousness, not only does he claim insight into the hidden
1
) Ibid , 6o.
I7
things of God (iQ H i 21, xi 16-17), but also t h a t this knowledge was given through the Spirit of God (iQ H xii 11-12 xiii 18-19). This revelation of the mysteries of God was then systematically conveyed to novitiates (all of whom must be Israelites, i Q S vi 13), and became the possession of the entire community (iQ S viii 11-12; i Q H iv 27-29, 27-28, xi 9 10; CD iii 13-14; i Q M x 10 11). On the other hand, the sons of darkness are not permitted to know the hidden secrets of God, for they are concealed from them (iQ S iv 6, ix 17, xi 5-6; i Q H iv 7, 25-26, viii 12 ff.). The perverse have not even attempted to learn the hidden matters of the Law (iQ S 8, 11), or to listen to the Prophets (iQpHab ii 6). The foolish of heart are incapable of understanding the significance of the mighty deeds (iQ H i 37), as well as past or future things (iQ Myst i 2-4. The blindness of Israel is an eschatological phenomenon which will only be terminated with God's judgment of iniquity and reward for righteousness. For Qumran, the present is still the "times of the blindness of Israel" (CD XV12-3), and under the oppressive dominion of Beliar (iQ M XIV9). Prophecies referring to the stubbornness and blindness of Israel are applied to the present (Hosea iv 16 in CD i 13 ; Isaiah xxvii 11 in CD 16-17). After the final punishment of the wicked and vindication of the righteous, the latter will be rewarded with complete knowledge and wisdom (iQ S iv 22). 3. The Qumran texts have considerably expanded the amount of literary evidence for Jewish messianic beliefs of the first century A.D. In spite of the complexity of their beliefs, and the variety of forms in which they are expressed, it is possible to reconstruct with a fair degree of accuracy the content of the sect's messianic expec tations. Considering the length of time during which most of the texts were composed, it is quite possible t h a t these beliefs were developed and refined during the history of the sect*). One of the difficulties in interpreting the Messianic expectation of the community concerns the word mashiach (usually translated "messiah" or "anointed"). The term is used in such a variety of ways t h a t the connotations of our word "Messiah" can easily prove to be misleading. I t is evident, for example, t h a t the "anointed ones" mentioned in CD ii 12, vi 1 and i Q M xi 7-8 are not Messiahs,
x
) J. STARCKY, "Les Quatre Etapes du Messianisme Qumran", Revue

2
Biblique, L X X (1963), pp. 481-505. Novum Testamen tum,
DAVID E. AUNE
in the technical sense of the term, but prophets. This equation is already found within the Old Testament itself (Psalm cv 15). On the other hand, mashiach can be understood in passages such as4Q Flor i 19 in the corporate sense of " t h e elect of Israel" (inter preting Psalm ii 2). However, both of these usages are clearly mar ginal in Qumran eschatological expectation Scholars such as HANS KOSMALA who attempt to find the corporate significance of mashiach in every reference where that word occurs are clearly on the wrong x track ). In a recent study on the meaning of the term mashiach in Jewish literature from 100 B.C to A.D 70, M. DE JONGE has arrived at some significant conclusions. Noting the fact t h a t few instances of the word mashiach occur at all in this period, he further observes t h a t the articular use of the term without a following genitive or possessive pronoun is rarely found. "This basic fact shows the relative unimportance of the term in the context of Jewish expec tations concerning the future, at least in the Jewish sources at our disposal for this period" 2 ) . Excluding data from IV Ezra and I I Baruch because of their late first century date 3 ) , DE JONGE proceeds to investigate each definite occurrence of the absolute term hammashiach in the relevant literature. He arrives at the following conclusions: (1) the use of mashiach is rare and does not neces sarily designate a future redeemer, (2) when used, the term denotes a special relationship to God which has many parallels in Biblical figures of the past, but the future element provokes intense ex pectation; there is a growing tendency to connect the expression with the expected king, (3) the calling and function are more important t h a n the individual who bears the designation, (4) the term mashiach itself is not as important as the context in which it characterizes the expected king, priest or prophet, (5) the expec tation of a future redeemer is not an integral part of Jewish escha tological t h o u g h t 4 ) .
*) HANS KOSMALA, "Das Verborgene und das Offenbarte," Hebrer EssenerChristen Studien zur Vorgeschichte der frhchristlichen Verkndigung, Vol I of Studia Post Biblica, ed A H De Boer, pp 266, 276, 15
3 ) Ibid , pp 145-6 The term "anointed one" is used absolutely m IV Ezra 12 32 and II Baruch 29 3 and 30 1 with reference to the eschatological Messianic King
4
2 ) M D E J O N G E , " T h e U s e of t h e W o r d ' A n o i n t e d ' m t h e T i m e o J e s u s " , Novum Testamentum, V I I (1966), p p 133-34
Apocalyptic (Philadelphia The Westminster Press, 1964), 309
) Ibid , p p
147-8, cf D S R U S S E L L , The Method and Message
of
Jewish
ig
In the light of D E J O N G E ' S conclusions, it would be difficult to support the contention that a completely unified concept connected with the word mashiach existed in the period 100 B.C. to A.D. 70. While mashiach had not yet become a terminus technicus referring to the eschatological Davidic King-Messiah, it was nevertheless used not infrequently with that connotation. Moreover, since ' 'concepts' ' are rarely linked indissolubly with particular linguistic expressions, there is a great deal about "messianic" beliefs of the period which a word study of mashiach will fail to reveal. The word mashiach itself could best be described as a semi-technical term which could be used very definitely of the coming eschatological king. Then too, DE J O N G E has failed to take the targums into account. In spite of the difficult problem of dating the sources, the frequent use of meshai in a technical sense should not be overlooked (cf. Targ. Palest. Gen. iii 15, xlix 1, 10,11 ; Ex. xl 9,11 ; Num. xxiii 2 1 ; Targ. Jon. Isa. xvi i , xlii i ) . Even the Synoptic tradition, which certainly contains the absolute use of the term before A.D. 70 is no exception to the semi-technical possibilities of usage of the word mashiach, for although the term is applied to a single individual Jesus of Nazareth, the content of the designation remains undefined precisely because it was unambiguous x ). To claim that the expectation of a future redeemer is not integral to Jewish eschatological thought is in reality to stress the fact that Judaism placed emphasis on the activity of God rather than on the anointed human instrument through whom God chose to work. A mashiach may be defined as one who has been called by God and anointed with his Spirit for the task of revealing his will and person and for the performance of certain activities in which the agency of God is evident 2 ). In the execution of this divine calling, the individual himself is subservient to the overruling purpose of God. The presupposition for this definition is clearly expressed in i Q H iv 31-33 : ' 'Works of righteousness belong to the most high . . . unless it be by the Spirit which God has created for him [i.e. man]." In Qumran, three eschatological figures were the object of expectation. The locus classicus for this belief is i Q S ix 11 : ". . . until
) Contra G. SEVENSTER, Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart,z I, 1751. ) In the Old Testament conception of the anointed king, adoption brought the monarch into filial relationship with God. The king thus became God's heir and plenipotentiary who ruled in God's stead. (GERHARD VON RAD, Old Testament Theology, trans. D. M. G. Stalker (New York and Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1962), I, 320).
2 x
20
DAVID E
AUNE
the coming of the Prophet and the Anointed Ones of Aaron and Israel " These dramatis personae of the end time are further attested m 4Q Testimonia, which contains quotations from four Old Testa ment passages Deut 28-29 refers to the necessity of keeping the law (the dominant task of the community), Deut xvm 18-19 refers to the coming eschatological prophet, Num xxiv 15-17 refers to the Davidic Messiah, and Deut xxxm 8-11 is related to the priestly Messiah The prophetic figure is undoubtedly the forerunner of the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel, while in the New Testament Deut. xvm 18-19 was applied messiamcally to Jesus (Acts 111 22-23) The idea of a royal and a priestly Messiah has its roots in the Old Testament (Zech iv 14 ff , Lev 1V3, 5, 16, vi 20, 22, Jer xxxm 14-23) The doctrine of two Messiahs is also found in Jubilees (xxxi 13-20), and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (cf Test. Gad v m i , J u d a h XXIV24, Simeon v i i 2 , Dan 10, Levi 1111, vm 2, 6-8,11 ff ) Although the Davidic Messiah was integral to the eschatological scheme of the community, he is viewed as sub ordinate to the priestly Messiah (iQ Sa 11 11-22), and is hardly mentioned m the final eschatological conflict anticipated by the War Scroll (iQ 11, xi 2, 6) It is claimed that the Davidic Messiah is the one who will restore the kingdom to Israel (iQ Sb
20)
The Life of Jesus The central question for the interpretation of the New Testament and the point at which the ways divide, according to HARALD RIESENFELD, IS the problem of the messianic consciousness of Jesus x) RUDOLF BULTMANN maintains that Jesus appeared as a prophet, a rabbi and even as an exorcist, but not as a king ''More over the Synoptic tradition leaves no doubt about it that Jesus' life and work measured by traditional messianic ideas was not
messianic'
2
BULTMANN and
W R E D E are
in
agreement on
the
nature of Jesus' ministry GNTHER BORNKAMM, a former pupil of BULTMANN also agrees " behind the doctrinal teaching concerning the Messianic secret there still dimly emerges the fact that Jesus' history was originally a non-Messianic history, which was portrayed m the light of the Messianic faith of the Church only
*) H A R A L D R I E S E N F E L D
2
The Gospel Tradition
and its Beginnings
28
BULTMANN, I
27
21
after Easter" *). The recent renewal of the quest for the historical Jesus was motivated by the desire to find a closer connection between the kerygmatic Christ and the historical Jesus. The resultant picture of the ministry of Jesus by form critical scholars may be briefly summarized as follows: (i) Jesus claimed unheard of authority in his interpretation of the Torah, (2) he claimed that the kingdom of God was present in his words and deeds, (3) he asserted that an individual's present relationship to himself was decisive for that person's future status in the kingdom of God, (4) closely connected with this is his astounding declaration that he possessed the authority to forgive sins. With data such as this in mind KSEMANN has said: ' T h e only category which does justice to his claim . . is that in which his disciples themselves placed himnamely, that of the Messiah" 2 ). The attribution of that title to Jesus by the disciples wasin KSEMANN'S opiniona post-Resurrection occurrence. We are asked, in effect, to believe that the words and deeds of Jesus surpassed all categories of Jewish conception on the one hand, and on the other, that in an era of intense eschatological expectation he neither believed himself to be the Messiah, nor did his followers attribute that title to him until after the Resurrection. This contradiction is labelled "implicit Christology", and entails a greater leap of faith than anyone less than a twentieth century existentialist could muster. We cannot avoid posing the crucial question, "How then did Jesus think of himself, and how did he understand himself ?" 3) Throughout this section we shall deal with the same three areas of thought that we did in considering the relevance of the Qumran texts: (1) Jesus' attitude toward the Old Testament, (2) his attitudes on determinism and predestination, and (3) Jesus' conception of the Messiahship 1. To contemporary Jewish thought, Jesus' ambivalent attitude toward the Old Testament must have appeared supremely paradoxical. On the one hand, he could place his own teaching beside
x ) G N T H E R B O R N K A M M , Jesus of Nazareth, trans Irene and Fraser M c L u s k e y w i t h J a m e s M . R o b i n s o n (New Y o r k a n d E v a n s t o n H a r p e r & R o w , Publishers, i960), 172 2 ) E R N S T K A S E M A N N , " T h e P r o b l e m of t h e H i s t o r i c a l J e s u s , " Essays on New Testament Themes, t r a n s W J M o n t a g u e , Studies in Biblical Theology No 41 (Naperville, Illinois Alec R Allenson, I n e , 1964), 38 3 ) O B E T Z , Was Wissen Wir von Jesus ? ( S t u t t g a r t u n d Berlin K r e u z Verlag, 1965), p . 54.
22
DAVID E. AUNE
x
that of Moses as equal or even greater in authority ). And yet on the other he viewed the Old Testament as the authoritative word of
God as did his contemporaries ) According to LEONHARD GOPPELT,
2
' 'Jesus did not only live within the framework of Old Testament Jewish traditions, but the scriptures are the binding manifestation of God to him, which he read with the eyes of his Jewish environ 3 ment and yet consciously understood it differently than t h e y " ) . The significance of the Old Testament in Jesus' ministry is at least partially revealed by the fact that most of the controversy accounts recorded by Mark deal with the interpretation of the Old Testament (Mark ii 13-17, 23-iii 6, vii 1-23, ix 11-13, 2-i2, xii 18-27, 28, 34, 35-37). It is our contention that on analogy with the Teacher of Righteousness, Jesus used the Old Testament to define his conception of his own person and mission 4) Jesus' life and thought were controlled by the will of God as it was revealed to him through the Old Testament. The uniqueness of his teaching points to his unique understanding of his life and mission which he derived, I believe, from reading Biblical prophecies in the light of their fulfillment in himself The unifying factor of the gospel presentation of the messianic life of Jesus lies in his con sciousness alone. Because we are dealing with a unique individual our parallels may fail, and our criterion of dissimilarity will produce distortion 5 ) . The only way to restore a unified interpretation is to
*) Ibid
2
B U L T M A N N , I, 16
KOSSEN, 270
B U L T M A N N , I, 16,
) L E O N H A R D G O P P E L T , " D e r v e r b o r g e n e Messias zu d e r F r a g e n a c h d e m geschichtlichen J e s u s " , Der historische Jesus und der kerygmatische Christus, h r s g H E L M U T R I S T O W u n d K A R L M A T T H I A E (Berlin E v a n g e l i s c h e Verlagsan s t a l t , 1961), 381 4 ) T h i s e m p h a s i s o n J e s u s ' use of t h e Old T e s t a m e n t is s t r o n g l y p r e s e n t e d b y K O S S E N , 270, b u t s t r o n g l y d o u b t e d b y K A S E M A N N , 40 As far as t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s is concerned, m i Q H x v m 14, t h e a u t h o r applies I s a i a h lxi 1 t o himself (as does J e s u s m L u k e iv 16-22) Similarly m i Q H v u 10 a n d v i n 36 t h e a u t h o r of t h e H o d a y o t h uses p h r a s e s from t h e S e r v a n t Songs of I s a i a h (1 4) t o describe his o w n m i n i s t r y A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s w a s t h e a u t h o r of t h e T h a n k s g i v i n g H y m n s , his high view of his o w n calling c a n n o t b e p a s s e d over in silence H e claimed t o possess a divinely g r a n t e d a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m y s t e r i e s of God ( i Q H 1 21, xs 16-17, xii 11-12, x m 18-19) T h e r e a c t i o n w h i c h people give t o h i m defines t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s God ( i Q H 11 8-9, v u 11-12, 20-21) I n s p i t e of his p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n of suffering a n d h i d d e n n e s s , h e e x p e c t s divine v i n d i c a t i o n ( i Q H 11-12, v m 18, a n d especially ix 23-26) N o w h e r e , however, does h e refer t o himself in a n y sense as " a n o i n t e d " b y God 5 ) I n his r e c e n t b o o k Rediscovering the Teaching of Jesus (New Y o r k a n d E v a n s t o n H a r p e r & R o w , Publishers, 1967), N O R M A N P E R R I N calls t h e
23
view his life and thought from the standpoint of apocalyptic Judaism, taking our point of departure from their use of the Old Testament. Two of the many Old Testament passages which must have held deep significance for Jesus were 2 Samuel vii 12-14 and Zechariah xiii. GERHARD VON R A D , referring to the passage from 2 Samuel has said, "in it also lie the historical origin and legitimation of all messianic expectations' ' x ). An example of the later influence of this oracle of Nathan can be seen in Zechariah vi 12-13, where the man named "Branch" is to build the temple of the Lord and rule upon his throne. OTTO B E T Z has, in my opinion, successfully shown the overwhelming significance of 2 Samuel vii 12-14 for both Jesus and the earliest Christian community 2 ). The passage contains at least three significant elements: (1) the double sonship of the messianic king; he is a son of David (v. 12) as well as a son of God (v. 14), (2) this Davidite will be "raised u p " by God (v. 12), (3) and will also build the temple (v. 13). The double sonship of Jesus is attested by pre-Pauline tradition in Romans i 3-4, and is emphasized in the birth narratives of both Matthew and Luke. Davidic descent was a necessary requisite for th expected Messiah, and Jesus was certainly a descendant of David (Mk. xii 35-37 does not deny this fact, but rather emphasizes the double nature of the Messiah's sonship). The word in 2 Samuel vii 12 which we have translated "raised u p " is qum in the hiphil (Greek anistemi), and is ambiguous in that it could be construed to mean exaltation to the kingship (David had many sons and only one of them could be "raised u p " to the kingship). It could also refer to the resurrection from the dead which Jesus anticipated in the Markan passion predictions (Mark viii 31, ix 31, 33 f.). In our opinion, Jesus profoundly united these
two meanings and expected his exaltation to the kingship to be
fundamental criterion for determining the authenticity of words of Jesus the ''criterion of dissimilarity": " . . . the earliest form of a saying we can reach may be regarded as authentic if it can be shown to be dissimilar to characteris tic emphases both of ancient Judaism and of the early Church, and this will particularly be the case where Christian tradition oriented towards Judaism can be shown to have modified the saying away from its original emphasis." (P 39) *) V O N R A D , I, 311. 2 ) O. BETZ, "Die Frage nach dem messianischen Bewusstsein Jesu", Novum Testamentum, VI (1963), 24-37.
24
DAVID E. AUNE
identical with his resurrection from the dead. This is precisely the meaning of Romans i 4: Jesus was designated son of God (i.e. king in the sense of 2 Sam. vii 14) in power by the resurrection from the dead. The misunderstanding of the disciples, who clearly understood that Jesus would be exalted in the political sense (cf. Mark 35-4) m a y have been caused by the fact that Jesus brought together these two meanings in the single word qum. The Davidic Messiah was expected to rebuild the temple, and one of the sayings of Jesus which is generally regarded by most scholars as genuine is t h a t in which he claims to be the temple builder (Mk. xiv 58, xv 29; Mt. xxvi 61, xxvii 40; J n . ii 19 and Acts vi 14). This claim to be the builder of the temple carried with it an indirect but clear claim to the messianic office, and is a fundamental datum for establishing the fact that Jesus did in fact think of himself as the Davidic Messiah 1 ). Zechariah xiii is a passage which refers to events that will occur "on t h a t d a y " ; obviously the eschaton. Jesus' quotation of this chapter in Mark xiv 27 indicates his familiarity with the passage. Suffice it here to summarize the five significant events which are the object of future expectation, and which have obvious parallels to the conscious ministry of Jesus: (1) a fountain for cleansing from sin and uncleanness will be opened up, (2) idols will be removed, (3) the unclean spirit (ruah hattumya) will be removed, (4) the shepherd will be stricken and the sheep scattered, (5) judgment will follow. The implications of these points will be made clear in the remainder of the article. 2. If Jesus has an attitude toward the Old Testament analogous with the Qumran community in the sense that he viewed it as the divine expression of the will of God determinative for all life and thought, can anything be said about his views on determinism or predestination? The view of the divine determination of events in the life of Jesus is rooted deeply in the synoptic tradition. It is quite unnecessary and even erroneous to attribute this view of 2 history to the early Christian community alone ). Jesus' reticence with regard to his own person must be ascribed to a strong belief t h a t his own destiny was completely in the hands of God. One of
x ) B E T Z , Was Wissen Wir . . ., p . 6 1 ; B E T Z , " D i e F r a g e . . . " , p p . 34-37; G O P P E L T , Jesus . . . , p p . 88-89. 2 ) B U R K I L L , " T h e H i d d e n Son of M a n . . . " , p p . 171-72; B U R K I L L , Mys terious Revelation, p p . 172.
25
SCHWEITZER'S fatal errors was to assume that Jesus actively attempted to compel the breaking in of the transcendent kingdom of God. Nothing could have been further from his purpose. The person of the Messiah was less significant to Jesus than the kingdom of God which he introduced through his words and works. It was through the proclamation of this kingdom that Jesus sought to found a community which would be the nucleus of the New Israel. In this respect he also interpreted his Messianic task as temple builder in a figurative manner. The temple which he sought to build was the community of the New Israel 1 ). The extent of this community was voluntarily limited to those who did not stumble at the apparently insignificant nature of the beginning of the kingdom of God, to which Jesus referred in the parables of growth or contrast. 3. The synoptic tradition does not define the specific connotation of the word "Messiah" as it is used in the narratives. If Jesus did think of himself as the Messiah, as I believe he did, this can only be confirmed through the study of his words and deeds as they have been handed down in the gospel tradition. If this investigation produces results which cohere with SCHWEITZER'S three Messianic facts [supra, p. 5), our purpose shall have been accomplished. The kingdom of God was the central subject of the teaching of Jesus. While modern critics speak of the "messianic secret" of Mark, the evangelist himself was concerned with the "secret of the kingdom of God" (Mk. iv 12). This secret is clarified by the parables of Matthew xiii and means that the kingdom of God is now present in the words and deeds of Jesus, even though the restoration of all things (apokatastasis, Acts iii 21) is still lacking. It was this fact that Jesus' contemporaries were unable to grasp. His words and deeds posed a riddle for them that they were unable to answer. T. A. B U R K I L L is certainly wrong in assuming that this mystery is the fact that Jesus is the Messiah the son of God, for although Jesus stands in the closest connection to the kingdom of God, it is nevertheless the kingdom itself which is given primary emphasis. According to R. FULLER, " I n his works, as in his words, God is present acting eschatologically through Jesus. Such is Jesus' understanding of his own words and works. It is demonstrated by logia
x ) B E R T I L G R T N E R , The Temple and the Community in Qumran and the New Testament (Cambridge: T h e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1965), p p . 105-122.
26
DAVID E
AUNE
which pass all the criteria of authenticity" 1 ). In the words of H. B. KOSSEN, "Jesus was conscious that God's eschatological act of salvation was being accomplished through him" 2 ). The difficulty which Jesus' contemporaries had in understanding this fact is evident when we consider that outwardly there was no catastrophic change of aeons. The second evangelist presents Jesus as a proclaimer of glad tidings, with a short summary of the proclamation in Mark i 15 : "The time is fulfilled and the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel". The recent publication of the Dead Sea Scroll fragment 11Q Melchisedek 3) provides new and conclusive evidence that the proclamation of glad tidings could be viewed as a messianic task during or before the first century A D On lines xv ff of that document, which constitutes a pesher on Isaiah Hi 7 the Messiah is described as a mebassr or a proclaimer of glad tidings In the Massoretic text of Isaiah Iii 7, the content of the message is " t h y God reigns", while in the Targum of Isaiah that phrase has been replaced with "the kingdom of thy God hath been revealed" 4 ). The messianic interpretation of Isaiah Hi 7 together with its association with the proclamation of the near reign of God means that Jesus' preaching ministry can no longer be considered nonmessianic in nature, for even the proclamation of glad tidings itself was viewed as a messianic event of the final age (11Q Melch 15). The synoptic tradition presents Jesus as constantly on the move, traveling from one hamlet to another engaged in his ministry of proclaiming the nearness of the kingdom of God 5 ). In contrast with John the Baptist and the Qumran community, both of which
*) R E G I N A L D H F U L L E R , The Foundations of New Testament (New Y o r k Charles S c n b n e r ' s Sons, 1965), 105
2
Christology
) KOSSEN,
270.
) A S VAN D E R W O U D E published t h e editio princeps of t h i s f r a g m e n t m a n article entitled, "Melchisedek als himmlische Erlosergestalt m den neuge fundenen eschatologischen Midraschim aus Qumran-Hohle XI " , OudtestamentischeStudien, XIV, ed. A H DE BOER (Leiden E J Brill, 1965), 358 Together with M DE JONGE he published a further revision of the fragment entitled "11Q Melchizedek and the New Testament", New Tes tament Studies, XII (1966), 302 Another reconstruction of the fragment may be found in JOSEPH A FITZMYER, "Further Light on Melchizedek from Qumran Cave 11," Journal of Biblical Literature, LXXXVI (1967), pp 27-8 4 ) J F S T E N N I N G , The Targum of Isaiah (Oxford C l a r e n d o n Press, 1949), p p 176-77. 5 ) BETZ, "Die Frage . . . " , pp 41-3 He suggests parallels with David's wandering.
27
took their stand in the wilderness, Jesus is represented as actively seeking the lost (cf. Lk. xix 10, Mk. ii 17 and par.). In Ezekiel xxxiv 16, the activity of seeking the lost is an eschatological deed of God, set in a metaphor of a shepherd and his sheep. For Ezekiel, this gathering would be placed under the authority of the Davidic king: "And I will set up over them one shepherd, my servant David, and he shall feed them: he shall feed them and be their shepherd. And I the Lord, will be their God, and my servant David shall be prince among them; I the Lord have spoken" (Ezek. xxxiv 22-23). The same juxtaposition of the shepherd-sheep motif following the prediction of the enthronement of the eschatological Davidic king is also found in Jeremiah xxiii 1-6. More important than that, the shepherd-sheep imagery is found similarly in Psalm of Solomon xvii 45-46, and in verse 28 it is said of the eschatological Davidic king that "he shall gather together a holy people, whom he shall lead in righteousness/' In Qumran, allusions to the sheep motif of Isaiah xl 11 and Ezekiel xxxiv 12 are referred to the community itself under the care of the overseer (CD xiii 9). Following another line of evidence, there is a remarkable similarity between the ministry of the mebassr of Isaiah lxi 1 (quoted in Lk. iv 18-19, alluded to by Jesus in Lk. vii 22 and elaborated in the beatitudes of Matt, 3 ff.), and the eschatological activity of God in Ezekiel xxxiv 16: " I will seek the lost, and I will bring back the strayed, and I will bind up the crippled, and I will strengthen the weak, and the fat and the strong I will watch over; I will feed them in justice/1 This similarity is further borne out by Isaiah xi 9-11, which begins with a reference to the mebasser and his proclamation of the coming of God, and is followed by the metaphor which compares God's relationship to Israel as a shepherd to his sheep. In Mark xiv 27, a quotation from Zechariah xiii 7 is attributed to Jesus: " I will strike the shepherd, and the sheep will be scat tered" . The passage is applied to his imminent death and the conse quent dispersal of the disciples *). The identical passage is quoted in CD xix 7-11 in the context of the coming of the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel. In Qumran this passage was clearly understood
!) For a brief discussion on the use of Zechariah xiii 7 in Matthew xxvi 31, Justin Dialogue with Trypho liii 6 and Epistle of Barnabas 5.11-12, see DAVID E. AUNE, "Justin Martyr's Use of the Old Testament", Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological Society, I X (1966), 179-97
28
DAVID E. AUNE
to refer to the eschatological community of God. Jesus too was conscious of being God's instrument ( = anointed one) in the gathering of the "lost sheep of Israel" (Matt, 6, xv 24; Mk. vi 34). The purpose of these remarks is the demonstration of the thesis that Jesus' ministry of seeking the lost can be understood in an eschatological sense in connection with his conscious Messianic ministry of proclaiming the glad tidings. In Jeremiah and Ezekiel this activity is associated with the restoration of the Davidic monarchy. Jesus knew himself to be the descendant of David who, according to Ezekiel xxxiv 22-23, would stand in the place of God. This was made possible by his being anointed with the Sprit of God which enabled him to perform functions only properly attributable to God himself. Included in Jesus' proclamation of the kingdom of God was his astounding claim to possess the authority to forgive sins (e.g. Mk. ii 5, 10). According to Mark ii 7 this authority was attributed only to God by the scribes, and consequently they considered Jesus' claim to be blasphemous. For Jesus the forgiveness of sins was a necessary prerequisite for miracles of healing 1 ). The Qumran community frequently made God the subject of the verb kpr ("to cover, atone"), in such passages as i Q S ii 8, xi 14; CD ii 5, iii 18, iv 6, 9, 10. In continuity with the Old Testament, where atonement is thought of as a priestly function (Lev. 17; Num. i 53, viii 19, 21, xvii 6-15, xxv 13), the community itself becomes the agent of atonement (iQ S 6, viii 6, 10, ix 4; i Q M ii 5 ; i Q Sa 13) 2 ). One of the more significant texts for our purpose is found in CD xiv 19: ". . . until the Anointed One of Aaron and Israel arises and expiates their iniquity . . . ." 3 ) . Here the final forgiveness of sins is clearly an eschatological messianic task, even though the expiatory function of the community may be attributed here to the Messiah of Aaron and Israel as their representative par excellence. In 11Q
*) A L B R E C H T O E P K E , Theological
GEOFFREY W B R O M I L E Y ed
Dictionary
of the New Testament,
trans.
G E R H A R D K I T T E L (Grand R a p i d s
Wm
E e r d m a n s P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y , 1965), I I I , 203 2 ) E M I L A W C E L A , " T h e Messiah(s) of Q u m r a n " , Catholic Biblical Quar terly, X X V I (1964), 341. 3 ) T h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d t e x t of D U P O N T - S O M M E R , The Essene Writings from Qumran, t r a n s G V E R M E S (Cleveland a n d N e w Y o r k T h e W o r l d P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y ; Meridian Books, 1962), i 6 o is m a g r e e m e n t w i t h E D U A R D L O H S E , Die Texte aus Qumran' Hebrisch und Deutsch (Mnchen KoselVerlag, 1964), p p 96-97.
Melch. 4-9 Melchisedek, who may be identified with the proclaimer of glad tidings in line 18 ff., is portrayed as a heavenly redeemer figure who will bring atonement to the children of light in the eschaton. Already in the Old Testament, as we have seen above, p. 24, the forgiveness of sins was considered to be an event belonging to the eschaton, although it was granted by God himself (Zech. xiii 2, Jer. xxxi 4; cf. Jubilees i 23). We may conclude that both in Qumran and in the consciousness of Jesus the forgiveness of sins was an eschatological act of God, administered by his representative par excellence, the Messiah. This is another indication of the messianic character of the ministry of Jesus. The synoptic representation of Jesus as a exorcist is generally accepted as belonging to the earliest and most authentic stratum of the gospel tradition 1 ). In Qumran the expulsion of the evil spirit was an event which belonged to the end time, and was as significant as the act of God in forgiving sins (iQ S iv 19-21; iQ M xiv 10). Zechariah xiii 2 also sees the expulsion of the unclean spirit as an integral act of the eschaton. OTTO BETZ has suggested a striking parallel between Jesus and David. The Old Testament knows only one individual who drove out an evil spirit: David. Further, this occurred after he had been anointed with the Spirit of God secretly by Samuel (1 Sam. xvi 13-23) 2). Both the Qumran community and their Jewish contemporaries expected the age to come to be immediately preceded by a supreme conflict between the forces of God and the forces of Satan. In both circles this conflict was depicted with the imagery of a Holy War drawn from various passages of Old Testament prophetic literature. The War Scroll of the Essene community gave a systematic account of this final struggle, describing the engagements and strategy in great detail. For Jesus, this Holy War was not a literal conflict between two opposing armies, but rather was a spiritual struggle which he waged against the demonic powers in his capacity as an exorcist. The recognition that Jesus held a limited cosmological dualism also makes it imperative that he be interpreted in terms of an apocalyptic world view.
x
) BULTMANN, I, 27, 40. PERRIN, p. 65: "The evidence for exorcism as a
feature of the ministry of Jesus is very strong indeed: exorcisms are to be found in every strata of the synoptic tradition, and the ancient Jewish texts regard Jesus as a miracle worker, i.e. an exorcist."
2
) BETZ, "Die Frage . . . " , p. 41.
30
DAVID E. AUNE
Jesus' ministry of healing and performance of miracles are closely related to his deeds of exorcism. These deeds are the primary means whereby Jesus indicated and demonstrated his divine anointment. His anointment with the Spirit of God is validated by the victorious encounter with the enemy as he manifested himself in terms of sickness and demon possession in individual men. In the pericope concerning the healing of blind Bartimaeus (Mk. 46-52), the blind man is presented by the evangelist as frantically begging the "son of David'' to heal him. This recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus
on the part of Bartimaeus appears to W R E D E and BURKILL as an
exception to the evangelist's doctrine of the messianic secret, and both conclude t h a t the passage has nothing to do with the secrecy motif 1 ). This reveals an inherent weakness in the theory itself. On the supposition that the story is genuine 2 ), the question arises. Why should Bartimaeus expect healing from the son of David ( = Messiah) at all ? The answer to this question can only be that the Davidic Messiah was connected with the concept of healing from such Old Testament passages as Ezekiel xxxiv and Jeremiah xxiii. That Jesus viewed this ministry of healing as integral to his own mission is a fact made evident by a pericope preserved in Q (Mt. xi 2-5; Lk. vii 18-22), and which contains allusions to Isaiah lxi 1 and xxxv 5: " G o and tell John what you hear and see; the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have good new preached to t h e m " . Jesus himself, it would seem, regarded these events as decisive evidences of his messianic ministry, and not as a general characteristic of the final blessedness which he saw beginning with his ministry 3 ). Healing itself was regarded as an eschatological event by the author of Jubilees (xxiii.30). Jesus and the Secrecy Motif
The purpose of the discussion to this point has been to rapidly sketch out some of the more significant aspects of Jesus' life and work and to show how they cohere with a messianic consciousness which was largely dependent upon the Old Testament. Jesus
) B U R K I L L , Mysterious Revelation, p . 190. ) R U D O L F B U L T M A N N , The History of the Synoptic Tradition, trans. J O H N M A R S H (New Y o r k a n d E v a n s t o n : H a r p e r & Row, Publishers, 1963), p p . 213. 3 ) Ibid., p . 23.
2 x
3I
certainly did not appear as the mighty liberator of Israel who was the object of a significant segment of popular expectation. This was not because he entirely reinterpreted the messianic role and eliminated the political aspect totally. On the contrary, his role as World Judge and Redeemer would become visible to all upon his exaltation and installation as son of God in power. Since Jesus understood his coming exaltation=resurrection in a dual sense, the element of suffering and death became for him the necessary prerequisites for his ultimate vindication and exaltation by God. The messianic secret cannot have been an historical phenomenon in the life of Jesus unless the predictions of his passion and resurlection are also accepted as historical. This is primarily because Jesus could not have considered himself the Messiah unless he conceived of his own ultimate exaltation from son of David to son of God. Nevertheless it is not accurate to refer to Jesus as the Messias Designatus as SCHWEITZER did. After David's secret anointing by Samuel he was not less the anointed of God because he had not yet been publicly recognized and officially enthroned. It was precisely because of the nature of his Messiahship that Jesus was unable to make any open claim to that title. That claim could only be made by God on Jesus' behalf. Whether or not the resurrection proclaimed in the kerygma constitutes that claim can only be decided through the revelation of faith x).
*) GOPPELT, Jesus . . . , p. 81.
^ s
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The Problem of The Messianic Secret

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T H E P R O B L E M O F T H E MESSIANIC S E C R E T

and Criticism of Wrede s

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

) T . A. B U R K I L L , " C o n c e r n i n g S t . M a r k ' s C o n c e p t i o n of S e c r e c y " , Hibbert Journal, L V (i956-57)> 5

) Ibid., pp 13, 15 5 ) SCHWEITZER, pp 332-36

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

) W R E D E , p . 21 : " I n general his description is t o o confused t o gain a clear

picture directly from it."

W R E D E ' S theory was also rejected by such contemporaries as A

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

Secret in its Historical

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

TAYLOR. Both W R E D E X ) and SCHWEITZER 2) disagree with this

Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

and the New Testament

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

) J. STARCKY, "Les Quatre Etapes du Messianisme Qumran", Revue

Biblique, L X X (1963), pp. 481-505. Novum Testamen tum,

Apocalyptic (Philadelphia The Westminster Press, 1964), 309

147-8, cf D S R U S S E L L , The Method and Message

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

The Gospel Tradition

and its Beginnings

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

of the New Testament,

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

) BULTMANN, I, 27, 40. PERRIN, p. 65: "The evidence for exorcism as a

) BETZ, "Die Frage . . . " , p. 41.

THE PROBLEM OF THE MESSIANIC SECRET

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