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IRON INTRODUCTION Iron is extracted from its oxide ore called HAEMATITE (Fe2O3). PRINCIPLE OF EXTRACTION Extraction of iron is based on the reduction of HAEMATITE (Fe2O3) with carbon.. DETAILS OF EXTRACTION The process of the extraction of iron is carried out by the following steps: Concentration of ore Calcination or Roasting of ore Reduction of ore Concentration of ore: In this metallurgical operation, the ore is concentrated by removing impurities like soil etc. The process involves the crushing and washing of ore. Calcination or Roasting of ore: The concentrated ore is heated in the presence of air. The process of roasting performed to remove moisture, CO2, impurities of sulphur, arsenic. Ferrous oxide is also oxidized to ferric oxide. Reduction of ore The process of reduction is carried out in a blast furnace. CHARGE BLAST FURNACE The charge consists of : roasted ore Coke Limestone

Blast Furnace The blast furnace is a cylindrical tower like structure about 25m to 35m high. It has an outer shell of steel. Inside of furnace is lined with refractory bricks. The top of the furnace is closed by a cup-cone feeder. WORKING OF BLAST FURNACE The charge is fed into the furnace from its top. A preheated blast of air at 1500OC, is blown into the furnace under pressure near to the bottom (twyers). The blast oxidizes carbon to CO2. C + O2 CO2 + 97 kcal Formation of CO2 is an exothermic reaction in which a huge amount of heat is liberated which rises the temperature to 1900OC in this region. As the CO2 passes upwards, it reacts more coke to form carbon monoxide. CO2 + C 2CO 39 kcal
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Formation of CO is an endothermic reaction and the temperature in this region falls to 1100OC. CO is the main reducing agent in the upper portion of blast furnace. Overall reaction Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 The liquid iron runs downward to the bottom of the furnace and is withdrawn through tap hole. CO reduces most of the iron oxide into iron metal. Simultaneously, with the process of reduction, part of metallic iron reacts with CO to form ferric oxide The backward reaction can be prevented by a continuous supply of hot blast of air. Flux (lime) forms slag with impurities (silica). Thus, blast furnace has two functions : To reduce the ore to metallic iron and To remove the impurities in the form of slag. Slag formation Lime stone on heating decomposes to CaO and CO2. CaCO3 CaO + CO2 CaO now reacts the impurities of ore called GANGUE to form slag. Slag is the mixture of CaSiO3 and Ca(AlO2)2. The slag floats over the top of molten iron. Slag is a useful byproduct. It is used in road making, cement manufacturing a light weight building materials. Flux + Gangue CaO + SiO2 CaO + Al2O3 Slag CaSiO3 Ca(AlO2)2

Reactions in the blast furnace During extraction, different temperatures are attained at different heights of the furnace known as different zones of the furnace. Different chemical reactions take place in these zones. The descending charge rst melt with the ascending CO, to partly reduce the ore. Then at higher temperature it is reduced by coke. Zone of reduction : (300-800 C i.e. dull red heat) Carbon monoxide reduces ferric oxide to metallic iron. Fe2O3 + 3C0 i 2Fe + 3CO2 This reduction of Fe2O3 continues with increasing speed as the charge descends to the hotter part of the furnace. The reduction is done as given below : Fe2O3 > Fe3O4 > FeO > Fe 1) TOP OF THE FURNACE, temperature range 300C to 500C Fe2O3 is reduced to Fe3O4 (ferroso ferric oxide). 3Fe2O3 + CO > 2Fe3O4 + CO2 T This Fe3O4 is stable upto 650C in the presence of CO, CO2 and
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2) At the temperature between 650-700C, Fe3O4 is reduced to FeO (ferrous oxide). Fe3O4 + CO -> 3FeO + CO2 T 3) At temperature between 700-800C, FeO is reduced to metallic iron FeO + co --> Fe + CO2 T 4) Simultaneously the limestone present in the charge is also decomposed to produce lime. CaCO3 --> CaO + CO2 T 5) The metal produced is spongy. Simultaneously a part of metallic iron reacts with CO to form Fe2O3 or Fe3O4. 2Fe + 3CO -> Fe2O3 + SC 3Fe + 4CO > Fe3O4 + 4C Zone of heat absorption : (800-1200 C i.e. bright red heat) In the middle part of the furnace. Following reactions take place Any oxide of iron - escaped from reduction is reduced by red hot carbon. Fe2O3 + 3C > 2Fe + 3CO Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide by heat absorption CO2 + C > 2C0 39 kcal The hot spongy iron melts the ascending CO and decomposes a part of it to 500C D , produce nely divided carbon. 2CO --> CO2 T + C This nely divided carbon thus remains enclosed in the spongy iron. Lime obtained in the zone of reduction forms slag with silica. CaO + SiO2 -----> CaSiO3 ux gangue slag At about 1200C, non-metallic and metallic oxides are reduced to respective elements, they are reduced by coke. SO2+2C > S+2COT SiO2+2C > Si+2COT P205 + so --> 2P + 5CO T MnO2 + 2C -> Mn + 2C0 Thus, in this zone, iron is mixed with C, P, S, Si and Mn and becomes impure. Due to presence of impurities, the melting point of iron is lowered and it starts melting at about 1200C. Zone of Fusion: (1200 C - 1500 C i.e. white heat) In this zone, fusion of iron and slag take place and only chemical reaction taking place is the formation of CO2. The coke present in the charge gets oxidised by hot blast of air introduced through twyers and forms CO2 alongwith the liberation of heat. C + O2 -> CO2 + 97 kcal Melting point of impure iron is reduced to 1250-1300C (m.p. of pure iron is l530C).
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Melting of impure iron starts, Temperature of the blast furnace is not sufcient to melt the pure iron. Impure iron melts in the zone of fusion and trickles down Collected in the hearth. The slag formed in the zone of absorption also melts at a temperature of 1200-1250C Collected in the hearth of the furnace. This molten slag oats over the molten metal as it is lighter than molten iron. The slag, when it forms the upper layer automatically protects the iron from oxidising action of the hot air blast. The molten iron known as pig iron - withdrawn - from the lower outlet The slag is taken out from the upper outlet. While gases formed during chemical reactions known as ue gases go out through the outlet near the top of the furnace. PRODUCTS OF Blast Furnace The products of the blast furnace are : pig iron, slag, ue gases. Pig iron The molten iron from the blast furnace is collected in moulds and solidication, forms pig iron or cast iron. It is the most impure form of iron containing highest percentage of (25%) which makes it hard and brittle and hence unsuitable for commercial use. Composition of Pig iron The amount of impurities vary in pig iron. Hence, its composition is not xed. It contains : Iron 90-95% Carbon 2.5-5% Silicon >1-3% Manganese O.21% 4 Sulphur O.1O.3% Phosphorus 0.5-1% Properties of Pig iron/ Cast iron Brittle Low tensile strength. Melting point is 1 150C to l250C. Cannot be forged, rolled and welded. Only suitable for casting which are not subjected to sudden strain and shock.
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Uses of Pig iron/ Cast iron Casting metal objects (stoves, lamp posts, drainage covers, pipes, railings, re gates etc. ) Cheapness is more important than strength. SLAG Usually contains silicates of calcium and aluminium A fusible slag contains approximately SiO2 - 55%, CaO - 30% Al2O3 - 15%. Uses Filler (ballast) for rail roads, for metalling roads when moxed with pitch Manufacturing of cement, Powder - fertilizer and for soil conditioning. FLUE GASES The gases leaving the furnace through the flue are known as ue gases. The gas mixture contains approximately CO 30% ' CO2 10% N2 59% Hydrogen and hydrocarbon traces. This gaseous mixture is burnt for the following reasons : (i) Burning carried out in a special device, produces heat required to heat the air which is introduced through the twyers into the furnace. The poisonous carbon monoxide is removed as carbon dioxide. Uses (i) Since this gaseous mixture contains large proportion of CO, it possesses a considerable heat value (caloric value 750 kcal/ m3), hence used as a fuel. (ii) This mixture is used for preheating of air for the blast furnace COMMERCIAL FORMS PIG IRON OR CAST IRON PIG IRON Most impure form of iron. Average composition of pig iron is as follows : Fe=9295% 11=O.5-1% C=2.54.5% Mn=0.2l% Si=O.73% S=O.1O.3% Puried in cupola furnace with coke and lime. Molten Metal poured into moulds of desired shape and the iron obtained is known as cast iron.
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STEEL Ordinary steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Hence, it is known as steel or plain carbon steel. Manufacturing of Steel Depending on the quality of steel to be manufactured, steel is prepared from cast iron by reducing its carbon content from about 5% to 0.2-1 The following methods are used for manufacturing of steel. OPEN HEARTH PROCESS Also called Siemen-Martin's process is based on the regenerative principle of heat economy proposed by William Siemens (1857). the waste heat of the products of combustion of a gaseous fuel is utilized. Two types the acid hearth and basic hearth process depending on the silica or lime or magnesia lining. Choice of refractory linings = the nature of impurities present. Hearth is lined with : Silica bricks (acidic lining) to remove C, Si and Mn. Lime or magnesia bricks (basic lining) to remove P and S.

Metallurgy The charge consists of pig/cast iron (cold or molten), scrap iron/ steel and haematite (ore). The process consists of heating the charge on the hearth of furnace by the heat produced by burning fuel in air (both preheated) or by producer gas. During the rst phase of cycle, producer gas / air is passed through previously heated regenerator (R1) while the products of combustion ow through the regenerator. The charge is fed through a charging door and heated to 1600C to 165OC. Mainly by means of producer gas. Fuel is red through nozzles. The hot gases formed in R1 pass over the hearth to its opposite end and metal charge supported on the hearth is openly exposed to the ames and is converted into molten metal. Besides being directly exposed to the ames, metal charge is also heated by the radiations from the walls. After passing over the hearth, the products of combustion pass through one checker chamber (R2) and heat it. After about 25 to 30 minutes the second phase of cycle starts and the idle burner res the fuel, over the hearth ame passes from the opposite direction and initially active burner becomes idle. Checker chambers (i.e. regenerators R1, R2) store and release large quantities of heat which would have escaped to the atmosphere and thus wasted.
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In this furnace, tap hole in the lowest part of the hearth which always closed with a refractory plug until the metal is ready to be poured. Before tapping the molten metal into the ladle, a sample of the same may be tested as regards its chemical composition. The process takes 8-10 hours. Following chemical reactions occur in the furnace. Oxidation of impurities of Mn, P and Si by haematite : 2Fe2O3 + 3Mn > 2Fe + 3MnO 5Fe2O3 + 6P > 1OFe + 3P2O5 2Fe2O3 + 3Si > 4Fe + 3SiO2

The charge consists of pig/ cast iron (cold or molten), scrap iron/ steel and haematite (ore). The process consists of heating the charge on the hearth of furnace by the heat produced by burning fuel in air [both preheated] or by producer gas. Procedure : a) During the rst phase of cycle, producer gas/air is passed through previously heated regenerator (R1) while the products of combustion ow through the regenerator. b) The charge is fed through a charging door and heated to 1600C to 1650C mainly by means of producer gas. Fuel is red through nozzles. c) The hot gases formed in R1 pass over the hearth to its opposite end and metal charge supported on the hearth is openly exposed to the ames and is converted into molten metal. Besides being directly exposed to the metal charge is also heated by the radiations from the walls. d) After passing over the hearth, the products of combustion pass through one checker chamber (R2) and heat it. e) After about 25 to 30 minutes the second phase of cycle starts and the idle burner res the fuel, over the hearth ame passes from the opposite direction and initially active burner becomes idle. f) Checker chambers (i.e. regenerators R1, R2) store and release large quantities of heat which would have escaped to the atmosphere and thus wasted. g) In this furnace, tap hole in the lowest part of the hearth which always closed. With a refractory plug until the metal is ready to be poured. h) Before tapping the molten metal into the ladle, a sample of the same may be tested as regards its chemical composition. The process takes 8-10 hours.

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Following chemical reactions occur in the furnace. Oxidation of impurities of Mn, P and Si by haematite 1 2Fe2O3 + 3Mn > 2Fe + 3MnO 5Fe2O3 + 61> _> 101% + sP2o5 2Fe2O3 + 3Si -~> 41% + 3SiO2 (b) Formation of slag for the removal of Mn, P and Si : MnO + SiO2 -> MnSiO3 (slag) P205 + 3CaO -> Ca3(PO4)2 (slag) SiO2 + CaO -> CaSiO3 (slag) (c) Finally C and S form gaseous oxides which leave the furnace as ue gases : 2Fe2O3 + ac -a 4Fe + 3co2T 2Fe2O3 + as -> 4Fe + sso2 T Basic oxygen steel (BOS) process : I It is the most modern method for manufacturing of steel. The another name of this process is L-D (two separate plants in Austria in 1953 at Linz and Donawitz). LD converter is charged with molten pig iron and steel scrap (15%). Then the converter is turned to vertical position for the oxygen blow, but before that lime (to increase slag uidity) are added in the converter. High purity oxygen at a pressure of 100-150 psi (pounds per inch square) is introduced at supersonic speed on to the surface of the iron bath through water-cooled lance, which is suspended in the vessel and kept at few feet above the bath. Immediately very rapid chemical reactions take place in the area just below the lance where oxygen comes in contact with metal and impurities like Si, Mn, C, Fe and P take place giving out considerable heat. The blowing of oxygen produces intense heat at about 2500C to 3000C. Thus the metal in this zone gets rened. The surrounding metal at the top takes the place of the rened metal and in turn gets rened.

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Thus, a vertical rotating motion sets in the vessel and in about 20 to 30 minutes from the commencement of the blow all impurities including S and P are oxidised and removed. The entire cycle of operation takes about one hour.

Advantages over open hearth [0-H) process :

(1) It requires much less investment than open-hearth process. (2) L-D process is about ten times faster than O-H process. (3) It does not use external sources of heat or fuel. (4) L-D process is operationally more efcient than O-H process. (5) Oxygen is used rather than air in L-D process. This causes its elimination of harmful effect of nitrogen. Properties of Steel : The properties of steel depend upon the following three factors : (1) Percentage of carbon in steel. (2) Presence of other elements. (3) Heat treatment. 1. Percentage of carbon in steel : I The presence and percentage of carbon in steel is the guiding factor in imparting desired properties to steel. In general, lower the carbon content, the softer and more ductile is the steel. Carbon also impart hardness and increases tensile strength but it reduces malleability of steel. If the percentage of carbon in steel is low, it is not useful for engineering purposes as it is very soft, ductile and weak. If the percentage of carbon in steel is high, there is decrease in plasticity and the properties similar to those of cast iron are developed in the steel i.e. develop hardness and brittleness and reduces malleability and ductility. According to the percentage of carbon and presence of other alloying elements, steel is broadly classied into two classes : [i) Plain carbon steels, (ii) Alloy steels. Plain carbon steel : Plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon only. It has its own limitations of use. On the basis of percentage of carbon, it is further classied as mild carbon steel, medium carbon steel and high carbon steel.
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Alloy steels : Alloy steels are those steels, prepared by addition of small amount of one or more alloying elements (such as nickel, chromium, cobalt, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum, manganese etc.) into plain carbon steels. Alloy steels are further classied on the basis of [i] chemical composition, (ii) according to structure and (m) according to purpose of use. Presence of other elements in steel : Since steel is mainly the alloy of iron and carbon, the properties of steel mainly depend on carbon content. Along with carbon other elements such as silicon, sulphur, phosphorous and manganese are also present in the steel as impurities. Presence of these constituents may alter the properties of steel. The effect of these constituents on the properties of steel are as follows :

Carbon : It increases the tensile strength, hardness, but it lowers ductility and malleability with the increase in carbon content. Silicon : Silicon in very small amount is used as principal deoxidizer (to remove dissolved gases). Hence, metal becomes sound and free from blow-holes. It improves tensile strength and deep hardening properties. The maximum of silicon present in the steel is about 0.25 %. Manganese : It is used as deoxidiser. It combines with sulphur to form manganese sulphide. Manganese makes the metal ductile. It is present in the metal about 0.8 % but when it is more it increases hardness and brittleness. Classification of Plain Carbon Steel Plain carbon steel is classied according to the percentage of carbon present in it. Under this category there are three types of carbon steels, namely (a) mild or low carbon steel 0.05 to 0.3% carbon [b) medium carbon steel - 0.3 to 0.6% carbon (c) high carbon steel 0.6 to 1.5% carbon. The various applications of steel are governed by the percentage of carbon present in it, because as the percentage of carbon in steel increases, the hardness of steel also increases but there is a corresponding decrease in the ductility.

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Properties and Applications of Different Plain Carbon Steel Mild or Low carbon steel (0.05-0.3% carbon] : Properties : It is quite tough, ductile, weldable, can be magnetised permanently, can resist shock and impact, difcult to heat treatment and undergo corrosion quickly. Applications : Mild steel is used for thin soft wires, wires for ropes, bolts, rivets, nails, chains, tubes, plates for boilers and ships, fan-blades and for powerful magnets. . Medium carbon steel (0.3-0.6% carbon] : Properties : It is tougher and harder than mild steel, shock-resistant, can be welded with care, can be hardened by heat treatment, has high tensile strength than mild steel. Applications : Medium carbon steel is mainly used in railway engineering for rail roads, wheels, axles and sh plates, also used in making machine and gun parts, springs, rotors and various shafts like armature and crack shafts. High carbon steel (0.6-1.5% carbon) : Properties : It is very hard and tough, has high tensile strength, cannot be welded, can be hardened by heat treatment and resistant to wear, hence it can produce a sharp cutting edge. Applications : It is mainly used for making tools like les, chisel, hammers, punches, wooden working tools and various cutting instruments like cutters, knives, saw, blades, razors etc. (d) Sulphur : It should not be present above 0.06 % in the metal; otherwise steel becomes very brittle or red short i.e. the condition of iron and steel in which it cannot be worked by hammering or rolling at or above a dull red heat. When it is present along with manganese, it improves the machinability of steel. (e) Phosphorus : This should not be present above 0.06 % in steel, otherwise the steel becomes cold short, i.e. the condition of iron and steel in which it cannot be worked by hammering or rolling at or below a dull red heat. In low carbon steels, phosphorus improves yield strength and tensile strength. Heat treatment of steel : When metals and alloys are heated and cooled, their physical properties are changed. These changes take place because of the change in their structure due to heating and cooling. In case of steel, these changes are marked.
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The changes like physical properties and structure depend upon the way in which heating and cooling of steel is carried out. Thus, in general, heat treatment of steel may be dened as the process of heating steel to a certain high temperature and then cooling it at a controlled rate, in order to develop certain desirable physical properties in it without changing its chemical composition. All the heat treatment purposes may be considered to consist of three main parts : 1. The heating of steel to a particular temperature. 2. The soaking of the steel at that temperature until the structure becomes uniform throughout the section. The cooling of the metal at some specic rate to cause the formation of desirable structures within the metal for the desired properties. Purpose of heat treatment : The improvements resulting from heat treatment are mainly due to the development of certain micro~constituents which have the desired qualities.

Following are the main purposes of heat treatment of steel : l. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. To change the structure of steel. To alter magnetic properties of ste-el. To increase surface hardness. To increase resistance to heat and corrosion. To vary strength and hardness. To make steel easily workable. To remove the trapped gases. To improve machinability and mechanical properties.

1.2.5 Heat Treatment of Steels The important processes involved in heat treatment of steel are 1. Hardening or Quenching, 2. Tempering, 3. Annealing, 4. Nonnalising. 5. Hardening or Quenching :

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The operation of hardening is applied to tools and some important machine parts made of alloy steel. The purposes of hardening are (1) To increase its resistance to wear or abrasion and ability to cut other metals. (2) To improve strength, elasticity, ductility and toughness. In this process, steel is heated to high temperature (800-900C) and then suddenly cooled by dipping or quenching in some suitable medium. The quenching medium generally used is either cold water or mineral or animal or vegetable oil, 4-6 % caustic soda, 6-20 % sodium chloride solution or a stream of compressed air or in mercury. This process is known as Hardening or Quenching and steel is then called hardened or quenched steel. By this process, steel becomes extremely hard and brittle like glass. The hardness developed depends upon : (1) The rate of cooling and (2) The medium used for cooling.

(2) Tempering : If a piece of steel is taken out of quenching medium, then it becomes hard, brittle and has unequally distributed stresses. Therefore, the primary objects of tempering are : 1. To stabilise the structure of metal by relieving stresses and strains. 2. To reduce some of the hardness produced during hardening. 3. To improve ductility of metal. 4. To reduce brittleness and improve tensile strength. By quenching, the hardness of the steel is increased but it becomes very brittle and liable to crack while in use. To minimise this defect, steel is tempered. Tempering is the process of reheating the hardened or quenched steel to a denite temperature (generally between 200 600C} and then cooling it at a suitable rate. By this process of heat treatment the properties like hardness, brittleness and internal stresses developed in a quenched steel are reduced. On the other hand, it imparts toughness and elasticity to steel.

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[3] Annealing (means softening) : It is one of the most important widely used operation in the heat treatment. The purposes of annealing are as follows : 1. To soften the steel. 2. To improve machinability. 3. To increase or restore ductility and toughness. 4. To rene grain size and to have uniform structure. Articles made by casting, forging etc., and hard steel develop internal stresses and strains, making them weak, less tough, less ductile and more brittle. These defects are removed by heating them to about 760-925C (the temperature depending upon the carbon content of steel) by holding it at that temperature for some time and then cooling at a controlled and slow rate. This is known as annealing. In annealing, the article after heating is cooled in the furnace along with furnace. Due to annealing, steel becomes more soft, pliable (i.e. it can be easily worked upon with a machine), malleable and ductile and acquires many new properties which are magnetic and electrical in nature. Moreover, its grain structure becomes uniform. Since the annealing temperatures depend on percentage of carbon, the annealing temperature for various kinds of steel are different. They are given in the following Table 1.3. 4) Normalising : It is a process of heat treatment just similar to annealing process. The process consists of heating steel to a denite temperature i.e. about 50C above the critical temperature. (In case of steel, the critical temperature is about 725C). Then it is allowed to cool freely in air. The cooling rate is generally about 5C per second. By this method, steel becomes homogeneous and more soft. After normalising treatment, the ultimate structure in the steel consists of ne grains. Cold working is done at a temperature below critical temperature. By cold working, the steel develops some hardness and looses ductility due to distortion. .

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By normalising, the hardened articles with distorted grains regain their ne grained structure. Normalising is used particularly for the following purposes : 1. To remove coarse grained structure. 2. To remove internal stresses that may have been caused by working. 3. To give ductility and toughness. 4. To improve the mechanical properties of the steel. Normalising is similar to annealing. In normalising, the steel is heated to slightly higher temperature than annealing. Since steel is cooled in air, in normalising, the rate of cooling is faster as compared to annealing. Normalising has some advantages over annealing. In normalising, the mechanical properties of steel somewhat improved. The time required for normalising is less than annealing. In annealing, the consumption of fuel or electric power is greater than normalising process.

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