Appendix F.

Flow Rates and Shock Pressures Through Tube Ruptures

Methods to calculate tube rupture flow rates and shock pressures are given here for shell and tube exchangers containing gases, two-phase mixtures, and liquids.

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Appendix F

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

F1.0

High-pressure Gases and Two-phase Mixtures

When the high-pressure fluid is part or all gas, the flow through the rupture may or may not be choked (limited by the gas reaching sonic velocity). If it is choked, flow through the rupture is independent of the low-pressure side. Otherwise, the response of the low-pressure side affects the rupture flow. The rupture flow may be choked on one side of the break and subsonic on the other side. Rupture flow from both sides of a break is maximum for a break at one end. Rupture flow rates have been calculated for the usual range of conditions in heat exchangers and are given below in Equation F-1 and Figure F-1. For definitions, see the nomenclature section at the end of this appendix.
k H + 1 0.5

------------- 2 k H 1 M R = 2C F A T H g P H k H -------------- k + 1 H

(Eq. F-1)

Equation F-1, with CF = 1, is the equation for isentropic (frictionless) choke flow from both sides of the break. CF is the ratio of actual flow with friction to the flow rate for choked isentropic flow with a break at one end and is given in Figure F-1. Two-phase flow through a rupture is similar to all-gas flow. Initially, the two-phase rupture flow is mostly gas. The gas usually accelerates rapidly to near sonic speeds by virtue of its internal energy, whereas liquid is dragged along by viscous shear and accelerates much more slowly. The presence of liquid reduces the gas flow area and adds to frictional resistance of the gas flow. Treating liquid-gas mixtures on the high-pressure side as if they were all gas is conservative and is recommended. The high-pressure fluid on the low-pressure side displaces and compresses the lowpressure fluid. The pressure rise on the low-pressure side depends on the volume flow rate into the low-pressure side, the compressibility of the low-pressure fluid and the flow area of the connected piping. The fluid compressibility and pipe sizes on the low-pressure side are usually the same for inlet and outlet lines for single phase fluids but may be significantly different for liquid-gas mixtures. Equation F-2 below is a volume balance: volume flow rate of high-pressure fluid into the low-pressure side equals rate at which volume is made available by the compression waves in the inlet and outlet piping.
0.5 g M R = 2A L1 G L HFL ( P LR P L ) ---------------------- L1 K L1

(Eq. F-2)

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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Appendix F

where:
0.5 A L2 L1 K L1 1 - 1 + --------- -------- --------- G L = -2 A L1 L2 K L2

(Eq. F-3)

For single phase service on the low-pressure side, fluid properties and pipe sizes for inlet and outlet lines are usually equal. Then GL = 1 and Equation F-2 becomes:
0.5 g M R = 2A L HFL ( P LR P L ) ----------------L KL

(Eq. F-4)(From Equation F-3)

Solving Equations F-1 and F-2 simultaneously, with HFL = H (PLR/PH) for highpressure gas, results in:
2 0.5 P LR 1 P L PL --------------- = ------ + + 4 X 2 P H P H PH

(Eq. F-5)

where:
H + 1 k -------------C F A T L1 K L1 kH 1 2 - --------- -------- --------- k H --------------X = -----G L A L1 H P H kH + 1

0.5

(Eq. F-6)

Equation F-6 is plotted in Figure F-2. Figure F-2 applies to any low-pressure fluid. Liquid cases are toward the right side of the figure, gas cases toward the left, and two-phase cases in the middle.

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F-3

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Appendix F

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Fig. F-1

Factor for Friction and Flow Regime

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F-4

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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Appendix F

Fig. F-2

Rupture Pressure on Low-Pressure Side Due to High-Pressure Gas

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F-5

April 1998

Appendix F

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

F2.0

High-Pressure Liquids
Tube rupture with high-pressure liquid involves decompression waves in the highpressure system similar to the compression waves in the low-pressure system. Choked liquid flow does not occur at conditions encountered in heat exchangers. The relationship between rupture flow and decompression is given by: g H - M R = 2A H ( P H P HR ) ------------ KH
0.5

(Eq. F-7)

Equal pipe sizes and fluid properties are assumed for the high-pressure inlet and outlet lines. The rupture flow rate and pressure drop across the break for a tube break at one end (worst case) are related as follows: M R = 2C FL A T ( ( 4 3 ) g H ( P HR P LR ) ) 0.5
(Eq. F-8)

where:
0.5 1 32 - 1 + ----------------------------------- C FL = - 3 2 + F L D 2

(Eq. F-9)

Solving Equations F-7, F-8, and F-3 simultaneously results in:

2 0.5 Z ( 1 + SH ) P LR P L 4 SH - -------------------- - 1 + -- ----------------------------------- = - 1 Z 1 + S H PH PL 2 S H2

(Eq. F-10)

P H P HR P LR P L - ---------------------- = S H --------------------PH PL PH PL
(Eq. F-11)

0.5 P LR P L MR - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 1 ( 1 + S H ) --------------------2C FL A T [ ( 4 3 ) g H ( P H P L ) ] 0.5 PH PL

(Eq. F-12)

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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Appendix F

where:
0.5 A L1 H K H - -------- --------- S H = G L -------- A H L1 K L1

(Eq. F-13)

and AT - 3 ) C FL2 ------ A H

2

Z = (4

KH - ----------------- P H P L
(Eq. F-14)

Equations F-10 and F-12 are plotted in Figures F-3 and F-4 respectively.
Fig. F-3 Rupture Pressure on Low-Pressure Side Due to High-Pressure Liquid

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F-7

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Appendix F

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Fig. F-4

Liquid Rupture Flow Rate

F3.0

Effective Bulk Modulus

Effective bulk modulus is the pressure change per unit of volume change. P K = --------------V V
(Eq. F-15)

Expansion or contraction of the pipe, as well as compression or decompression of fluid, contribute to the effective bulk modulus. The effective bulk modulus, including pipe flexibility, is: KF K = --------------------------------KF D C 1 + ----------------------E tp
(Eq. F-16)

where C = 0.91 for restrained piping. The effective bulk modulus is typically 10% less than the liquid bulk modulus. Equation F-16 is appropriate for liquid systems. Bulk modulus data for liquids are available in various reference books including the Fluid Flow Manual.

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F-8

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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Appendix F

Bulk modulus for gases and two-phase flow may be calculated as follows: R + 1 P LR ------------ --------- 1 R PL KL ------ = ------------------------------------------ 1 kL PL P LR - 1 -------- PL
(Eq. F-17)

where: Y R = ( 1 g ) ----------- 1 Y
(Eq. F-18)

Only gas phase compressibility is included in Equation F-17. Liquid phase compressibility and pipe flexibility are insignificant in comparison to gas phase compressibility.

F4.0

Two-Phase Density
Two-phase density of low-pressure fluid may be calculated as follows: g = ------------------------------------------------Y + ( g 1 ) ( 1 Y )
(Eq. F-19)

F5.0

Applications
The use of the equations and graphs in this appendix is illustrated in the examples following the nomenclature section below. The units indicated in the nomenclature section are consistent with the equations. The equations, however, are presented in terms of dimensionless parameters or ratios where practical. Any consistent units may be used in those cases. Bulk modulus, elastic modulus, and fluid pressure all have the same units. Where these variables appear as ratios in the examples, psi units are used; otherwise psf units are used. Example 1 is for high-pressure gas and low-pressure liquid. Post-rupture pressure on the low-pressure side is 83% of the initial pressure of the high-pressure fluid and governs the design of the low-pressure side. Example 2 is for high-pressure gas and low-pressure steam generation. Post-rupture pressure on the low-pressure side is insignificant and does not affect design pressure.

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F-9

April 1998

Appendix F

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Example 3 is for high-pressure liquid and low-pressure liquid. Post-rupture pressure on the low-pressure side is about 40% of the initial pressure of the high-pressure liquid and governs the design of the low-pressure side.

F6.0

Nomenclature
A C CF D E F g GL k K KF = Flow area of tube or pipe, ft2 = Pipe restraint factor = Actual tube rupture flow/isentropic choke flow = Inside diameter of pipe, ft = Modulus of elasticity of pipe, psf = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor = 32.17 lb/slug = Factor for dissimilar inlet and outlet piping = Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv) = Effective bulk modulus of fluid and pipe, psf = Bulk modulus of fluid, psf

CFL = Actual tube rupture flow/frictionless liquid flow

L = Flow length through broken tube, ft M R = Rupture flow rate, lb/sec P P = Pressure, psfa = Increment of pressure, psf

R is defined by Equation F-18. SH is defined by Equation F-13. tp V V Y = Pipe wall thickness, ft = Volume, ft3 = Increment of volume, ft3 = Weight fraction vapor = density, lb/ft3

X is defined by Equation F-6. Z is defined by Equation F-14.

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F-10

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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Appendix F

Subscripts:
1 2 g H HR l L LR R T - Inlet piping, low pressure side (LPS) - Outlet piping, LPS - Gas, LPS - High-pressure side, normal conditions - High-pressure side, rupture conditions - Liquid - Low-pressure side, normal conditions - Low-pressure side, rupture conditions - Rupture conditions - Tube

HFL - High-pressure fluid on low pressure side

Example 1 High-Pressure Hydrogen Gas and Low-pressure Cooling Water Gas

PH H kH = Pressure = 2000 psia = 288,000 psfa = Density = 0.459 lb/ft3 = Ratio of specific heats = 1.4

Cooling Water
PL L KF = Pressure = 65 psia = 9360 psfa = Density = 62 lb/ft3 = Bulk modulus = 315,000 psi = 45,360,000 psf

Tube
Inside diameter = 0.482 in. = 0.0402 ft

Low-Pressure Piping
Inside Diameter = 4.026 in. tp E GL = Wall thickness = 0.237 in. = Elastic modulus = 29 106 psi = 4.2 109 psf = 1 (similar inlet and outlet)

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F-11

April 1998

Appendix F

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

KF 315,000 K L = --------------------------------- = 269,700psi - = ----------------------------------------------------------------------KF D C 4.026 315,000 - 0.91 - -----------1 + -------------------------1 + ---------------------- 29,000,000 0.237 E tp
(Eq. F-20)

Assume CF = 0.5
H + 1 k -------------C F A T L1 K L1 kH 1 2 - --------- -------- --------- k H --------------X = -----G L A L1 H P H kH + 1

0.5

(Eq. F-21)
2.4 ------ 0.4 0.5

0.5 .482 - -----------= -----1 4.026

2 62 269,700 ------------ 1.4 ------ ----------------- 0.459 2000 2.4

= 0.662
(Eq. F-22)

2 0.5 0.5 P LR 65 2 1 PL PL 1 65 - + 4 ( 0.662 ) - ------ ----------- + 4X - + ------------------- = -- + -----= -= 0.83 2 P H P H 2 2000 2000 PH

(Eq. F-23)

PLR = 0.83 (2000) = 1660 psia CF from Figure F-1 is 0.5; therefore assumed value above is okay.
H -------------- kH 1 2 M R = 2C F A T H g P H k H -------------- kH + 1

k +1

0.5

(Eq. F-24)
2.4 ------ 0.4 0.5

2 - 0.459 ( 32.17 ) ( 288,000 ) ( 1.4 ) -----= 2 ( 0.5 ) ------------------------------------------4 2.4

[ ( 3.14 ) ( 0.0402 ) 2 ]

= 1.79lb/sec Total Flow from Rupture

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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Appendix F

Example 2 High-Pressure Hydrogen Gas and Low-Pressure Steam Generator Gas

PH = H = kH = Pressure = 2000 psia = 288,000 psfa Density = 0.459 lb/ft3 Ratio of specific heats = 1.4

BFW/Steam
PL = l = g = kL = KF = Pressure = 165 psia = 23,760 psfa Liquid Density = 55 lb/ft3 Vapor density = 0.36 lb/ft3 Ratio of vapor specific heats = 1.28 Liquid bulk modulus = 183,000 psi = 26.4 107 psf

Tube
Inside diameter = 0.482 in. = 0.0402 ft

BFW Piping
Inside diameter = 2.067 in. tp E = = Wall thickness = 0.154 in. Elastic modulus = 29 106 psi = 4.2 109 psf Weight fraction vapor = 0 (R1 = 0) KF 183,000 - = 169,000 psi K L1 = ------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------K F DC 183,000 2.067 - 0.91 - -----------1 + -------------------------1 + -------------- 29,000,000 0.154 Et p
(Eq. F-25)

Y1 =

Steam Piping
Inside diameter = 7.981 in. Y2 = Weight fraction vapor = 1 (1/R2 = 0) Assume PLR/PL = 1.13

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F-13

April 1998

Appendix F

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

1 P LR 1 + ----- --------- 1 R 2 P L K L2 ( 1 ) ( 1.13 1 ) --------- = ---------------------------------------------- = ---------------------------------------- = 1.43 1 k PL L 1 ( 1.13 ) 1 1.28 P LR - 1 -------- PL
(Eq. F-26)

KL2 = 1.43 (165) = 236 psi

0.5 A L2 L1 K L1 1 1 7.981 2 55 169,900 0.5 - 1 + --------- ------------------ 1 + ------------ --------- -------- --------- = -= 2472 G L = - 2.067 0.36 236 2 2 A L1 L2 K L2

(Eq. F-27)

Assume CF = 0.675
H + 1 k -------------C F A T L1 K L1 k H 1 2 - --------- -------- --------- k H --------------X = -----G L A L1 H P H kH + 1

0.5

(Eq. F-28)
2.4 ------ 0.4 0.5

0.675 0.482 ------------ -----------2472 2.067

2 55 169,900 ------------ 1.4 ------ ----------------- 0.459 2000 2.4

= 0.001025
(Eq. F-29)

PL 2 P LR 1 PL - ------ + ------ + 4X --------- = - P H 2 PH PH

0.5

0.5 1 165 165 2 - ----------- + 4 ( 0.001025 ) = -- + ----------= 0.0935 2 2000 2000

(Eq. F-30)

PLR = 0.0935 (2000) = 187 psia PLR/PL = 187/165 = 1.13; therefore assumed value above is okay. CF from Figure F-1 is 0.675; therefore assumed value above is okay.
H -------------- kH 1 2 M R = 2C F A T H g P H k H --------------kH + 1

k +1

0.5

(Eq. F-31)

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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Appendix F

2 - 0.459 ( 32.17 ) ( 288,000 ) ( 1.4 ) -----= 2 ( 0.675 ) ------------------------------------------4 2.4

[ ( 3.14 ) ( 0.0402 ) 2 ]

2.4 ------ 0.4

0.5

(Eq. F-32)

= 2.42 lb/sec Total Flow from Rupture

Example 3 High-Pressure Liquid and Low-Pressure Cooling Water High-Pressure Liquid

PH H = = Pressure = 400 psia = 57,600 psfa Density = 50 lb/ft3 Bulk modulus = 200,000 psi = 28,800,000 psf

KFH =

Viscosity = 0.000672 lb/ftsec = 1 CP

Cooling Water
PL L KFL = = = Pressure = 65 psia = 9,360 psfa Density = 62 lb/ft3 Bulk modulus = 315,000 psi = 45,360,000 psf

Tube
D L = = Inside Diameter = 0.56 in. Length = 480 in. = 40 ft

High-Pressure Piping
Inside diameter = 4.026 in. tp E = = Wall thickness = 0.237 in. Elastic modulus = 29 106 psi = 4.2 109 psf

K FH 200,000 - = 180,700 psi K H = ----------------------------- = ----------------------------------------------------------------------K FH DC 200,000 4.026 - 0.91 - -----------1 + -------------------------1 + ------------------ 29,000,000 0.237 Et p
(Eq. F-33)

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F-15

April 1998

Appendix F

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Low-Pressure Piping
Inside Diameter = 4.026 in. tp E = = Wall thickness = 0.237 in. Elastic modulus = 29 106 psi = 4.2 109 psf 1 (Similar Inlet and Outlet)

GL =

K FL 315,000 K H = ---------------------------- = 269,700 psi - = ----------------------------------------------------------------------K FL DC 315,000 4.026 - 0.91 - -----------1 + -------------------------1 + ----------------- 29,000,000 0.237 Et p
(Eq. F-34)
0.5 A L1 H K H 4.026 2 50 180,700 0.5 - ------------------ ----- -------- --------- = 1 -----------= 0.735 S H = G L -------- 4.026 62 269,700 A H L1 K L1

(Eq. F-35)

Assume Friction Factor F = 0.0126

0.5 0.5 1 32 1 32 - 1 + ------------------------------- - 1 + ------------------------------------------------------------ C FL = -= -= 0.675 3 2 + FL D 3 2 + 0.0126 ( 480 ) 0.56 2 2

(Eq. F-36)
2 A KH 0.56 4 180,700 - = ( 4 3 ) ( 0.675 ) 2 ------------ -------------------- = 0.123 ----------------- 4.026 400 65 P H P L

Z = (4

T - 3 ) C FL2 ------A H

(Eq. F-37)

PLR =

P LR P L --------------------- = 0.32 from Figure F-3 (0.318 from Equation F-10) PH PL 65 + 0.32 (400 - 65) = 172 psia MR --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = 0.67 2C FL A T [ ( 4 3 ) g H ( P H P L ) ] 0.5 from Figure F-4 (0.669 from Equation F-12)
(Eq. F-38)

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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

Appendix F

0.56 2 3.14 -------- 12 M R = 0.67 ( 2 ) ( 0.675 ) ----------------------------- [ ( 4 3 ) ( 32.17 ) ( 50 ) ( 400 65 ) 144 ] 0.5 4
(Eq. F-39)

= 15.7 lb/sec Total Flow from Rupture Check assumed friction factor (above value is okay).

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F-17

April 1998