Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683 www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruc

Large torsion nite element model for thin-walled beams

Foudil Mohri
a b

a,c,* ,

Noureddine Damil b, Michel Potier Ferry

, Universite Henri Poincare , IUT Nancy-Brabois, De partement Ge nie Civil. Nancy-Universite Le Montet. Rue du Doyen Urion CS 90137. 54601 Villers les Nancy, France canique, Faculte des Sciences Ben MSik, Universite Hassan II Mohammedia, BP 7955 Sidi Othman Laboratoire de Calcul Scientique en Me Casablanca, Morocco c Paul Verlaine-Metz, Ile du Saulcy, 57045 Metz, France LPMM, UMR CNRS 7554, ISGMP, Universite Received 13 November 2006; accepted 20 July 2007 Available online 17 September 2007

Abstract Behaviour of thin-walled beams with open section in presence of large torsion is investigated in this work. The equilibrium equations are derived in the case of elastic behaviour without any assumption on torsion angle amplitude. This model is extended to nite element formulation in the same circumstances where 3D beams with two nodes and seven degrees of freedom per node are considered. Due to large torsion assumption and exuraltorsional coupling, new matrices are obtained in both geometric and initial stress parts of the tangent stiness matrix. Incremental-iterative NewtonRaphson method is adopted in the solution of the nonlinear equations. Many applications are presented concerning the nonlinear and post-buckling behaviour of beams under torsion and bending loads. The proposed beam element is ecient and accurate in predicting bifurcations and nonlinear behaviour of beams with asymmetric sections. It is proved that the bifurcation points are in accordance with nonlinear stability solutions. The convenience of the model is outlined and the limit of models developed in linear stability is discussed. 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Beam; Finite element; Nonlinear; Open section; Post-buckling; Thin-walled

1. Introduction Thin-walled elements with isotropic or anisotropic composite materials are extensively used as beams and columns in engineering applications, ranging from buildings to aerospace and many other industry elds where requirements of weight saving are of main importance. Due to their particular shapes resulting from the fabrication process, these structures always have open sections that make them highly sensitive to torsion, instabilities and to imperfections. The instabilities are then the most important phe-

, Universite Henri Corresponding author. Address: Nancy-universite , IUT Nancy-Brabois, De partement Ge nie Civil. Le Montet. Rue Poincare du Doyen Urion CS 90137. 54601 Villers les Nancy, France. Tel.: +33 (0)3 83 68 25 77; fax: +33 (0)3 83 68 25 32. E-mail address: foudil.mohri@iutnb.uhp-nancy.fr (F. Mohri). 0045-7949/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.compstruc.2007.07.007

nomena that must be accounted for in the design. Nevertheless most of these exible structures can undergo large displacements and deformations without exceeding their yield limit. For these reasons the computation of these structures must be carried out according to nonlinear models. Vlasovs model [1] developed for small non-uniform torsion has been commonly adopted in most theoretical and nite element works on thin-walled elements with open sections [25]. Recently, based on this model, Kim [6] investigated a nite element formulation with consideration of semi-tangential moments and rotations. Kwak [7] formulated a nite element analysis to account for warping eect on the nonlinear behaviour of open section beams, by using the Total Lagrangian formulation. Pi [8] and Turkalj [9] have introduced a correction in the rotation matrix by considering higher order terms. They obtained improved models for linear and nonlinear stability analyses.

672

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

In the above studies, nonlinear terms such as exural torsional coupling or shortening eects are usually ignored. Many other studies have been devoted to nonlinear behaviour of these structures in bending and torsion and proved that in large torsion, the shortening eect is important and that the agreement of Vlasovs model is poor compared to experimental results [1013]. On the other hand, it has been checked that pre-buckling deformations have a predominant inuence on the stability of thin-walled beams especially in lateral buckling behaviour. Some analytical solutions including pre-buckling deformations have been carried out [1416]. Many other nite element models have been formulated in nite and large torsion taking into account shortening eect and pre-buckling deections [1721]. The eects of pre-buckling and shear deformation on lateral buckling of composite beams have been recently studied by Machado [22]. Extensive research is developed recently in the led of curved thin-walled beams with steel and concrete materials [23,24]. A nonlinear nite element analysis has been developed by Attard [17] for isotropic elements. Finite torsion assumption has been admitted and trigonometric functions have been limited to cubic approximations, respectively to 2 3 coshx 1 h2x and sinhx hx h6x , where hx is the twist angle. Recently, Ronagh [19] extended this model so that it could be applied to variable cross-sections. The above model has been successfully applied to the stability analysis of thin-walled elements either in buckling or lateral buckling behaviour. In the present work, a large torsion nite element model is investigated for elastic thin-walled beams without any assumption on the torsion angle amplitude. The calculation of the tangent stiness matrix is possible thanks to the introduction of new trigonometric variables c = (cos hx 1) and s = sin hx. For the purpose, the equilibrium equations and the material behaviour are established. Shortening eect, pre-buckling deections and exuraltorsional coupling are naturally included. In the nonlinear nite element analysis, we use a 3D beam element with two nodes and seven degrees of freedom per node including warping. In order to get the equilibrium paths, Newton Raphson iterative method is utilized. The tangent stiness matrix is carried out. Due to large torsion and exuraltorsional coupling, new matrices are obtained in both geometric and initial stress parts of the tangent stiness matrix. This element is incorporated in a homemade nite element code. In order to illustrate the accuracy and practical usefulness of the proposed element, many examples are considered in the numerical part. The convenience of the model is outlined and the limit of models developed in linear stability is discussed. 2. Kinematics A straight thin-walled element with slenderness L and an open cross-section A is pictured in Fig. 1. A direct rectangular co-ordinate system is chosen. Let us denote by x the initial longitudinal axis and by y and z the rst and sec-

ond principal bending axes. The origin of these axes is located at the centre G. The shear centre with co-ordinates (yc, zc) in Gyz is denoted C. Consider M, a point on the section contour with its co-ordinates y ; z; x; x being the sectorial co-ordinate introduced in Vlasovs model for nonuniform torsion [1]. Hereafter, it is admitted that there is no shear deformations in the mean surface of the section and the contour of the cross-section is rigid in its own plane. The model will be applied to slender beams. This means that local and distortional deformations are not included. Thin-walled open section beams possess large bending stiness in comparison to torsion stiness. In the model, displacements and twist angle can be large but bending rotation are assumed to be small. Small deformation are admitted and an elastic behaviour will be then adopted in material behaviour. Under these conditions, displacements of a point M are derived from those of the shear centre as uM u y v0 v0 c w0 s zw0 w0 c v0 s xh0x ; vM v z z c s y y c c ; wM w y y c s z zc c; 1 2 3

Eqs. (1)(3) are similar to the ones established in Attard [25], where ( ) 0 denotes the x-derivative. u is the axial displacement of centroid and v and w are displacements of shear point in y and z directions. We have introduced in Eqs. (2) and (3) two additional variables c and s: c cos hx 1; s sin hx : 4a; b

Since the model is concerned with large torsion, the functions c and s are conserved without any approximation in both theoretical and numerical analyses. In the case of thin-walled beams, the components of Greens strain tensor which incorporate the large displacements are reduced to the following ones: 1 2 02 exx e yk z zk y xh00 x R hx ; 2   1 ox 0 z zC h; exy 2 oy x   1 ox 0 y yC exz h: 2 oz x 5a

5b; c

In (5a), e denotes the membrane component, ky and kz are beam curvatures about the main axes y and z and R denes the distance between the point M and the shear centre C. They are given by 1 e u0 v02 w02 wh0x ; 2 2 2 R2 y y C z z C ; k y w00 w00 c v00 s; k z v00 v00 c w00 s:

6a; b 6c; d

The variable w associated with membrane component in (6a) is dened by w y C w0 w0 c v0 s zC v0 v0 c w0 s: 6e

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

Fze

673

M(x,y,z,)

(x,y,z,)
Fye w y u v Fxe Msv C B N G My Mz

/2
G C( yc, zc) x

Fig. 1. Open section thin-walled beam: (a) kinematics; (b) spatial loads, (c) stress resultants.

In (5a), the rst term is the contribution of membrane component e dened in (6a). The second and the third terms are related to bending about y and z axes. The fourth term is well known and is related to warping eect. The last term is proportional to h0x2 . This nonlinear term, absent in Vlasovs model, leads to nonlinear warping. Sometimes, it is called shortening term. According to relationships (6a,c,d) and excluding the warping term, all the other terms of the axial strain (5a) are then nonlinear. 3. Equilibrium equations Equilibrium equations are derived from stationary conditions of the total potential energy: dU dW 0: 7

duM du y dv 0 c dv 0 s dw 0 w 0 w 0 c v 0 s dhx zdw0 c dw0 s dv0 v0 v0 c w0 sdhx x dh0x ; dvM dv ez dhx ez c ey sdhx ; dwM dw ey dhx ey c ez sdhx ; 10ac where ey and ez represent load eccentricities from shear point ey y y c ; ez z zc . Taking into account the relations (10), one obtains for virtual work of external loads dW: Z dW k F xe du F ye dv F ze dw M xe dhx M ye dw0
L

Loads are applied on the external surface of the beam oA (Fig. 1b). Their components kFxe, kFye, kFze are supposed to be proportional to a parameter k. The strain energy and the external load variations can be written as Z Z rxx dexx 2rxy dexy 2rxz dexz dA dx; 8a dU L Z AZ dW k F xe duM F ye dvM F ze dwM ds dx; 8b
L oA

M ze dv0 Bxe dh0x dx Z Z k M ye c M ze sdw0 dx k M ze c M ye sdv0 dx L ZL k F ye fez c ey sg F ze fey c ez sg

L

M ye v0 v0 c w0 s M ze w0 w0 c v0 sdhx dx: 11 In (11), (Mye, Mze), Mxe and Bxe dene respectively the external bending moments, the torsion moment and the bimoment. They are listed below in term of load eccentricities: M ye F xe z; M ze F ze y ; Bxe F xe x: 12ad M xe F ye ez F ze ey ;

where rxx, rxy and rxz are the PiolaKirchho stress tensor components, dexx, dexy, dexz are Greens strain tensor variations. In the beam theory, it is more convenient to formulate the strain energy variation in terms of the stress resultants (section forces) acting on cross-section. Based on virtual strain deformation components and after integration over the cross-section A, the strain energy variation (8a) is given by Z  dU N de M y dk y M z dk z M sv dh0x Bx dh00 x L  1 M R dh0x 2 dx: 9 2 N is the axial force, My and Mz are the bending moments, Bx is the bimoment acting on the cross-section and Msv is the St-Venant torsion moment (Fig. 1c). MR is a higher order stress resultant called Wagners moment. Their denitions are available in Mohri [26]. According to the relationships (1)(3), one gets for the virtual displacement components:

In order to use matrix formulation, the following vectors are introduced:

t fS g f N M y M z M sv Bx M R g; 1 02 fcgt e k y k z h0x h00 h ; x 2 x t fqg f u v w hx g; fhgt u0 v0 w0 h0x v00 w00 h00 hx ; x t fF e g f F xe F ye F ze M xe g; t fM e g f 0 M ze M ye fagt f c s w g;

13a 13b 13c 13d 13e 13f 13g

Bx e

0 g;

where { }t denotes the transpose operator. In (13), {S} and {c} dene stress and deformation vectors. Vectors {q} and {h} are displacement and displacement gradient vectors. Load forces are arranged in two components {F} and

674

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

{M} which are the conjugate of {q} and {h}. The last vector {a}, which includes trigonometric functions c, s and the variable w will be called rotation vector. Its components depend on trigonometric functions of the twist angle and the exuraltorsional coupling. Based on (13), one gets the following matrix formulation of the initial problem (7):  Z  Z Z t t t fdcg fS gdx k fdqg fF e gdx k fdhg fM e gdx L L L  Z Z t t k fdhg M x1 fagdx k fdqg M x2 fhg
L L

M x3 M x4 hfagdx 0:

14

1 Eexx dA EAe EAI 0 h0x2 ; 2 A Z My Eexx z dA EI y k y bz h0x2 ; A Z Mz Eexx y dA EI z k z by h0x2 ; A   Z  ox Gexz y y c M sv 2 oz A   ox Gexy z y c dA GJ h0x ; oy Z 02 Bx Eexx x dA EI x h00 x bx h x ;
A

16a 16b 16c

16d 16e

The rst term is related to the strain energy variation. The other terms are the contribution of the external loading. The rst two terms of the virtual external load work represent constant load contribution. They are familiar in beam theory and lead to the right-hand side of the equilibrium equations. The other terms will contribute to the stiness matrix if a nonlinear analysis is undertaken. They depend nonlinearly on displacement and load eccentricities. The matrices [Mx1] to [Mx4], functions of load eccentricities, are listed below: 3 2 0 0 0 6 M ze M ye 0 7 7 6 7 6 6 M ye M ze 0 7 7 6 6 0 0 07 7 6 M x1 6 7; 6 0 0 07 7 6 6 0 0 07 7 6 7 6 4 0 15a; b 0 05 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 07 7 7 07 7 7 05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3

M R EAI 0 e 2EI z by k z 2EI y bz k y 1 02 2EI x bx h00 x EI R hx : 2 These equations written 9 8 N > > > > > > > > > My > > > > > > = <M > z fS g > M sv > > > > > > > > > > B > > x > > > ; : MR 2 EA 0 6 0 EI y 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 0 0 6 6 4 0 0

16f

in matrix formulation lead to

0 0 EI z 0

0 0 0 GJ 0 0

0 0 0 0 EI x 2EI x bx

EAI 0 2EI y bz 2EI z by

6 6 6 0 0 M x2 6 6 6 4 F ye ez F ye ey F ze ey F z ez 2 0 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 6 M x3 6 40 0 0 0

0 EAI 0 2EI y bz 2EI z by 9 8 e > > > > > > > > > k y > > > > > > = < k > z Dfcg: 0 > hx > > > > > > > > > > > h00 > x > > ; : 1 02 > h 2 x

7 7 7 7 7 7 0 7 7 2EI x bx 5 EI R

16g

0 07 7 7; 0 05 15c; d

0 M ye M ze 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 6 0 0 07 7 6 7 6 M x4 h 6 7: 0 0 0 7 6 0 5 4 M ye v0 M ye w 0 0 0 M ze w M ze v

The present model is applied in the case of an elastic behaviour. In such a context and denoting by E and G the Youngs and shear moduli, the relationships between the stress vector components in terms of deformation vector components are the following in the principal axes:

[D] is the material matrix behaviour. Its terms are functions of elastic and geometric characteristics. A denotes the section area. Iy and Iz are second moments of area about y and z axes. J and Ix are respectively the St-Venant torsion and the warping constant. I0 is the polar moment of area about shear centre. by, bz and bx are Wagners coecients. IR is the fourth moment of area about shear centre. Their expressions have been shown in Mohri [26] and an ecient numerical method for their computation is described in Appendix A of this paper. The equilibrium equations (14) and the elastic material behaviour (16) are derived in the context of large torsion. They are function of vectors {q}, {c}, {h}, {a} and their variations {dq}, {dc}, {dh}. Nevertheless, both vectors {c}, {a} and their variations are nonlinear and highly cou-

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

675

pled. According to (6ac), the strain vector {c}, dened in (13b), is split into a linear part and two nonlinear parts as 9 8 e > > > > > > > > > k y > > > > > > = < k > z fc g 0 > > > hx > > > > > > > > > h00 > x > > ; : 1 02 > h 2 x 9 8 9 8 02 8 0 9 u > v w02 > > wh0x > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > 00 00 > > > > > > > w00 > 0 w c v s > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > = < v00 = 1 < < 00 00 = 0 v c w s > > > > 2> h0x > 0 0 > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > 00 > > > > > > > > > > > > > h 0 0 > > > > > > x > > > > > > ; ; ; : : : 02 0 hx 0 fcl g fcnl hg fcnla h; ag: 17a

Matrices [H] and [A(h)] are classical in nonlinear structural mechanics. Matrix [Aa(a)] takes into account large torsion and exuraltorsional coupling. In this way, the deformation {c} is obtained in term of {h} as   1 fcg H Ah Aa a fhg: 19 2 Applying variation to (19) and using the fact that the matrices [A(h)] and [Aa(a)] depend linearly on vectors {h} and {a}, {dc} is established as fdcg H fdhg Ahfdhg Aa afdhg Aa dafhg: 20 The last term in the right-hand side of (20) can be written b h depending on {h} and the as a product of a matrix A vector {da}: 3 2 0 0 h0x 7 00 00 9 6 8 6 w v 0 78 9 0 d wh > dc > > > 6 x = 6 v00 w00 0 7 < 7< = 00 00 7 6 ds Aa dafhg v ds w dc 6 > > ; > 6 0 > 0 07 ; : 7: 00 00 v dc w ds 7 dw 6 5 4 0 0 0 0 b hfdag: A 0 0 21

{cl} is the classical linear part, {cnl(h)} and {cla(h, a)} are the nonlinear parts related to quadratic and exuraltorsional coupling terms. These three parts can be easily formulated in term of the vector {h} by introducing three matrices [H], [A(h)] and [Aa(a)] as indicated below: 8 09 >u > > > 3> 2 > > v0 > 1 0 0 0 0 0 00 > > > > > > > 0> > 6 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 7> > w > 7> > 6 = < 0> 6 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 7> 7 hx 6 H fhg; fc l g 6 7 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 7> v00 > > > > 7> 6 > > 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5> > > w00 > > > > 00 > >h > > > 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 > > x > ; : > hx 18a 8 09 u > > > > 0> 3> 2 > 0 v0 w0 0 0 0 0 0 > > > > > >v > > > 0 > 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7> > >w > 7> 6 > > < 7 6 0 1 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 hx = 1 fcnl hg 6 Ahfhg; 7 > 2 > v00 > 2 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7> > 7> 6 > > 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5> > > w00 > > > > > 00 > > 0 > > h 0 0 0 hx 0 0 0 0 > x > > > ; : hx 18b 8 09 >u > > > 0> 3> 2 0 0 0 w 0 0 0 0 > > > v > > > > > > > 0 > 6 0 0 0 0 s c 0 0 7> > > w > 7> > 6 = 6 0 0 0 0 c s 0 0 7< 0 > 7 hx 6 Aa afhg: fcnla h; ag 6 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7> v00 > > > > 7> 6 > > 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5> 00 > > > >w > > 00 > > > 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 > > > hx > > ; : > hx 18c

According to denition (13g) for {a} and its components introduced in (4a, 4b and 6e), one gets for the variation of the two rst components: d c s d hx ; ds c 1 dhx : 22a; b The third component dW of {da} is derived from (6e) and (22a,b). After some arrangement, {da} is written in terms of {dh} and a new matrix [P(h, a)] as 8 09 du > > > > > > > dv 0 > > > > > > > > > 0 > > > 2 3> d w > > > 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 s > > = < dh0 > 6 7 x fdag 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c 15 00 > > > dv > 0 Qc RC 0 0 0 0 Pc > > > 00 > > > > > d w > > > > > > > > 00 > > d h > x > > > ; : dhx P h; afdhg: 22c The coecients Pc, Qc and Rc utilized in the matrix P(h, a) are given by P c y C w0 s v0 c 1 zC v0 s w0 c 1; Qc y C s zC c 1; Rc y C c 1 zC s: 22d 22e 22f

Finally, injecting (22c) into (21), the last term in the righthand side of (20) can be written in terms of {dh} and a new e h; a is introduced as matrix A b hP h; afdhg A e h; afdhg: Aa dafhg A 23

676

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

The above relationship permits us to write the vector {dc} in (20) in terms of {dh}. One arrives to e h; afdhg: fdcg H Ah Aa a A 24

is modelled with 3D beams elements with two nodes and seven degrees of freedom per node. The adopted shape functions are available in Lin [30] and Batoz [31]. The vectors {q} and {h} and their variations {dq} and {dh} are related to nodal variables {r} and {dr} by fqg N frge ; fdqg N fdrge ; 26a; d

Based on formulas (19) for {c} and (24) for {dc}, one gets the matrix formulation of the equilibrium equations (14) and the material behaviour (16g) into the following system: 8R t fdhg H Ah Aa a > > > L R > > b h; at fS gdx k fdqgt fF e g fdhgt fM e gdx ; > > L < A R k L fdhgt M x1 fag fdqgt M x2 fhg > > > t > > fdqg M x3 M x4 hfagdx 0 > > : fS g D H 1 Ah Aa a fhg: 2 25a; b In this way, the elastic equilibrium equations have been derived without any assumptions about the torsion angle amplitude. Trigonometric functions c = cos hx1 and s = sin hx have been included in the analysis and nonlinear and highly coupled kinematic relationships have been encountered. Due to consideration of large torsion, new e h; a depending on trigonometric matrices [Aa(a)] and A functions c and s and exuraltorsional coupling have been introduced. Alternatively, in external work, eects of load eccentricities have been considered. This leads to new second order bending moments and second order torsion moments involving the trigonometric functions c and s. Consequently, other matrices [Mx1], [Mx2], [Mx3] and [Mx4(h)] have been introduced. In what follows, a beam nite element will be formulated in the same circumstances. Nevertheless, in nonlinear analysis, only constant load contribution will be considered. The contribution of eccentric loads from centroid and shear point to second member and tangent stiness matrix is not included in the present paper (terms in second line of the equilibrium equation (25a)). Extensive work is done by the authors in order to make this possible in future. This work is actually in progress including the asymptotic numerical method for solution of nonlinear problems [27]. 4. Finite element discretisation In literature about thin-walled beams with open section, warping deformation is of primary importance. For this reason, the warping is considered as an independent displacement with regard to classical 3D beams. In mesh process, 3D beams elements with 14 degrees of freedom are commonly utilized. Linear shape functions are assumed for axial displacements and cubic functions for the other displacements (i.e. v, w, hx) are used in natural co-ordinate [2,3,17]. Some other works have adopted hyperbolic shape functions for torsion angle [18,28,29]. In the present study, the beam of slenderness L is divided into some nite elements of length l. Each element

fhg Gfrge ; fdhg Gfdrge ; where [N] is the shape functions matrix and [G] is a matrix which links the nodal displacements to the gradient vector {h}. In the framework of nite element method, the equilibrium equations and the material behaviour are then written as 8P R1 P l R1 t t t l < fdrge Bh; a fS gdn k fdrge ff ge dn 0 2 1 2 1
e

fS g D Bl 8fdrg:

1 Bnl h 2

Bnla a frge 27a; b

e denotes the assembling process over basic elements. The matrices and vectors used in the formulation (27) are listed below:

e nl h; a; Bh; a Bl Bnl h Bnla a B Bl H G; Bnl h AhG; Bnla a Aa aG; e h; aG; e nl h; a A B ff ge N t fF e g Gt fM e g:

28a 28b 28c 28d 28e 28f

The vector {f}e is related to the nodal forces. Only constant load contribution in (25a) has been considered. The matrices [Bl] and [Bnl (h)] are familiar in nonlinear analysis. In addition one can remark the presence of new matrices e nl h; a. These matrices result from large [Bnla(a)] and B torsion assumptions and exuraltorsional coupling. They are function on the introduced trigonometric functions c and s and exuraltorsional coupling. 5. Solution strategy in nonlinear context To solve the nonlinear problem (27) we adopt a classical incremental-iterative NewtonRaphson procedure. With this aim in view, we have to compute the tangent stiness t matrix. If the unknowns of the problem (28) fU g f frg fS g fag g; k are sought in the form: fU g fU 0 g fDU g and k k0 D k: 29; 30

Given an initial guess of the solution ({U0}, k0), the increments of the problem ({DU}, Dk) satisfy the following conditions:

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

677

XlZ
e

Bh0 ; a0 t fDS g DBh; at fS 0 gdn Dkff g f0g;

we get the following identities after using Eq. (26d) relating {Dh} and {Dr}: Bnl Dh fS 0 g G S 0 GfDrg; Bnla Da fS 0 g G S 0 P h0 ; a0 GfDrg:
t t t t

  1 fDS g D Bl Bnl h0 Bnla a0 fDrg 2   1 D Bnl Dh Bnla Da fr0 g: 2

31a

33d 33e

31b

e nl h; a and According to the denition of matrices B b A h; a introduced in (28e) and (23), we obtain b DhP h0 ; a0 G A b h0 DP h; aG: e nl h; a A D B 34a This relationship is taken into consideration in transformae nl a; ht fS 0 g as tion of vector D B b Dht e nl h; at fS 0 g Gt P h0 ; a0 t A D B b h0 fS 0 g: DP h; a A
t t

Due to highly nonlinear and coupling terms involved in matrix [B(h, a)], the increment of [DB(h, a)] is not straightforward and must be computed with more caution. The rst term in the left-hand side of (31a) leads directly to the classical geometric stiness part, while the second one gives the initial stiness matrix. These parts are built separately in two main steps. The rst step is devoted to geometric stiness matrix formulation. From (28), one can establish the identities: Bnl Dhfr0 g Bnl h0 fDrg; 32a e nl h0 ; a0 fDrg: 32b Bnla Dafr0 g B Inserting (32) in (31b) and using (28a), we get fDS g DBh0 ; a0 fDrg: 32c The rst term of (31a), leading to the geometric stiness matrix, according to (32c) gives Bh0 ; a0 fDS g Bh0 ; a0 DBh0 ; a0 fDrg:
t t

34b

On can check that the rst term in the right-hand side of (34b) leads to
t b t t t P h0 ; a0 A Dh fS 0 g P h0 ; a0 S 0 fDhg:

34c

The second term in the right-hand side of (34b) yields to

t b t DP h; a A h0 fS 0 g S 0 P h0 ; a0 fDhg;

34d

32d

The second step concerns the formulation of the initial stress matrix. This matrix is obtained from the transformation of the second term [DB(h, a)]t{S0} in (31a). From the denition of [B(h, a)] and its parts formulated in (28) and using the fact that [Bnl(h)] and [Bnla(a)] are linear, permit to write e nla h; a fS 0 g: DBh; a fS 0 g Bnl Dh Bnla Da D B
t t

33a Additionally, considering the matrix [P(h0, a0)] in (22c) and the following two matrices S 0 and S 0 : 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 N0 0 0 0 0 0 07 7 6 7 6 0 0 0 0 07 6 0 0 N0 7 6 60 0 0 M R0 0 0 0 0 7 7; 6 S 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 07 7 60 0 7 6 0 0 0 0 0 07 60 0 7 6 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 05 0 6 0 6 6 6 0 6 6 0 S 0 6 6 Mz 6 0 6 6 M y0 6 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M y 0 M z0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 7 7 7 0 7 7 N0 7 7: 0 7 7 7 0 7 7 0 5 0 0 0 0

S 0 and P h0 ; a0 are dened by 3 0 0 y C N 0 h0x0 0 7 7 7 zC N 0 h0x0 0 7 7 0 0 7 7 7 0 0 7; 7 0 0 7 7 7 0 0 7 7 5 M y 0 w00 0 0 N 0 hx0 00 00 M z0 w 0 M z0 v 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 s0 6 7 P h0 ; a0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 c0 5 34e; f 0 Q0 R0 0 0 0 0 P0 where the matrices 2 0 6 z C N 0 h0 6 x0 6 6 y C N 0 h0x0 6 6 0 6 6 S 0 6 0 6 6 0 6 6 6 0 6 4 M y 0 v00 0 with P 0 y c v00 s0 w00 1 c0 zc v00 1 c0 w00 s0 , Q0 y c c0 1 zc s0 and R0 y c s0 zc c0 1. Relationships (34c) and (34d) permit us to modify (34b) to e nl h; at fS 0 g Gt P h0 ; a0 t S 0 t S 0 P h0 ; a0 fDhg: D B 34g From the expression (26d) relating {Dh} and {Dr}, one obtains the nite element formulation of the above vector:

33b; c

e nl h; at fS 0 g Gt P h0 ; a0 t S 0 t S 0 P h0 ; a0 GfDrg: D B

34h

Combining the relationships (33d), (33e) and (34h) allow us to write the initial stress part of the tangent stiness matrix of (33a) as

678
t t

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

t t

DBh; a fS 0 g G S 0 S 0 P h0 ; a0 P h0 ; a0 S 0 S 0 P h0 ; a0 GfDrg Gt S h0 ; a0 GfDrg:

tonRaphson iterative procedure based on arc length method is adopted. 6.1. Comparison examples Example 1: Nonlinear behaviour of a cantilever beam subjected to end torque This example has been studied by Lin [30]. A doubly symmetric steel I section W21 93 was considered. The geometric dimensions of the section and the elastic constants are the following:b = 213.87, h = 549, tf = 23.6, tw = 14.73 mm , E = 200, G = 77 GPa (1.0 in. = 25.4 mm, 1.0 lbf = 4.448 N). The warping eect on the nonlinear cantilever beam behaviour has been investigated.With this aim in view, three boundary conditions have been considered in [30]: free warping at both ends of the beam (a), warping restrained at the xed end and free warping at the free end (b), warping restrained at both ends of the beam (c). The beam behaviour of length L = 6.10 m is presented in Fig. 2 for the considered boundary conditions. The warping eect is evident. One can observe again that in large torsion beam behaviour is predominated by the shortening eect. For this section the linear part is limited to angles not higher than 0.3 rad. The same curves have been depicted by Lin [30] and the agreement is very good. twenty elements have been utilized in mesh process. Again, Ascione [21] studied the shortening eect on a cantilever I beam fully clamped at one end and free at the other end. We have tested their example equivalent to case (b) and obtained similar results of Mohri [32]. Example 2: Post-buckling analysis of cruciform section under a compressive load This example has been treated by Battini [33]. A clamped simply supported strut under a compressive load is investigated. A beam with a cruciform steel section is considered. For this beam, the lowest buckling mode is purely torsional. Using the model with 20 elements, the post-buckling behaviour has been performed using a tor150 125 100 75 50 25 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75

35a

In order to facilitate the lecture, where we have introduced the matrix [S(h0, a0)] given by S h0 ; a0 S 0 S 0 P h0 ; a0 P h0 ; a0 S 0 S 0 P h0 ; a0 :
t t

35b

These matrices depend on initial stresses and on exural torsional coupling. Matrices S 0 , S 0 and S 0 are function on initial stresses. Matrices [P(h0, a0)] and P h0 ; a0 include exuraltorsional coupling. Finally, the global matrix form of the incremental problem (31) can be written as K t fDrg Dkff g f0g; where the tangent stiness matrix [Kt] is given by K t K g K s0 with XlZ 1 K g Bh0 ; a0 t DBh0 ; a0 dn; 2 1 e XlZ 1 t K S 0 G S h0 ; a0 Gdn: 2 1 e 37a 36

37b; c

[Kg] is the geometric stiness matrix and [KS0] is the initial stress stiness matrix. By this way, a large torsion nonlinear nite element model for elastic thin-walled beams has been investigated. The calculation of the tangent stiness matrix was possible thanks to the introduction of new trigonometric variables c = (cos hx 1) and s = sin hx. 6. Numerical investigations A nite element model based on 3D beam element including warping and large torsion has been presented previously. Due to highly coupled and nonlinear equilibrium equations, iterative methods are adopted in the solution. The obtained tangent matrix accounts for large displacements, initial stresses, large torsion and exural torsional coupling. This element referenced B3Dw is implanted in a general nite element package. Some examples are presented hereafter. They concern the nonlinear behaviour of beams in torsion. The validation is followed by investigation of post-buckling of struts and beams in buckling and lateral buckling behaviour by reference to some known examples. At the end, the performance of the proposed element is outlined by comparison of postbuckling behaviour of mono-symmetric sections with a commercial code. In what follows, the ability of the element to capture accurate bifurcations is demonstrated. When the equilibrium curves present singular points, New-

Mx(Nm)

c b
Mx
L= 6.10m Linear

x
2.00

Fig. 2. Load-end twist variation for dierent boundary conditions.

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

700 600 500 400

679

P(kN)

E = 210; G= 80.7GPa L=1m t=4mm 16 cm

300 x 200 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60

Fig. 3. Post-buckling behaviour of cruciform section.

self-weight using 40 beam elements B3Dw (as in [30]). The load deection paths are depicted in Fig. 4a. When the self-weight is neglected the bifurcation load is 32.54 N. This value is close to the analytical solution derived in Timoshenko [35]. When the self-weight is included, a bifurcation load is obtained at 25.42 N. This value is very close to Lin [30] who obtained 25.58 N. Woolcock measured the deection of the beam in post-buckling range up to 120 mm. The obtained response shown in Fig. 4b, agrees well with the experimental values measured by Woolcock [14]. Lin [30] presented a similar curve and Teh [34] suggested this example as a benchmark for model validation. Example 4: Large deection of a cantilever beam in postbuckling behaviour The last example concerns the post-buckling behaviour of a cantilever I beam with a concentrated load at the free end. This example has been analysed by Lin [30] and Chroscielewski [36]. The geometrical and material properties are: b = 300, h = 325, tf = tw = 25 (in mm); L = 4.8 m; E = 200; G = 76.92 GPa. Since the section has large anges (b % h), the ratio Iz/Iy = 0.286 is very high. It has been proved that in this case, the lateral buckling stability is predominated by pre-buckling deections [16,37]. For such sections, analytical solutions derived from nonlinear stability are more ecient than linear stability solutions. In this way, the analytical buckling loads accounted from linear and nonlinear stability are respectively 874 and 1035 kN. The dierence between linear and nonlinear stability is very impressive. The load-tip displacements of the cantilever are depicted in Fig. 5 and compared to results of Lin [30]. Fourty beam elements B3Dw have been used in mesh process. A buckling load is observed at 1001.84 kN. This value is then close to nonlinear stability prediction. In the post-buckling range, the obtained deection is large compared to beam slenderness (wmax/L % 0.60). The torsion angle variation pictured in Fig. 6, reaches 2 rad. This example proves the ability of B3Dw to capture highly nonlinear behaviour.

sion moment of 0.03 N m at the mid-length as an imperfection. The buckling load is observed at 266 KN. According to Battini [33], the solution of eigenvalue problem leads to a buckling load equal to 272.57 kN. The post-buckling response of the beam is depicted in Fig. 3. The agreement with Battini [33] is good. Example 3: Experimental study of post-buckling behaviour of a cantilever beam Woolcock [14] presented laboratory tests of aluminium cantilever I beams in the post-buckling range. A concentrated load was applied at the cantilever tip. The geometric dimensions and elastic constants are b = 21.84; h = 75.79; tf = 3.10; tw = 2.2 mm; L = 3.3 m; E = 64.1; G = 25.5 GPa. The geometric constants are available in Teh [34]. The self-weight is 7.63 N/m. In this study, the postbuckling behaviour has been analysed with and without
without self-weight
Q(kN)

50 40 30 20 10 0

with self-weight

3.30m

Test area
w(m)

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40
4000

Fig. 4a. Eect of self-weight on load deection curve.

3000

Q(kN) Lin&al B3Dw Lin&al

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

B3Dw Q(kN)
2000

lateral displacement v deflection w

1000
3.30m

4.80m
w(m)
0 1

Q Tip displacement (m)

2 3

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

Fig. 4b. Load deection curve near the buckling load.

Fig. 5. Load-tip displacements for cantilever I beam subjected to end force.

680
4000

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683 Table 1 Dimensions and geometric constants for the selected I sections studied in 6-2 Bi symmetric section h = 300 mm, b = 150 mm, tf = 10.7, tw = 7.1 mm A = 51.88 cm2; Iy = 7998.98 cm4 Iz = 602.71 cm4; J = 15.57 cm4; Ix = 125.93 103 cm6; bz = 0.0 Mono symmetric section:

Q(kN)
3000

2000

4.80m

b, tf h
x(rad)

b, tf

1000

tw b, tf

tw b/2, tf

0 0.50 1.00 1.50

2.00

The bottom ange width is reduced to b/ 2 = 75 mm A = 43.86 cm2, Iy = 6011.84 cm4 Iz = 339.39 cm4, J = 12.51 cm4, Ix = 27.985 103 cm6, bz = 10.48 cm, zc = 8.6 cm

Fig. 6. Load-twist angle variation at the free end.

6.2. Eciency of the proposed element This example is done to evaluate the eciency of B3Dw for capturing bifurcations und post-buckling behaviour of mono-symmetric I beams. It has been proved that Wagners coecients have a predominant incidence on stability of beam lateral buckling behaviour [38]. In the present model, Wagners coecients by, bz and bx have been included in material matrix behaviour (16). They operate in bending moments (My and Mz), in bimoment (Bx) and in Wagners moment (MR). According to linear stability analysis, analytical solutions are available for lateral buckling of simply supported beams with mono-symmetric sections. In the case of loads acting on shear point, the buckling moments expressions are the following: 2 3 s  2 p2 EI z 4 I GJL x 5: M b C1 2 C 3 bz C 3 bz 2 1 2 Iz p EI x L 38 Coecients C1 and C3 are derived for dierent load cases applied to the beam. Discussion of this relationship has been undertaken in Mohri [39]. From (38), one can remark that two distinctive solutions exist for buckling moments. This means that beam resistance to lateral buckling depends on load direction. Nevertheless, Wagners coecient bz vanishes for a doubly symmetric I section. Consequently, the beam resistance is not dependant on load direction. In the case of mono-symmetric I section, coecient bz is not zero. The beam resistance is then dependent on load direction. For this task, two steel beams with I sections are considered. The rst section has a doubly symmetric section with dimensions (b, h, tf, tw = 150, 300, 10.7, 7.1 mm). The second section is mono-symmetric with the same dimensions but the lower ange width has been reduced to 75 mm. The geometric properties of the two sections needed in the analysis are summarized in Table 1. B3Dw results are compared here to 3D beam elements available in Abaqus code [40] and taking warping into consideration. The post-buckling behaviour of the beam with bi-symmetric I section is pictured in Fig. 7. B3Dw results are in excellent
120 100 80 60 40
Q 78.0 Abaqus Proposed (B3Dw )

Q(kN)

20
6m

v
0.10 0.15

v
v(m)
0.20 0.25

0.05

Fig. 7. (Q, v) response of doubly symmetric I beam under a concentrated load.

agreement with Abaqus prediction. The bifurcation is produced at the same value of 78 kN for the two load directions. This value agrees with analytical solutions computed from (38). When the mono-symmetric cross-section is considered, the post-buckling equilibrium curves obtained from Abaqus code and B3Dw element are depicted in Fig. 8a and b. One can remark that the Abaqus bifurcations are independent to load direction and the same bifurcation is observed at 43.98 kN for the load directions either positive or negative. With B3Dw elements, the bifurcations and the post-buckling behaviour of the beam depend on load direction. Bifurcations are produced at 36.50 kN for positive load and 53.38 in negative direction. Beam strength to lateral buckling is higher for negative direction putting the largest ange in compression. These values are in agreement with the positive and negative analytical solutions derived from (38). 6.3. Lateral buckling of Tee sections Anderson and Trahair [38] presented a series of laboratory test results of cantilevers with bi symmetric, mono symmetric and Tee sections loaded in various ways. As pointed by Teh [34], these results are useful for checking the ability of a beam element to simulate eects of section mono-symmetry on the lateral buckling load of a exural member. Results concerning Tee section are reported here. The section constants used in the study are available in [34].

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

70 60 80 50 40 30
43.98

681

Q(kN)

100 Q(kN)

60

53.38 QQQ+
v(m) 40

Q+

Q+
20

36.50

6m

6m

Q-

Q-

Q+

20

10

6m
v 0.05 0. 10 0.15 0.20 0.25

6m
0 -0.25 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05

-0.20

-0.15

-0.10

-0.05

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

(a) Abaqus results

(b) Proposed (B3Dw results)

Fig. 8. Eect of load direction on post-buckling response of mono-symmetric I beam (Q, v curves).

6.4. Buckling of a cantilever beam with an arbitrary section

Qz

Tee L=1.27m

600 Qz(N) 500

Qz

400 370 300 200 100 L=1.27 m

146

Qz w 0.15

0
-0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.05 0.10

The last example investigates the buckling of cantilever beam with arbitrary section considered in [9]. The section dimensions are shown in Fig. 10a. The geometric constants used in are: A = 8.00 cm2, Iy = 114.87 cm4, Iz = 7.5446 cm4, J = 0.667 cm4, Ix = 70.94 cm6, IR = 10.61 103 cm6, by = 5.2 cm, bz = 2.9 cm, bx = 3 mm, yc = 1.3 cm, zc = 2.7 cm. For this section buckling load has been computed on Abaqus using 3D beam including warping (B31OS) and shell elements (S8R5). One obtains respectively a buckling

Fig. 9. Load deection graph of Tee cantilever beam, L = 1.27 m.

E= 300; G= 115 MPa

Table 2 Comparison of lateral buckling loads for Tee section (values in N) L(m) 1.27 1.65 Sense load Downward Upward Downward Upward Test [38] 149 374 97 200 Teh [34] 150 375 94 191 Hsiao [20] 150 375 102 200 Present 146 370 94 192
27 C z 20

2m

y G 634 43.8 thickness 5mm 40mm 100mm

13 6.3

The other parameters not shown in [34] and needed in analysis are IR = 0.89 109 m6, bz = 0.029 m, zc = 0.022 m. For this section, two slenderness L = 1.27 and L = 1.65 m are studied. A concentrated load Qz is applied to each beam at the free end in upward and downward directions. In order to capture lateral post-buckling paths, some imperfections in bending and torsion are applied to the beam. The load deection at the free end of the beam with L = 1.27 m is depicted in Fig. 9 for two load directions. For these beam, the bifurcation are produced respectively at 146 and 370 N for downward and upward directions. Similar curves are obtained for beam slenderness L = 1.65 m. Bifurcations are observed at 192 and 94 N. Comparison of available results reported in literature are dressed in Table 2. One can observe that test results are well produced with B3Dw simulation.

Fig. 10a. Section dimensions.

50 P(N) 40 30 20
(1) (2)

13.9
10 0 0.20

(1): With Wagner terms (2): Without Wagner terms v(m) 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

Fig. 10b. Eect of Wagner terms on post-buckling behaviour of nonsymmetric section (P, v) curve.

682
50

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683

(2)
(1)

P(N)
40

30

20

13.9
10

(1): With Wagner terms (2): Without Wagner terms

w(m)
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

Fig. 10c. Eect of Wagner terms on post-buckling behaviour of nonsymmetric section (P, w) curve.

50 40 30 20

P(N)
(1) (2)

13.9
10 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50

(1): With Wagner terms (2): Without Wagner terms

Fig. 10d. Eect of Wagner terms on post-buckling behaviour of nonsymmetric section. (P, hx) curve.

load of 13.77 and 14.13 N. For this section, the post-buckling range exhibits a coupled exural torsional behaviour and displacements v, w and hx are present. In order to clarify the importance of Wagners terms (by, bz, bx), the equilibrium curves are computed in two ways. In the rst, they are found with consideration of all the geometric constants listed above. In the other way, the equilibrium paths are obtained by omitting Wagners coecients. All the results are depicted in Figs. 10b10d. The buckling load is obtained at 13.9 N. Wagner terms have no incidence on buckling load but the post-buckling ranges are highly dependant.

7. Conclusions A nonlinear model has been investigated for large torsion behaviour of thin-walled beams. Kinematics and Greens strain tensor are derived. Trigonometric functions c = cos hx 1 and s = sin hx are used in the whole model. The resulting equilibrium equations and the material behaviour are all nonlinear and highly coupled. In order to overcome this diculty, matrix representation has been followed. The equilibrium equations and the elastic material behaviour have been formulated as a function on two trial vectors {h} and {a} where {h} represents displacement

gradient vector and {a} is a vector devoted to the functions c and s and another variable w. These vectors are considered as unknowns of the problem to be solved. The model has been extended to nite element representation considering large torsion and exuraltorsional coupling. The trigonometric functions c and s are again included without any assumption. A 3D beam with 7 degrees of freedom taking warping into account has been built (B3Dw element). The equilibrium equations are derived in discrete form. For nonlinear behaviour, the tangent stiness matrix is carried out in terms of large displacements and initial stresses. Due to large torsion and exuraltorsional coupling e nl a0 ; h0 ; S 0 ; consideration, new matrices Bnl a; B S 0 and S 0 appear in the geometric and initial stress parts of the tangent stiness matrix. B3Dw has been applied to nonlinear beam behaviour in bending and pure torsion. Benchmark solutions available in literature have been chosen in the validation procedure. The studied examples outlined the discrepancy between linear and nonlinear behaviour in presence of large displacements. Good agreement is observed, in particular for Example 2 where the eect of the shortening term is evident. Many examples have been considered for the post-buckling behaviour of struts under axial loads and for beams in lateral buckling behaviour. It has been proved that pre-buckling deections are of primary importance in beam lateral buckling of beams. This phenomenon, ignored in classical linear stability, is linked to the ratio of bending inertial moment Iz/Iy of the cross-section. When this ratio is large (higher than 0.10), nonlinear stability solutions are very appropriate and solutions deriving from linear stability models are no longer valid. It has been checked that bifurcations obtained from B3Dw are close to nonlinear stability predictions. Again, the obtained path following curves of beams in lateral buckling are in agreement with the published examples existing in literature in both numerical and test elds. The eciency of the proposed element has been proved for dierent cross-section shapes. In the present paper, load eccentricity eects from centroid and shear point are not considered in nite element procedure of the present paper. Load eccentricities contribute to the right-hand side and to the tangent stiness matrix. The beam lateral buckling is highly dependant on load eccentricities. At this stage, load eccentricities is incorporated in nite element but only linear analysis is possible actually. Contribution of load eccentricities in tangent stiness matrix is a challenge work which is in good progress now. References
[1] Vlasov VZ. Thin walled elastic beams, Moscow, French translation: ` ces longues en voiles minces. Paris: Eyrolles; 1962. Pie [2] Barsoum RS, Gallagher RH. Finite element analysis of torsional and torsionalexural stability problems. Int J Numer Methods Eng 1970;2:33552. [3] Bazant ZP, El Nimeiri M. Large-deection spatial buckling of thin walled beams and frames. J Eng Mech Div 1973;99:125981.

F. Mohri et al. / Computers and Structures 86 (2008) 671683 [4] Yang YB, McGuire W. Stiness matrix for geometric nonlinear analysis. J Struct Eng 1986;112:85377. [5] Laudiero F, Zaccaria D. Finite element analysis of stability of thinwalled beams of open section. Int J Mech Sci 1988;30:54357. [6] Kim SB, Kim MY. Improved formulation for spatial stability and free vibration of thin-walled tapered beams and space frames. Eng Struct 2000;22:44658. [7] Kwak HY, Kim DY, Lee HW. Eect of warping in geometric nonlinear analysis of spatial beams. J Construct Steel Res 2001;57:72951. [8] Pi YL, Bradford MA. Eects of approximations in analyses of beams of open thin-walled cross-section. Part II: 3-D non-linear behaviour. Int J Numer Method Eng 2001;51:77390. [9] Turkalj G, Brnic J, Prpic-Orsic J. Large rotation analysis of elastic thin-walled beam-type structures using ESA approach. Comput Struct 2003;81:185164. [10] Gregory M. Elastic torsion of members of thin open cross section. Aust J Appl Sci 1961;12:17493. [11] Gobarah AA, Tso WK. A non-linear thin-walled beam theory. Int J Mech Sci 1971;13:102538. [12] Black MM. Non-linear behaviour of thin-walled unsymmetric beam sections subject to bending and torsion. In: Thin-walled structures. London: Chatto & Windus; 1967. p. 87102. [13] Moore DB. A non-linear theory for the behaviour of thin-walled sections subjected to combined bending and torsion. Thin-Walled Struct 1986;4:44966. [14] Woolcock ST, Trahair NS. Post-buckling behavior of determinate beams. J Eng Mech Div ASCE 1974;100:15171. [15] Achour B, Roberts TM. Non-linear strains and stability of thinwalled bars. J Construct Steel Res 2000;56:23752. [16] Mohri F, Azrar L, Potier-Ferry M. Lateral post-buckling analysis of thin-walled open section beams. Thin-Walled Struct 2002;40:101336. [17] Attard MM. Lateral buckling analysis of beams by the FEM. Comput Struct 1986;23:21731. aire des structures [18] De Ville de Goyet V. L analyse statique non line ` sections non syme es de poutres a trique par la spatiales forme thode des e le ments nis. Doctorat dissertation, University of me Liege, Belgium, 1989. [19] Ronagh HR, Bradford MA, Attard MM. Nonlinear analysis of thinwalled members of variable cross-section, Part I: theory. Comput Struct 2000;77:28599. [20] Hsiao KM, Lin WY. A co-rotational formulation for thin-walled beams with monosymmetric open section. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 2000;190:116385. [21] Ascione L, Feo L. On the non-linear statical behaviour of thin-walled elements beams of open cross-sections: a numerical approach. Int J Comput Eng Sci 2001;2:51336. [22] Machado SP, Cortinez VH. Lateral buckling of thin-walled open composite bisymmetric beams with pre-buckling and shear deformation. Eng Struct 2005;27:118596.

683

[23] Pi Y-L, Bradford MA, Uy B. A rational elasto-plastic spatially curved thin-walled beam element. Int J Numer Methods Eng 2007;70(3):25390. [24] Pi Y-L, Bradford MA, Tin-Loi F. Flexuraltorsional buckling of shallow arches with open thin-walled section under uniform radial loads. Thin Walled Struct 2007;45(3):35262. [25] Attard MM. Nonlinear theory of non-uniform torsion of thin-walled open beams. Thin-Walled Struct 1986;4:10134. [26] Mohri F, Azrar L, Potier-Ferry M. Flexuraltorsional post-buckling analysis of thin-walled elements with open sections. Thin-Walled Struct 2001;39:90738. thode Asymptotique [27] Cochelin B, Damil N, Potier-Ferry MM. e rique , Collection Me thodes nume riques. Dirige e par Piotr Nume Breitkopf. Edition Hermes Science Publications; 2007. [28] Krajcinovic D. A consistent discrete elements technique for thinwalled assemblages. Int J Solids Struct 1969;5:63962. [29] Shakourzadeh H, Guo YQ, Batoz JL. A torsion bending element for thin-walled beams with open and closed cross sections. Comput Struct 1995;55:104554. [30] Lin WY, Hsiao KM. Co-rotational formulation for geometric nonlinear analysis of doubly symmetric thin-walled beams. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 2001;190:602352. lisation des structures par e le ments nis, [31] Batoz JL, Dhatt G. Mode vol. 2. Paris: Hermes; 1990. ` le e le ment ni pour le [32] Mohri F, Damil N, Potier-Ferry M. Un mode ` parois minces et a ` sections ouvertes. aire des poutres a calcul non line eme 7 colloque national en calcul des structures, Giens 2005, vol. 2. Lavoisier, Paris: Hermes; 2005. p. 5716. ISBN 2-7462-1140-8. [33] Battini JM, Pacoste C. Co-rotational beam elements with warping eects in instabilities problems. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 2002;191:175589. [34] Teh LH. Beam element verication for 3D elastic steel frame analysis. Comput Struct 2004;82:116779. [35] Timoshenko SP, Gere JM. Theory of elastic stability. 2nd ed. NY: McGraw Hill; 1961. [36] Chroscielewski J, Makowski J, Stumpf H. Finite element analysis of smith, folded and multi-shell structures. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng 1997;141:146. [37] Trahair NS. Flexuraltorsional buckling of structures. London: Chapman & Hall; 1993. [38] Andeson JM, Trahair NS. Stability of monosymmetric beams and cantilevers. J Struct Div ASCE 1972;98:264762. [39] Mohri F, Brouki A, Roth JC. Theoretical and numerical stability analyses of unrestrained, mono-symmetric thin-walled beams. J Construct Steel Res 2003;59:6390. [40] Hibbit, Karlsson and Sorensen Inc. Abaqus Standard Users Manuel, Version 6.4. Abaqus, Pawtucket, RI, USA, 2003.