PgDip/MSc Energy Programme / Advanced Completions & Subsea Systems Axial Loading

The Robert Gordon University 2009 1

Mechanical design for tubing strings
Preview
This topic describes all the loads acting on tubing strings and how they are
calculated; it includes all the equations for axial, buckling, burst and collapse for
API based tubing design.
Axial Forces and Length Changes
If the tubing is free to move, changes in temperature and pressure induce
loading and length changes in the string. The following conventions have been
used in the equations presented in this topic:
- Increases in length are considered positive and reductions in length are
negative
- Axial tensile forces are positive and axial compressive forces are negative.
For tubing that is free to move, changing conditions will cause changes in both
the forces acting on the tubing and the overall tubing length. All effects like
weight, pressure/area, fluid friction, tubing plugs, ballooning and temperature
will change its length. However, ballooning and temperature, unlike the others,
will not induce axial forces in the string. The axial forces induced in anchored
tubing are the sum of the axial forces induced if the tubing were free to move
plus the axial forces created by resisting the overall length change.
Total Axial Forces
The total axial force is the sum of the primary axial forces, these are:
- Load provided by tubing weight
- Buoyancy
- Temperature effects
- Ballooning effects
- Fluid Friction
- Slack off and over pull
- Piston effect
- Bucking
Equation 1
A summary of each force and its general equation are presented in the following
pages
F F F F F F F F F
TOTAL WT PR TEMP BAL XO FR PLUG SO
= + + + + + + +
PgDip/MSc Energy Programme / Advanced Completions & Subsea Systems Axial Loading
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Weight
The weight of the tubing acts in the vertical direction down. This force can be
divided into two components: one acting parallel to the pipe axis and one acting
perpendicular to the pipe axis as illustrated in the following figure.
Figure 1. Axial Loads on Tubing Weight
The component N is resisted by the wellbore, and if friction is neglected, N does
not affect the axial force profile in the string. The normal component can be
calculated using the following equation.
Equation 2 Fwt = W x cos A
Where
W = Weight of the tubing, lb
A = Deviation angle
The component N is resisted by the wellbore, and if friction is neglected, N does
not affect the axial force profile in the string.
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Buoyancy
An open-ended tube freely suspended in a fluid is subjected to hydrostatic
pressure as shown in the following Figure 2. The result of this pressure acting on
the cross-sectional area at the bottom of the string is a compressive axial force
in the tubing.
Figure 2. Pressure Acting on Exposed Tubing Areas
This force is often referred to as the buoyancy effect and can be determined
using the following equation:
Equation 3
Where:
p = Pressure at the bottom of the string, psi
A
o
= Area corresponding to the nominal pipe OD, in
2
A
i
= Area corresponding to the nominal pipe ID, in
2
Where expansion devices are required, pressures will still act on any exposed
areas therefore, the difference between areas will become the resultant force.
The following figure illustrates the areas where pressures and loads act on
various expansion devices.
( ) F p A A B o i =
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Figure 3. PBR and Expansion Joints
What is critical to get right is the seal bore area (A
b
). This is the real dimension
of the parts that move relative to each other:
- For an expansion joint this would normally be the OD of the male member,
as the seals are normally on the female member
- For a PBR, this would normally be the ID of the female member, as the
seals are usually on the male member.
A similar analysis can be used with any device, which joins two sections of tubing
even if no relative movement is possible.
Piston Effect
The pressure / area effect alters both the axial forces in the string and results in
tubing movement if movement is allowed. The force generated through pressure
acting on area can be caused by any of the pressure area phenomenon
mentioned; tubing ends, crossovers, expansion devices and plugs). The change
in length (often termed as the piston effect) is calculated with Hookes law as
follows:
Equation 4
( )
AL
LF
E A A
o i
=

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Where
L = Measured depth of the tubing
F = Force (due to plug, expansion device, crossover etc.)
Thermal loads
Thermal changes resulting from well operations such as stimulation or well
shutdown generate forces and deformation. These forces can be calculated using
Hookes law. Deformation caused by temperature changes can be determined
using equation 5.
Equation 5
Where:
C
T
= Coefficient of thermal expansion, (Low alloy carbon steel is 6.7 x 10
-6
/F)
AT = Average change in temperature, F from the base case to the load case
L = Length of tubing
If the tubing is free to move, there is no axial force associated with a change in
temperature. If the tubing is anchored, a force will be exerted on the tubing to
oppose the length change. The force is given by Hookes law:
Equation 6
Poisson Effect - Ballooning
Radial expansion or contraction of the pipe that is caused by a change in
pressure, results in length changes of the tubing string. The change in length is a
function of the average change in pressure from the base case within each
section of constant OD and wall thickness. The length change is calculated as
follows:
Equation 7
Where:
AP = The change in pressure compared to the base case
= Poissons Ratio
A A L C TL
TEMP T
=
( )
( )
F
L E A A
L
C E T A A
TEMP
TEMP o i
P
T o i
=

=
A
A
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Figure 4. Ballooning and Reverse Ballooning
If the tubing is free to move, there is no axial force associated with ballooning. If
the tubing is anchored, the force required to prevent the tubing movement from
ballooning is calculated as follows:
Equation 8
Loads caused by fluid friction
Fluid friction is caused by fluids moving inside the tubing and the associated
friction between the fluid and the tubing wall. When fluid is pumped down the
tubing string, fluid friction tends to lengthen the string. Likewise, when fluid is
flowed up the tubing, the string shortens. If the tubing is fixed at the packer, the
force is the sum of the forces calculated assuming free tubing movement and the
force induced to resist the movement due to fluid friction:
Equation 9
( ) F A p A p
BAL i i o o
= 2 A A
( ) ( )
F
p
L
A L
L E A A
L
p
L
A L
L
FR i
FR o i
p
i
p
=

+

=

|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
|
A
A
A
A
A 2
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Where:
L = Length below the point being considered (above for fluid injection), ft
L
p
= The length to the packer
Note, for a flowing well, Ap/AL is assumed to be positive. This force causes a
change in length, which is calculated from Hookes law as follows:
Packer forces (Slack-off and Over Pull)
When the packer and tubing hanger have been set, the base case forces are
locked in to the completion. All subsequent load cases produce forces which are
relative to this base case. The easiest way to adjust the base case axial load is to
use slack-off (or less commonly overpull). This is usually performed by setting
the packer and then slacking off (or overpulling) weight onto the packer. This
weight is the slack-off weight. In practice this is achieved by setting the packer
with the hanger some distance out of the bowl. It is this distance (or stick-up)
which determines how much slack-off is applied to packer when the hanger is
lower into the bowl. The stick-up (initial change in tubing length due to slack-off
or overpull) is calculated with Hookes law:
Equation 10
Slacking off on the tubing results in initially buckling the pipe. The appropriate
equation from the Buckling Loads and Modes is used to calculate the length
change component as a result of buckling. The reduction in length from slacking
off, or the increase in length from picking up is subtracted from the total length
change from the load case to determine the overall change in length.
Buckling
Tubulars under axial loading tend to shorten, as the compressive force increases,
a critical force will be reached that corresponds to an unstable condition. At this
critical and higher compressive load, any amount of crookedness of the tube or
slight movement of the load will cause the tube to buckle helically. In the
presence of internal and external pressures, tubing behaves as if it was
subjected to a force called the effective buckling force.
Equation 11
( )
AL
F L
E A A
SO
SO p
o i
=

( )
( )
( )
F F A A
F p A p A
EFF TOTAL
t i
o i
TOTAL o o i i
=
+

= +
o o
2
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Buckling in tubing and coiled tubing (CT) strings
Buckling in tubing strings is undesired as it can lead to permanent deformation of
the tubing and failure. For Coiled Tubing, buckling is actually expected and can
be calculated, particularly for well intervention operations. Two (2) types of
buckling are present, these are:
- Axial
- Helical
In Coiled tubing operations buckling will dictate how far in the well can the string
reach. Helical buckling results in what is known as a lock-up condition at which
it is impossible to push the CT further into the well. Lock up is the curling of
the string inside the tubing or casing until it reaches the outer wall and friction
overcomes the axial load being transmitted to the string.
Figure 5. Helical buckling schematic
If the effective buckling force, F
EFF
, is negative at packer depth, then F
EFF
will
approach zero moving up the string as a result of the increasing tension due to
tubing weight. At some depth, F
EFF
will become zero. This point is defined as the
'neutral point'. Below the neutral point the pipe is buckled, whereas above this
point the pipe is straight.
Burst loading
Pressurizing of the tubing string not only generates axial loads and elongation
but can also result in the pipe exploding (Burst).
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Burst is pipe failure due to it being subjected to a pressure differential such that
a high pressure on the inside is not balanced by an adequate pressure on the
outside. Critical areas and conditions for burst loading are:
At the top of the tubing string where there is no external fluid pressure back-
up to offset an increase in internal pressure
During pressure testing or stimulation operations where additional surface
pressures are applied
Determination of the burst design criteria for tubular strings considers
fundamentally the opposed case to the collapse in that for burst the internal
casing pressures will dictate the failure conditions. The API burst rating is
defined as:
Equation 12
Where
YS = Yield strength (psi)
t = Wall thickness(in)
O.D. = Nominal outside diameter(in)
Under combined loading conditions such as axial load and internal tubing
pressures, pipe rating is significantly reduced.
Collapse loads
Collapse might occur in a tubing string when the external pressures exceed the
rating of the pipe. Typically, high external pressures are generated and these
are balanced with internal tubing pressures due to hydrostatic of the produced
fluids or additional pressure applied.
Summary
The main loads acting on a tubing string are: axial forces, pressure loads acting
either on the external of the tubing (collapse) or the internal side of the tubing
(Burst). The main forces generating tensile stress are:
- Load provided by tubing weight
- Hydrostatic pressure acting on the cross-sectional area at the bottom of
the string is a compressive axial force in the tubing.
- Temperature effects
- Ballooning effects
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- Fluid Friction
- Slack off and over pull
- Piston effect
- Bucking
In addition to axial forces that generate tensile stress in the tubing, burst and
collapse conditions must be accounted for in tubing design. Depending on the
severity of the well conditions (pressures, temperature and well path) a relatively
simple tubing stress analysis can be done using API recommended practices.
However, for deeper and more complex completion geometries a tri-axial stress
analysis might be required.
Further Reading
1. "Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in Packers," A. Lubinski, W. S.
Althouse and J. L. Logan, Petroleum Transactions June 1962, pp. 655-
670.
References
1. Developments in Petroleum Engineering. Stability of Tubulars and
Deviation Control. Miska S.
2. "Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in Packers," A. Lubinski, W. S.
Althouse and J. L. Logan, Petroleum Transactions June 1962, pp. 655-
670.
3. "Movement, Forces and Stresses Associated With Combination Tubing
Strings Sealed in Packers," D. J. Hammerlindl, February, 1977, J. of Pet.
Tech., pp. 195-208.
4. "Tubing Movement, Forces, and Stresses in Dual Flow Assembly
Installations," Kenneth S. Durham, SPE 9265, Paper presented at the
55th Annual Fall Technical Conference of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME, Dallas, Texas, Sept. 21-24, 1980