ESEM 5133 CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

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Introduction This topic is the second of two series on foundations of curriculum. The first part of the topic focuses on the psychological foundation of curriculum; the second part covers the sociological foundations of curriculum. At the end of the topic, you will be able to examine and discuss factors tha influence curriculum design and development.

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Psychological Foundation of Curriculum Psychology defined Psychology is the science] of mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand humanity by both discovering general principles and exploring specific cases. Psychologists explore such concepts as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Some, especially depth psychologists, also consider the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods, someespecially clinical and counseling psychologistsat times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology incorporates research from the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities, such as philosophy.

(Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) 2.2 Psychology and Curriculum Psychology theories provide insight into understanding the teaching and learning process: What is learning? Why do learners respond as they do to teachers efforts? What impact does the school and culture have on students learning?

They also provide principles and direction for curriculum developer: How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level of student participation in learning the curriculums various contents?

Orstein (1998) states that:

Psychology is concerned with the question of how people learn and curriculum specialists ask how psychology can contribute to the design and delivery of curriculum. Psychology provides the basis for understanding a basis for understanding the teaching and learning process. Teaching the curriculum and learning the curriculum are interrelated and psychology cements the relationship. It furnishes theories and principles of learning that influence teacher-student behaviours within the context of the curriculum. Psychological foundations will continue to be a key basis for curricular thoughts and action.

2.3

Psychology and Theories of Learning

Orstein (1989:101) states that psychology forms the basis for the methods, materials, and the activities of learning and it subsequently serves as the impetus for many curriculum decisions. The major theories of learning have been classified into three groups: 2.3.1 Behaviourism Behaviourism, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms doincluding acting, thinking and feelingcan and should be regarded as behaviors. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind. Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling). Key Players: Thorndike Connectionism, Pavlov (and Watson) Classical Conditioning, Skinner Operant Conditioning, Bandura Observable Learning and Modeling and Gagn Hierarchical Learning (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism) Theories Connectionism Description Defined learning as a connection or association of an increasing number of habits. (More complicated associations means higher levels of understanding.) It justifies use of rewards and punishments, especially Skinners operant model. The classical condition theory of learning emphasizes that learning consists of eliciting an unconditioned response by using previously neutral stimuli. The unconditioned stimuli create reflexes that are not learned, but are instinctual. The neutral and unconditioned stimuli are introduced at the same time. Unconditioned stimuli are gradually removed, and the neutral stimuli elicit the same reflex. 2

Classical Conditioning (Pavlol)

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Observational Learning and Modeling (Bandura)

Operant conditioning is the use of a behavior's antecedent and/or its consequence to influence the occurrence and form of behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of reflexive (reflex) behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences. Students learn through observation and modeling. He showed that aggressive behavior can be learned from watching adults fighting, violent cartoons or even violent video games. Passive behavior can also be learned from watching adults with subdued temperaments. Repeated demonstration and modeling is used by coaches in various sports, military endeavors, and is also used in the classroom setting to model and practice desired behaviours. Robert Gagne is best known for his learning outcomes, learning conditions, and his nine events of instruction. Gagnes theories have been applied to the design of instruction in several domains beyond the educational realm, such as the military, Instructional Systems Development, flying, troubleshooting, leadership, medical care, & engineering. Gagnes theory should be classified as instructional theory as opposed to a learning theory. A learning theory consists of a set of propositions and constructs that account for how changes in human performance abilities come about. On the other hand, an instructional theory seeks to describe the conditions under which one can intentionally arrange for the learning of specific performance outcomes.

Hierarchical Learning (Gagne)

2.3.2. Cognitive- Information Processing theories: (Cognitive Perspective: Piagets Cognitive Theory, The Montessouri Method, The Theories of Jean Piaget, Piaget's Influence: Tyler, Taba, Bruner, and Kohlberg, The Theories of Lev Vygotsky; Focus on Thinking and Learning) Cognitive Psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think. Piaget )a proponent of cognitivism) describes cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to maturity. The stages are: (a) (b) (c) Sensorimotor stage (birth to age of two) Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7) Concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11) 3

(d)

Formal Operations Stage (ages 11 onward)

Piagets cognitive stages presuppose a maturation process in the sense that development is a continuation and is based on previous growth. The stages are hierarchical and they form an order of increasingly sophisticated and integrated mental operations. Although the succession of stages is constant, stages of attainment may vary within certain limits that are function of heredity and environment. However, they do not change the stages or sequence (Orstein, 1989) Like Gagne , stages described as hierarchal . Learning involves: assimilation (filing info in an existing schema) accommodation (changing schemata to fit new info) Schema theory explains: importance of accessing prior knowledge and why cognitive dissonance strategies work. Task: Read and Discuss In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind using quantitative, positivist and scientific methods, that describes mental functions as information processing models. Theoretical Approach Cognitivism has two major components, one methodological, the other theoretical. Methodologically, cognitivism adopts a positivist approach and the belief that psychology can be (in principle) fully explained by the use of experiment, measurement and the scientific method. This is also largely a reductionist goal, with the belief that individual components of mental function (the 'cognitive architecture') can be identified and meaningfully understood. The second is the belief that cognition consists of discrete, internal mental states (representations or symbols) whose manipulation can be described in terms of rules oralgorithms. Cognitivism became the dominant force in psychology in the late-20th century, replacing behaviorism as the most popular paradigm for understanding mental function. Cognitive psychology is not a wholesale refutation of behaviorism, but rather an expansion that accepts that mental states exist. This was due to the increasing criticism towards the end of the 1950s of simplistic learning models. One of the most notable criticisms was Chomsky's argument that language could not be acquired purely through conditioning, and must be at least partly explained by the existence of internal mental states.

The main issues that interest cognitive psychologists are the inner mechanisms of human thought and the processes of knowing. Cognitive psychologists have attempted to throw light on the alleged mental structures that stand in a causal relationship to our physical actions. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology) 2.3.3 Phenomenology and Humanistic Psychology (Gestalt Theory, Maslow;s Self Actualizing Person, Rogers Non-directive and therapeutic Learning) During the 1950s, humanistic psychology began as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drove behavior while behaviorism studied the conditioning processes that produced behavior. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take the role of personal choice into account. Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individuals potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology was that people are innately good, with mental and social problems resulting from deviations from this natural tendency.

It emphasizes an optimistic view of human beings, as persons who have the ability to grow (human potential) Though it does not deny the effect of the environment, it sees human beings as able to transcend it to some degree It stresses health and actualization It is a reaction against a deterministic view of human beings Psychoanalysis has sometimes been called the "first force" in psychology Behaviorism was the second force Both first and second forces are deterministic in their view of people Humanistic psychology saw itself as the third force, stressing human freedom and human potential

Task Read and Discuss Humanistic Psychology (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_psychology) Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid20th century, drawing on the work of early pioneers like Carl Rogers and the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence

through investigations of meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and self-actualization.[1][2] Conceptual origins The humanistic approach has its balls in phenomenological and existentialist thought [3] (see Kierkegaard,Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Sartre). Eastern philosophy and psychology also play a central role in humanistic psychology, as each shares similar concerns about the nature of human existence and consciousness.[2] It is also sometimes understood within the context of the three different forces of psychology: behaviorism, psychoanalysis and humanism. Behaviorism grew out of Ivan Pavlov's work with the conditioned reflex, and laid the foundations for academic psychology in the United States associated with the names of John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. This school was later called the science of behavior. Abraham Maslow later gave behaviorism the name "the second force". The "first force" came out of Freud's research of psychoanalysis, and the psychologies of Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Otto Rank, Melanie Klein,Harry Stack Sullivan, and others. These theorists and practitioners, although basing their observations on extensive clinical data, primarily focused on the depth or "unconscious" aspects of human existence [4] In the late 1950s, psychologists concerned with advancing a more holistic vision of psychology convened two meetings in Detroit, Michigan. These psychologists, including Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Clark Moustakas, were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a psychology that focused on uniquely human issues, such as the self, selfactualization, health, hope, love, creativity, nature,being, becoming, individuality, and meaningthat is, a concrete understanding of human existence. Development of the field These preliminary meetings eventually led to other developments, which culminated in the description of humanistic psychology as a recognizable "third force" in psychology (along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis). Significant developments included the formation of theAssociation for Humanistic Psychology (AHP) in 1961 and the launch of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology (originally "The Phoenix") in 1961. Subsequently, graduate programs in Humanistic Psychology at institutions of higher learning grew in number and enrollment. In 1971, humanistic psychology as a field was recognized by 6

the American Psychological Association (APA) and granted its own division (Division 32) within the APA. Division 32 publishes its own academic journal called The Humanistic Psychologist.[2] The major theorists considered to have prepared the ground for Humanistic Psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May. Maslow was heavily influenced by Kurt Goldstein during their years together at Brandeis University. Psychoanalytic writers also influenced humanistic psychology. Maslow himself famously acknowledged his "indebtedness to Freud" in Towards a Psychology of Being[5] Other psychoanalytic influences include the work of Wilhelm Reich, who discussed an essentially 'good', healthy core self and Character Analysis(1933), and Carl Gustav Jung's mythological and archetypal emphasis. Other noteworthy inspirations for and leaders of the movement includeRoberto Assagioli, Gordon Allport, Medard Boss, Martin Buber (close to Jacob L. Moreno), James Bugental, Victor Frankl, Erich Fromm,Hans-Werner Gessmann, Amedeo Giorgi, Kurt Goldstein, Sidney Jourard, R. D. Laing, Clark Moustakas, Lewis Mumford, Fritz Perls,Anthony Sutich, Thomas Szasz, and Ken Wilber.[2][6] A human science view is not opposed to quantitative methods, but, following Edmund Husserl: 1) favors letting the methods be derived from the subject matter and not uncritically adopting the methods of natural science[7], and 2) advocates for methodological pluralism. Consequently, much of the subject matter of psychology lends itself to qualitative approaches (e.g., the lived experience of grief) , and quantitative methods are mainly appropriate when something can be counted without leveling the phenomena (e.g., the length of time spent crying). Counseling and therapy Humanistic psychology includes several approaches to counseling and therapy. Among the earliest approaches we find the developmental theory of Abraham Maslow, emphazising a hierarchy of needs and motivations; the existential psychology of Rollo May acknowledging human choice and the tragic aspects of human existence; and the person-centered or clientcentered therapy of Carl Rogers, which is centered on the clients' capacity for self-direction and understanding of his/her own development.[8] Other approaches to humanistic counseling and therapy include Gestalt therapy, humanistic psychotherapy, depth therapy, holistic health,encounter groups, sensitivity training, marital and family therapies, body work, and the existential psychotherapy of Medard Boss.[2]Existential-integrative psychotherapy, developed by Kirk Schneider (2008), is a relatively new development within humanistic and existential therapy. 7

Self-help is also included in humanistic psychology: Sheila Ernst and Lucy Goodison have described using some of the main humanistic approaches in self-help groups.[9][citation needed] Cocounselling, which is a purely self-help approach, is regarded as coming within humanistic psychology (see John Rowan's Guide to Humanistic Psychology). Humanistic theory has had a strong influence on other forms of popular therapy, including Harvey Jackins' Re-evaluation Counselling and the work of Carl Rogers. Humanistic psychology tends to look beyond the medical model of psychology in order to open up a nonpathologizing view of the person.[8]This usually implies that the therapist downplays the pathological aspects of a person's life in favour of the healthy aspects. A key ingredient in this approach is the meeting between therapist and client and the possibilities for dialogue. The aim of much humanistic therapy is to help the client approach a stronger and more healthy sense of self, also called self-actualization.[2][8] All this is part of humanistic psychology's motivation to be a science of human experience, focusing on the actual lived experience of persons.[2] Humanistic psychology and social issues Although social transformation may not have been the primary focus in the past, a large percentage of contemporary humanistic psychologists currently investigate pressing social, cultural, and gender issues [10]. Even the earliest writers who were associated with and inspired psychological humanism[2] explored topics as diverse as the political nature of "normal" and everyday experience (RD Laing), the disintegration of the capacity to love in modern consumerist society (Erich Fromm)[11], the growing technological dominance over human life (Medard Boss), and the question of evil (Rollo May-Carl Rogers debate). In addition, Maureen OHara, who worked with both Carl Rogers andPaolo Freire, has pointed to a convergence between the two thinkers given their distinct but mutually related focus on developing critical consciousness of situations which oppress and dehumanize.[12]

3.4 Humanistic Psychology and Learning Humanistic learning emphasizes that: Teachers are sensitive to the students world, not just the adult world. Learners are viewed as individuals, with diverse needs, abilities, and aptitudes The learners self concept and self esteem are considered as essential factors in learning Learning is considered holistic, not just cognitive; the act of learning involves emotions, feelings, and motor-dependent skills. 8

Learning is based on warm, friendly and democratic student-teacher interactions, coercive and strict disciplined measures are minimized. The quality of learning is considered as important than the quantity of learning; teachers nurture learners. Students share ideas, work together, and tutor and help each other; homogenous grouping, academic tracking, and competitive testing or programmes are minimized. Students and teachers plan together the experiences or activities of the curriculum. Students are given the choice and freedom; the extent of choice and freedom is related the maturity level and age of the students. Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and experimenting (Orstein, 1998)

4.0 SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM Sociology is the study of society, social process and social change is a growing science. It is essential for the development of a curriculum. Sociological foundations of education emphasizes on the role of the teachers, the community, and the administrations, the students and the historical traditions of a particular society. These include matters such as the school community relations, the school culture, the recruitment and the training of teachers, the history and geography of a particular community and the history of educational problems. (Ornstein,1998 mentioned: Schools exist within, not apart from, social contexts. Through their curricula, schools influence the cultures of the people that the schools serve. Likewise, the cultures affect and shape the schools and their curricula. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can alter society, and society can mold the school and its curriculum. We cannot meaningful consider the development or delivery of curriculum without reflecting on the relationship of school and society Schools today exists at a time when the many voices presenting different views of what it means to be a social beings are gaining audience. Social foundations of curriculum are crucial to our making decision that enable meaningful curriculum to be created and offered.

Observations: Man not only lives in a society, he grows and functions in a social context and various factors contribute to the growth of an individual. Education can hardly be separated from society. School is a replica of the society; it reflects the society and what happens in a society. Teachers and parents play prominent roles in a school. Culture occupies a significant place in a society. A community cannot grow without culture. Similarly, a society cannot survive without culture. As in every dynamic society there are problems, so in every school there are typical situations. Teachers are change agents; they have a distinct role as a social worker and community member. 9

4.3 Some Issues in Sociology and Curriculum Society, Education, and Schooling Post Modern Family Sex Roles and Sex Differences Moral Education Do Schools Make a Difference? Learning and earning: 1980s and 1990s

Task Class discussion. State your views on the following topics. Society and Malaysian Personality A Dynamic Changing Society and Education Schools as an agent of Change Education for All.

Conclusion a) What are impact of psychology on curriculum development and planning? b) How do sociological factors affect the planning, designing and development of curriculum in Malaysia. Provide examples.

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