CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

This chapter aims to review some literatures that relate and support to this research, related finding review and conceptual framework

A. Review of related theories 1. Attitude Oppenheim, (1992:174 - 175) defines, Attitude is a state of readiness, a tendency to respond in a certain manner when confronted with certain stimuli attitudes are reinforced by beliefs (the cognitive component), often attract strong feelings( the emotional component) which may lead to particular behavioural intents (the action tendency component). Zimbardo and Leipe (1991) in Simonso (2004:22) defines attitude as an evaluation

disposition toward some objects based upon cognition, affective reaction, behavioral intention and past behavior. In the line with previous According Setyobroto (2003: 88) attitude is a belief that organizations contain aspects of cognitive, conative, and affectiveemotional and developed a relatively fixed through experience and a readiness to react to certain objects in a positive or negative and can vary in quality and intensity. Although there are some differences in terms of attitudes, but based on previous opinions, it can be concluded that the attitude is a state in which one moves to act or do in social activities with certain feelings in response to a situation or condition of the objects in the surrounding environment. In addition it also provides readiness to respond positively or negatively toward the object or situation. Related to the previous definitions, there are components that form the structure of attitude. According to Azwar (2003:23-27), these three components are needed to take into account when we measure attitude. They are: a. cognitive component is representation of ones confidence, opinion, or beliefs of the attitude object. it is obtained through the combination of direct experience and information of attitude object from various sources

b. Affective component refers to the feeling and emotions that one has towards an attitude object, whether he/she likes or dislikes.. c. Conative/ behavior component is associated with a person's predisposition to act toward the attitude object. It is a persons tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an object Position of these three components can be described as follows,

Attitude Concept
cognitive component affective component conative component

Object

These three components are integrated. Before likes and dislikes (affective component) of an object, of course, one must know and convince in advance (the cognitive component). Then one ready to do an action. According to Shaver (in Mar'at, 1981), the component of cognition will answer the question what is thought or predicted about the object. Affective component answer question about what he feels (happy or unhappy) to the object, and conative components will answer how the willingness to act against the object ".

Language Attitude and Attitude towards English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia Language attitudes occur in bilingual or multilingual society. According Kridalaksana, (2001:197) language attitude is a mental position or feeling toward his own or another language. Like attitudes in general, language attitudes can be observed through the behavior of language user. Garvin and Mathiot in Sunarti Iing (2006:25) formulated three characteristic of language attitude: Language loyalty; pride; and awareness of the norm.

Loyalty of language is an attitude that encourages a speech community to maintain its language independence, if necessary, to prevent the entry of foreign influence. Pride of language is an attitude that encourages them to make the language as a symbol of identity that distinguishes it from other communities. While awareness of the norms will encourage users to use the language carefully, correctly and politely. The use and selection of vocabulary in language is one of the characteristics proposed by Dittmar (1976:181) to determine the attitude of the language. The use of vocabulary is the actualization of speech behavior. A positive attitude looks through the pride and tendency to use a particular vocabulary. The widespread use of English loanwords in Bahasa Indonesian either oral or written recently has lead to pro and contra of Indonesian users. Partly Indonesian speaker refused to use the loanword by reason purify bahasa Indonesian and others accept as the fact that this condition can not be rejected at a bilingual/multilingual society.

The importance of attitude In learning language Learning a language is closely related to the attitudes towards the languages. Karahan (2007: 84) stated that positive language attitudes let learner have positive orientation towards learning that language. As such, attitudes may play a very crucial role in language learning as they would appear to influence students success or failure in their learning. Then, Brown (2000: 181) describes several studies about the effects of attitude on language learning and concludes that positive attitudes towards the self, the native language group, and the target language group enhanced proficiency. Learners attitude may be helpful in learning, or it may become an obstacle. A positive attitude increases his/hers learning potential, while a negative attitude will often cause his/hers efforts to fail. Measuring Attitude To measure students' attitudes can be done by several methods such as behavioral observation, direct questioning, immediate disclosure, and using the attitude scale. (azwar, 2003:87-90). From all the methods, The last one is considered the most reliable method when it is compared with other methods (Azwar, 2003:95). Then Richard (1992:38) stated that 8

the most common scale to measure attitude is Linkert Scale. It is a collection of statements about an attitude object. From the responses of subjects in each statement can then be inferred about the direction and intensity of a person's attitude. Statement : Foreign languages are important for all educated adults. 1 2 Strongly disagree disagree 3 undecided 4 agree 5 strongly agree

2. Knowledge of Vocabulary and English Loanwords Vocabulary Knowledge in General Vocabulary knowledge which as also referred to as lexical knowledge or word knowledge (Laufer 1990) is rather difficult to define. There is no clear definition of this phrase. The linguists just gave an assumption or description relate to it. According to Bronson (2000:8) to have a knowledge means to know or be aware of things. Meanwhile according to Merriam-Webster English Dictionary, knowledge is the fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained through experience or association. Besides, knowledge has limitation in the stage of remembering, memorizing, recognizing, and recalling (Bloom in Richards 1992: 56) and it is not an act or any kind of Event (Robinson 1971:17). Some linguists describe the vocabulary knowledge in the continuum perspective. They consider that vocabulary knowledge is an incremental and gradual process (Schmmit in Sakai, 12:2009). It starts from unknown to knowing, it involves degree of knowledge, from less knowledge to more knowledge ( Waring in Huffman 2010:11 ). Vocabulary knowledge is not an all-or nothing phenomenon (Thorpe, 15: 2004). For example, a learner may be able to recognize a word and retrieve its meaning when encountered in a text but may not be able to recall how to spell it when asked in a test. Then, Nation (2001:27) indicate that knowing a word includes the element of forms, meaning and usage. a) Knowledge of word form might include phonological (what a word
sound like) and orthographical form (what a word looks like) as well as any recognizable word parts relating to knowledge of the prefixes and suffixes we use to add or change meaning in a

word. b) Knowledge of word meaning. It links the form to a meaning. it involves forming a link between a foreign language word and its translation in the native language. Beyond the
words definition as given in a dictionary, meaning also encompasses connotation and synonyms .

c) Knowledge of word use. Using the word requires an understanding of appropriate

grammatical function, common collocations, appropriateness in different contexts and frequency of use.

In the line with this, Dale in Katherine (2010:567) has divided a learner knowledge of Vocabulary into 4 Stages; 1) Never having seen the term before; 2) Knowing there is such a word, but not knowing what it means; 3) Having context-bound and vague knowledge of the words meaning; 4) Knowing the word well and remembering. From above description, we can say, the vocabulary knowledge is the level of familiarity, awareness, or understanding on certain vocabulary gained through experience (either to hear, see or even use ) or study.

Measuring Knowledge of Vocabulary Based on Dales concept above, some linguists such as Zimmer, Wesche and

Paribakht developed it to the different levels of lexical knowledge of specific target words learners were learning. The test involves a self-report format in which learners are presented with individual words and asked to indicate their degree of knowledge on a scale of 1 to 4 or 5, ranging from no familiarity with the target word to the ability to use it accurately in a sentence. The VKS test has an easy format that can be used as a practical tool to measure the initial stages of word knowledge for certain words. It is well-known as Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) Zimmerman (1997) used a four point Knowledge Scale test to assess levels of word knowledge. a) I dont know the word b) I have seen the word before but I am not sure of the meaning c) I understand the word when I see it or hear it in a sentence, but I do not use it in my own speaking or writing d) I can use the word in a sentence 10

Knowledge of English Loanwords Definition of Loanwords Loanwords and borrowed words are the terminologies used by the scholars to describe this linguistics phenomenon. Relate to this, there are some definitions which are given by linguists. According to Richard (2000:56) loanwords are words or phrases which have been taken from one language and used in another language. Then he added that Sometimes, speakers try to pronounce borrowings as they are pronounced in the original language and if borrowed words are widely used, most speakers will pronounce them according to the sound system of their own language. Then, Eifring (2008 : 38) describes as taking something from other language by user of one language and making it a permanent part of its own system. He adds, borrowed forms or concepts are integrated into the borrowing language, it is not implied to be temporary like ones borrow an object. Samsuri (1993: 64) calls the term of loan words as kata serapan and defines as words borrowed from other languages and then more or less adjusted to the rules of language itself From definitions above, the writer conclude that in general the scholars have the same idea about loanwords. They happen when speakers one language imitate words from other languages and at least partly adapt it in sound or grammar to their native speech ways. When they are borrowed, words of foreign origin mostly do not preserve their original form but in the process are usually adapted to fit the spelling and sound system of the borrowers. Loanwords are the result of linguistics borrowing. But its condition is not the same with the borrowing of object. If someone borrow one object, he/she has to return it. In linguistics, borrowing is only metaphor and the way to describe the copying of words from other language without any movement. As Mouton ( 2009: 37) stated that the lending language (donor) does not lose its word, nor does the borrowing language (recipient) return the word. Types of Loanwords The Loanwords that are found in Bahasa Indonesia are various and can be classified into several types. Doulton (1998:2) classifies into two. Pure loanword and shifted loanword. 11

The first is the loanword that retains all its native features like form, meaning or fuction, because it fills the absence of vocabulary in borrowing language, like the words processor, data, radar, dilema and so on. The second is loanword incorporated into recipient language and in the process are usually adapted to fit its spelling, sound system and class of words. This type is divided into three: a. Truncation: loanwords which are shortened from the donor language, like English. The word CD (sidi) derive from compact disk, TV (tivi) from television and so on.

Shortening tends to happen in informal contexts, and unshortened words are preferred in formal situations. b. Speech part modification: loanwords which is used as a different speech part from its base word. c. Semantic modification): English loanword in bahasa Indonesia, whose semantic field is not the same as its English base word. There are: 1) complete shift of meaning, 2) semantic narrowing, 3) semantic broadening. Meanwhile, Hassal (1999) distinguishes English loanwords in bahasa Indonesia in 3 classification; the first is the loanwords that fill the blank position in which Bahasa

Indonesia does not have, for example virus, novel, politics, etc; second, the loanwords that have resemblance to English spelling, pronunciation and meaning, for example lampu = lamp, gawn = gaun, deleted, aktifitas = activity, etc. the third is loanwords that exist alongside the synonym in Bahasa Indonesia (like nuansa nuance = suasana, reses recess = libur/istirahat, bajet budget = anggaran, etc.

The adaptation of English loanwords to Indonesian Globalization, technology and hegemony of English have made the flood of English loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia. This fact is disquieting the government and linguists in Indonesia. To Answer this disquiet, Pusat Bahasa of Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia released the guidance for adaptation or nativization of foreign words before being vocabulary of Bahasa Indonesia. The adaptations of English loanwords are fitted with spelling and sound system of Indonesia. Relate to this, Sankoff in Martina (2005:18) said that foreign word 12

becomes a loanword by considering phonological, morphological, and grammatical aspect of the host language. English loan words that are being used in Indonesian-speaking society should follow and be adjusted into Indonesian language first before it can be accepted in our Indonesianspeaking society. Below is the adjustment of foreign words into Indonesian language based on The Standard Indonesian Spelling System (Ejaan Yang Disempurnakan) (35-50. 2000) and the Guideline of Technical Term) Pedoman Pembentukan Istilah (26-50 : 2003) No Phoneme in English Voc /c/ Changing in Bhs Indonesia Before vowel /a/,/o/,/u/ /k/ or the consonant Condition of occurring Example catering : katering culiner : kuliner factor : faktor Circuit : sirkuit Cyilinder : silinder Accumulation : akumulasi Accreditation : akriditasi Acceleration : akselarasi Accecory : aksesori echelon eselon Check : cek Charter : carter Efficient : efisient Cartoon : kartun Book ; buku Exception : coordination, zoology Pharmacy : farmasi Photo : foto Quality ; kualitas Frequency ; frekuensi Score : skor Schema : skema National : nasional Ratio : rasio Theology : teologi Theme : tema

/cc/

before vowels /e/,/i/,/oe/ /s/ or consonant /y/, before vowels /o/,/u/ or /k/ the consonant before vowels /e/ or /i/, /ks/ /s/

/ch/

pronounced /s/ or /sy/ pronounced /c/ pronounced /i/

/ie/ /oo/

no change /u/

/ph/ /q/ /sc/ /t/ /th/ 13

/f/ /q/ Before vowels /a/, /o/,/u/, /sk/ /e/ or the consonant Before /i/ pronounced/s/ /s/ /t/

/xc/

Vowel before /e/ or /i/

/ks/

Double consonant

vowels /a/, /o/, /u/ or /ksk/ consonant Single consonant

Exception : eksepsi Excellent ; ekselen Exclusive : eksklusif Effeck : efek Stress : stres Terror : terror Communication : komunikasi

The adjustment in the suffixes and prefixes in English loan words can be seen as follow:

No

Suffix in English /- ant/ /-archy/ /-(a/i)tion/ /-ic/ or /ics/ /-ism/ /-ist/ /-ive/ /-logy /-ity/ or /ty/ /-acy/ or /-cy/ /-icle/ /-age/ /able/

The change in Bahasa Indonesia /an/ /-arki/ /-si/ /ik/ /-isme/; /-is/ /-if/ /-logi/; /-itas/ /asi/ or /si/ /-ikel/ /ase/ /-bel/

Example accountant : akuntan informant : informan Anarchy : anarki Monarchy : monarki Composition : komposisi Production : produksi Electronic : elektronik Linguistics : linguistic Terrorism : terorisme Professionalism: professionalisme Artist : artis Terrorist : teroris sensitive : sensitif collective : kolektif Technology : teknologi Loyalty : loyalitas Morality : moralitas democracy : demokrasi, accountancy : akuntansi article artikel Percentage : persentase Camouflage : kamuflase Variable : variable

The final consonant change in a word can be seen as follow: - /-ck/ is changed into /-k/; for example: block - blok. 14

- /-ns/ does not change; for example: ons ons. - /-nce/ is changed into /-ns/; for example: ambulance ambulans.

Loanwords and Burden of Learning Vocabulary The knowledge of English loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia is important for

Indonesian learner in mastering English vocabulary. It lighten their burden to learn English vocabulary. many English loanwords that have been adapted into Bahasa Indonesia still have a close resemblance to the original English words. Besides many of them are exist alongside with the synonym in Bahasa Indonesian. According to Nation (1987: 208-213), the general principle of learning burden is that the more a word represents patterns and knowledge that the learners are already familiar with, the lighter its learning burden. These patterns and knowledge can be from the first language, from knowledge of other languages, and from previous knowledge of the second language. So, if a word uses sounds that are in the first language, follows regular spelling patterns, is a loan word in the first language with roughly the same meaning, fits into roughly similar grammatical patterns as in the first language with similar collocations and constraints, then the learning burden will be very light. 3. Nature of Vocabulary mastery Vocabulary according to Hornby (1995:1331) is the total number of the words which (with rules for combining them) make up a language. Then Burns (1975:295) defined as a stock of words used by a person, class or profession. From those statements, we can infer that vocabulary is a stock or list of words with explanation of their meanings used to make up a language by a person, class or profession. Then, the word mastery is defined by Ravitch (2007:142) as A level of

achievement at which a student can be said to understand a concept thoroughly or demonstrate a skill flawlessly. An assessment may attempt to define mastery as the ability to consistently achieve scores at some predetermined level (e.g., a score of 85 or above). Meanwhile Hornby (1995:721) defines as a complete knowledge or complete skill.

15

By having the definition above, we get description that vocabulary mastery is the certain score that indicates the competence or complete knowledge of a list or a set of words (form, meaning and position) which might be used by a particular person, class, or profession.
To get the score of student ability in understanding or using the certain vocabulary, tests usually are applied. Carrol and Hall in Ecy Novemerata ( 2005:23) categorized levels of scoring of vocabulary mastery into four classifications levels scores: score 86 100 71 85 56 70 36 55 00 35 category Excellent Good Fairly good Fair Poor

There are various formats for testing vocabulary. Like in teaching and learning vocabulary strategies or testing other aspects of language, there is no a perfect or complete format for testing all vocabulary aspects. The choice of item format has to be based on the purpose of the test, the profile of the test takers, and other considerations such as the validity, reliability, practicality, and backwash effect of the test. The following are some example item formats that Schmitt (2000), Nation (2001), and Read (2002) have provided for testing vocabulary. 1. L1 translation: write your native-language translation for the target word e.g. serious ______ support ______ or (Schmitt 2000)

Translate the underlined words into your first language 1) Her idea is a very good one. 2) I want to hear only the facts. ______ ______ (Nation 2001)

2.

Synonym matching e.g. Nutritionists categorize food into seven basic groups. A. clarify B. grind C. classify D. channel (Read 2002)

3.

Filling in blanks (or Sentence completion) e.g. A ______ is a large cat with stripes that lives in the jungle. (Schmitt 2000) 16

or Fill in the blank by the correct option A ______ is used to eat with. A. plow B. fork C. hammer or Choose one word from the list on the right to complete the sentence. Do not use the same word twice. faint 1) A journey straight to a place is ______ 2) An illness that is very serious is ______ 3) A river that is very wide is ______ 4) Part of your body that is not covered by any clothes is ______ 5) Something that happens often is ______ acute common bare alien direct broad (Nation 2001) 4. Identifying the meanings of words e.g. Chronic means A. lasting for a long time C. to greatly decrease E. dont know 5. Matching e.g. 1) bitter 2) independent 3) lovely 4) merry 5) popular 6) slight (Schmitt 2000) ______ small ______ beautiful ______ liked by many people B. dissatisfied D. effective and harmless (Nation 2001) D. needle (Read 2002)

1) 2)

He saw a bull She was a champion ______ formal and serious manner 17

3) 4) 5) 6)

He lost his dignity This is like hell She liked the museum This is a good solution

______ winner of a sporting event ______ building where valuable objects are shown

(Nation 2001)

6.

Checklist tests Target words are presented on a list and learners are merely required to check if they know them or not. Non-words that look like real words but are not, such as flinder or trebron, are put onto the test along with the real words. If some of these nonwords are checked, that indicates that the student is overestimating his or her vocabulary knowledge. (Schmitt 2000)

7.

The word associates test The target word is followed by eight options, four of which have some relationship with the target word and four of which do not (normally, two out of the four words from each box have some relationship with the target word). e.g. edit arithmetic film pole publishing revise risk surface text

(Schmitt 2000) 8. Making a sentence with the target word e.g. Please make a sentence with each of the following words to show that you know them. Efficient Prediction Delete 9. _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________

C-test (cloze test) with or without choices (options) e.g. The following C-test is created by selecting a short text and deleting the second half of every second word in the text. 18

What is so interesting about work that a whole branch of sociology can be devoted to it? In t______ first pl______, no mat______ how affl______ our soc______ becomes, t__ necessity t______ work wi______ still rem______ the cen______ (Read 2002) of o______ existence.

or

Read the following passage carefully & choose the most appropriate answer for each blank. Vocabulary is learned incrementally and this obviously means that lexical acquisition requires multiple exposures to a word. This is certainly true for ___1)___ learning, as the chances of learning and retaining a word from one exposure when reading are only about 5%-14%. Other studies suggest that it requires five to sixteen or more ___2)___ for a word to be learned. If recycling is neglected, many ___3)___ known words will be forgotten, wasting all the effort already put into learning them. Fortunately, this recycling occurs naturally . 1) 2) 3) 4) A. incidental A. chances A. completely . B. accidental B. repetitions B. well C. partial C. sessions C. hardly D. deep D. cycles D. partially (nation : 2001)

B. Review of Related Studies There are several resources that inspired the writer in doing this research. The first the research that have been done by Sevim Inal. He tried to investigate the relation between

students attitudes towards foreign language and foreign language achievement. The participants were last-year-students in the high schools in Afin and Elbistan, K.Mara. He chose the last-year high school students to identify their attitudes towards language in the beginning of their career through university. Language Attitude Scale-Likert Type scale in five gradations- was administered to all students to see if there was any relationship between 19

their attitude and success. The attitude scale was developed from Saracaglolu (1992). This study indicates that there is a significant relation between student academic achievement and student attitude towards foreign language The second is the Puspita Fajar Kencanas research that discussed about factors affecting the vocabulary mastery of year x students of SMUN I Slawi. The research described the students mastery of vocabulary, to know the students level of vocabulary achievement and to find out the problems faced by the students in mastering the vocabulary. The population was the first year students of SMU N I Slawi, it was 360 students, 11.1% of which (40 students) were taken as a sample and use cluster proportional random sampling. The instrument consisted of a vocabulary test and a questionnaire. The results, there is one positive point that affecting the students mastery of vocabulary, that is attitude of the student in learning English. The writer suggests the English teachers of SMU N I. Slawi take some strategies to change students attitude in learning English and find the most appropriate technique of teaching vocabulary. C. Conceptual Framework Attitude is a tendency to respond to something. The response can be either negative or positive. attitude is an important social factor which facilitates the process of learning easy. By having the positive attitude on the English loanwords in Indonesian, the learners will have great chance to contact with them. they will tend, love and be proud to use them many language activity. So they will be familiar with these vocabularies when they encounter and hear. Like, love and pride will provide enjoyable atmosphere to reach the success of learning. positive attitudes will give the energy to learn and take advantage of the ELW in Indonesian to master English loanwords. the opposite condition would happen, if the learner have the negative attitude. Knowledge of English loanwords in Indonesian has an important role in learning and mastering the English vocabulary. Knowledge of vocabulary as well as loanwords in this case will involves three aspects: form, meaning (equivalent in Indonesian) and its use. By having a good knowledge about English loanwords in Indonesian, the learners will know and understand how the English loanwords are adapted to fit Indonesian spelling and sound 20

system. This vocabulary knowledge will help them to recognize and restore the English loanwords into English vocabulary. Thus, the more they know about English loanword in Indonesian, the Easier they master English vocabulary. Attitude on the English loanwords and knowledge of their form, (the adaptations in the pattern of Indonesian), meaning (equivalent in Indonesian) and use will facilitate and help them to master the English vocabulary. The more positive attitude and high level of knowledge of them, the better their English vocabulary. Conceptual of this relationship can be shown as follow:

Attitude of English Loanwords In Bahasa Indonesia (X1) Knowledge of English Loanwords In Bahasa Indonesia (X2)

Mastery English Vocabulary (Y)

D. Hypothesis In order to answer the research questions the following hypothesis was used; that is, the study tests the following hypothesis: a. There is contribution of the students attitude of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia to their English Vocabulary Mastery H0 : The students attitude of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia (X1) does not contribute to their English Vocabulary Mastery (X2) H1 : The students attitude of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia (X1) contributes to their English Vocabulary Mastery (X2) b. There is contribution of the students knowledge of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia to their English Vocabulary Mastery H0 : The students knowledge of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia does not contribute to their English Vocabulary Mastery

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H1 : The students knowledge of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia contributes to their English Vocabulary Mastery c. There is a significant contribution both of the students attitude and knowledge of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia to their English Vocabulary Mastery H0 : both The students attitude and knowledge of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia do not contribute to their English Vocabulary Mastery H1 : Both The students attitude knowledge of English Loanwords in Bahasa Indonesia contribute to their English Vocabulary Mastery They will be tested at the level of significance = 0.05.

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