Beyondsmellandtaste:Psychology,flavour,andour responsetothemultisensoryaspectsoffood GNeilMartin InstituteforCulturalResearchMonographSeries

Beyondsmellandtaste:Psychology,flavour,andourresponsetothemulti sensoryaspectsoffood GNeilMartin,MA,PhD,FRSA,CSci,MBPsS HumanOlfactionLaboratory DepartmentofPsychology SchoolofHealthandSocialSciences MiddlesexUniversity TheBurroughs Hendon London NW44BT Tel: Email: +4402084116292 n.martin@mdx.ac.uk

 Isupposeyouthinkasmellisasimplething?,theSergeantsaid smiling. Asmell? Asmellisthemostcomplicatedphenomenonintheworld,hesaid, anditcannotbeunraveledbythehumansnoutorunderstood properlyalthoughdogshaveabetterwaywithsmellsthanwehave. Butdogsareverypoorridersonbicycles,MacCruiskeensaid, presentingtheothersideofthecomparison. FlannOBrien,TheThirdPoliceman Smellandtaste:anatomy,psychologyandfunction OBrienscopperwasperspicacious,inmanyways,andhewasnotalone.

AlexanderGrahamBell,commentingontheunfathomablesenseofsmell,wrote: Haveyouanambitiontofoundanewscience?Whynotmeasureasmell?Can youmeasureasmell?Canyoumeasurethedifferencebetweenonesmelland another?...Odoursarebecomingmoreandmoreimportantintheworldof scienceandmedicineandtheneedofmoreknowledge,assurelyasthesun shines.

 Thesenseofsmellisoneoftheoldest,underappreciatedand,atleastonone importantlevel,theleastwellunderstoodofthefivesenses.Echoingthewell informedassessmentsfromquartersoflawenforcementandtelephony,Coco Chanelagreed(Themostmysterious,themosthumanthing,issmell). Surprisingly,however,thebasicneurophysiologythemechanicsofscent perceptionisreasonablywellunderstood:itistheequivalenttoour understandingofthesameprocessesinvision.This,initself,isquitean achievementgiventheamountofworkandeffortthathasbeeninvestedin studyingvision.Visionisourdominantsense:Sincewebecamebipedaland raisedoutnosesfromtheground,visionusurpedolfactionwhichbecame,ina clichworntoitsepidermis,theCinderellaofthesenses,rarelyblandishedand normallyrelegatedtothesensorycloakroom.Mostindividualswhenasked

whichsensetheycoulddowithout,wouldinvariablyelecttojettisonthesenseof smell(MartinApena,Chaudry,Mulligan,&Nixon,2001).But,atthelevelof neurophysiologyandanatomy,wenowunderstandmuch,suchaswhatoccursat theolfactoryreceptorswhentheyarestimulatedandhowsignalsaretransduced bytheolfactoryapparatustobecomeactionpotentialswhichtraveltothe primaryolfactorycortexandbeyond:inshort,theneurophysiologywhichallows ustomakepsychologyfromthechemistrythatentersournostrils.Wealso knowthat18differentmembersofamultigenefamilyencodetheseven transmembraneproteinsintheepithelium:or,putsimply,thatstructurally similarodoursmayactivatethesamereceptorsandthatsubfamiliesofreceptor mayrecognisevariationsinaparticulargroupofodorants.

 Butwhathappensbeyondneurophysiologyiscomplex.Comparedtotaste,the wayinwhichscentisprocessedandrepresentedinthebrainisamessyaffair

moreakintoatrainofdivergentcarriagesthanthestatelyLandauoftaste.The anatomyoftastefollowsafairlywellestablishedcorticalpathway:Threecranial nervesprojectfromdifferentpartsofthetonguetotwostructuresdeepinthe brain(thelateralsolitarytractandthalamus)andthenontotheprimarytaste cortex(theinsulaandvariousfrontalopercula)andsecondarytastecortex(the orbitofrontalcortex)furtherupthebrain.Themechanicsofthesenseofsmell, conversely,aremuchmorecomplex. First,andatasuperficiallevel,itistheonlysensewithreceptorsdirectly exposedtotheenvironment.Thesereceptorsarelocatedinameshofprocesses calledtheolfactoryepithelium(afewcmsquaredinhumans;ahundredtimes thatnumberinothermammalssuchasdogs)locatedinsideandatthetopofthe nose.Odourmoleculesareinhaledanddeliveredtotheepitheliumwherethey bindtoolfactoryreceptorswhichdeconstructorinterpretthechemicalsignals conveyedbytheodour.Second,signalsaresentfromheretotwoverysmall, balloonlikestructuresbeneaththefrontofthebrain,theolfactorybulbs,where thefirststageofanalysisofolfactoryinformationoccurs.Projectionsare ipsilateralinformationissentfromtheleftnaristotheleftolfactorybulb.The signalsspreadoutinthebulbspatially,aprocessthatisdeterminedbythe strengthofthesignalandintensityoftheodourthestrongerandmoreintense thesignal,thegreaterthespatialdistributionofthesignal.Third,projectionsare sentfromheretocorticalandsubcorticalareasofthebrain,specificallythe anteriorolfactorynucleus,thepiriformcortex,theentorhinalcortex,the

 hippocampusandtheamygdala(collectively,calledtheprimaryolfactory cortex).Unlikeeveryothersense,olfactiondoesnotprojecttothethalamus beforethecortex(thethalamusisthebrainssensoryrelaystation)andithas

beensuggestedthattheolfactorybulbsundertakethisrelayroleintheolfactory system.Theprimaryolfactoryareaincludesstructuresinvolvedinbasic behavioursuchasmotivation,thirst,hunger,sexandaggression.These structureswereoncecollectivelytermed(byPaulBroca)rhinencephalonor smellbrain,astheywerethoughttobedisproportionallyinvolvedinthesense ofsmell. Whatoccursatthecortexofthebrainiswhatallowsustorespondatthe behavourallevel.Theeffectofscentonbehaviourcognition,mood,person perception,altruism,decisionmaking,memory,vigilance,painperception,and sooncanbedramatic.Thereisanincreasingbodyofresearchdemonstrating thatexposuretoambientodourcanhavenegativeandpositiveeffectson cognitiveperformanceandmood(someofthesestudiesarereviewedinGould& Martin(2001)andMartin(2006a)). Butperhapsscentsmostimportantcontributiontohumanbehaviourmore thanequaltoitsessentialfunctionasawarningdevicenotifyingusofharmand dangerisitsroleinflavour.Withtaste,temperature,texture,mouthfeeland colour,odouristheprincipalcontributortotheperceptionandidentificationof foodandthepleasurewederivefromit.Itisprobablyanunderestimatetosay that80%offoodflavourisolfactory.AsAnthemeBrillatSavarinwrote,not whollycorrectly,inThePhysiologyofTaste:Iamnotonlyconvincedthat

withoutthecooperationofsmelltherecanbenocompletedegustation,butIam alsotemptedtobelievethatsmellandtasteareinfactasinglesense,whose laboratoryisthemouthandwhosechimneyisthenoseWhensmellis intercepted,tasteisparalysed.Substituteflavourfortasteandthisis accurate.Thereasonfortheunderestimationisthegeneralconfusioncausedby tasteandsmellandtheirroleinchemoreception.Therearefivebasictastes sweet,salty,bitter,sourandumamiwithpossiblyoneortwootherminor tastes(suchasmetallicandastringent).Thenumberofodourswecandetect, however,runsintothousandsandwewouldbeabletodiscriminatebetweenthe majorityofthem.Theodourmoleculesinfoodallowustoidentifyfoodandits flavourandthisfunctionismediatedbytwotypesofbreathingthroughthe nose(orthonasalbreathing)andviathebackofthethroat(retronasalbreathing, whichstimulatesnasopharyngealreceptors).AccordingtoRozin(1982),thetwo typesofbreathingallowtwotypesofidentificationonedistal,oneproximal. Whentheolfactoryreceptorsareimpairedastheyarewhenindividualshavea coldorinfluenzapeoplereport(incorrectly)beingunabletotastefood althoughtasteisrelativelywellpreserved.Peopleareabletodeterminewhether whattheyingestissweet,saltyandsoon,butareunabletodetectthearomaof food,thatwhichgivesthefooditsidentity.Anonviraldemonstrationcanbe achievedifapersonpinchestheirnoseshutwhileasmallamountoftwofruit juicesisplacedonthetongue(withoutthemseeingthecolour,obviously).The individualshouldbeabletodetectthetastewhetheritissourorsweetbutnot beabletonamethefruit.Whenthenaresarereleasedandtheolfactory receptorsarestimulatedbytheingressofairflowcarryingtheodourmolecules, thefoodwillbeidentified.

 Ourabilitytodetectodourisgoodbetterthanasmokedetector(cf.Cain, 1977).AccordingtoEngen(1982),wecanrecogniseodourswithin0tothree

secondsofencounteringthem,andatadistanceofbetweenoneandtwometres TheJapaneseSanitationCentrenotesthatwe(humans)candetectthe malodorousisoamylmercaptan(avariantofwhichisaddedtoodourless propanegastomakeitpungent)at.77partspertrillion(Nagata&Takeu,1990). Wecanprobablydetectethylmercaptan(whichisaddedtogas)ataround1part perbillion(Whisman,Goetzinger,Cotton&Brinkman,1978),theequivalent,as YeshurunandSobelnote(2010),ofthreedropsinanOlympicSwimmingPool. Porterandcolleaguesasked32participantstofollowa10mtrailofchocolate essentialoilinopengrasswhileparticipantswerekneelingandblindfolded (Porter,Craven,Khan,Chang,Kang,Judkewicz,Volpe,Settles,&Sobel,2007). Twothirdsofthemwereabletodothiseffectively.Withincreasedtraining threetimesaday,threedaysaweekfortwoweekstheamountofdeviation fromthescenttrailreducedandspeedalongthetrailincreased.Sniffingalso increasedoverthreedaysandthissniffingincreasedwithincreasingspeedalong thetrail. Whiledetectionisgood,discriminationiscomparativelymoderate.Ourability todiscriminatebetweentwoodoursisgoodbutdiscriminationbetweenodours inmixturesislimitedtothree,fouratmostandnomorethanthat(Berglund, 1974).Therightnostrilhasanadvantageintermsofspatialreach(the maximumspatialdistanceatwhichanodourcanbedetected).Porteretal (2007)foundthatthiswas1.5to2cmintherightand1to1.5cmontheleft.

 Porteretalalsocomparedpeoplesabilitytotrackodourmonorhinally(one

nostril)andbirhinally(bothnostrils).Participantswere30%lessaccuratewhen sniffingwithonenostrilcomparedwithboth(66%)andwere20%slower.The studyofbothtypesofsniffingisimportantbecausebothnostrilsdonotoperate equivalentlyacrosstheday.Thereisevidenceofasymmetricalairflowacrossthe daywhereonenostrilismorereceptivetoairflowandisbetteratdetectionthan istheother. Someodourswecannotdetectandthisfailurehasageneticbasis.Specific anosmiaafailuretobeabletodetectaspecificodourismorecommonthan istheequivalentphenomenoninothersensorymodalitiesapartfrom,possibly, achromatopsia(colourblindness).Forexample,thearomaticsteroid androstenoneisundetectabletoaround50%ofthepopulation(although individualscanbetrained,veryslowly,todoso).Ofthehalfabletodetectthe chemical,halffinditunpleasant(musky,urinous).Thesignificanceofthis steroidliesinitsputativeroleasapheromoneinnonhumanmammals.It producesstereotypicalbehaviourprincipallyinvolvingmarkingterritoryor sexualarousal/mateattraction.Thesow,forexample,isextremelysensitiveto androstenoneandadoptsthepositionoflardosis,readyingherselfformating, whenexposedtoit.Trufflesalsocontainandrostenone,whichiswhysowsare usedashuntersofthedelicacy(Casanovawasthoughttosustainhisprodigious sexualperformancebyconsumingtruffles).Casanovaaside,our(human)failure todetectthechemicalconsciouslyeitherreflectsafunctionalfailure,orafailure todevelop(ortheevolvingoutof)theorgannecessaryforthechemicaltoexert itseffect(thevomeronasalorgan),ortheirrelevanceofsuchsteroidstosexual

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behaviourinourvisiondominatedlives.Thereislittleevidencetoindicatethat exposuretoandrostenonecanenhanceorprovokesexualdesireorarousalin humans. Beyondcongenitalspecificanosmia,andincontrasttoourgooddetectionability, theabilitytolabel,nameoridentifyodourscorrectlyispoor.SherlockHolmes contendedthatanygooddetectiveneededaknowledgeofatleast75perfumes. Mostindividualswouldbedefeatedbythisambition.Normally,wedescribea scentbyreferencetoanobjectand,eventhen,ouridentificationofthisobject maynotbeaccurate.Webelieveastimulussmellslikesomethingorother.We areextremelysusceptibletosuggestionwhenperceivingscent,aphenomenon thatmightbeattributabletoitsinvisible,nonlinguisticnature.Slosson(1899) describedanexperimentinwhichalecturerplacedtwobottlesofodourless wateroneithersideofthelecturetheatre.Heinformedonesideoftheaudience thatthebottlecontainedapleasantodour;theother,thatitcontainedan unpleasantone.Attheendofthelecture,themajorityoftheaudience,when asked,claimedtobeabletodetectascentandtheirhedonicresponsematched thequalityoftheodourinthebottle.Experimentssincethenhavereplicatedthis generaleffect:Peoplereportmoresymptomsofgoodhealthwhentheysniff odourlesswaterwhichtheybelieveisapleasantscent,andjudgeanidentical odourdifferentlydependingonwhetheritislabeledcheeseorbodyodour(De Araujo,Rolls,Velazco,Margot&Cayeux,2005).Thelatterstudyfoundthatthe odourofcheesewasjudgedasmorepleasantandbrainactivationchanged dependingonwhetherindividualsbelievedtheysmelledcheeseorbodyodour.

 Thisdemonstratestheimportanceofcognitivemediationintheperceptionof odour(apointhighlightedbelow). These,then,aretheconventionalcontributionsthesensesmaketoour

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perceptionoffoodatthemostbasiclevelandarewelldocumented(e.g.,Martin, 2006b;2013).Smellandtasteinteractwithvision,auditionandsomatosensation (andthelastthreeinteractwitheachother)tochangebehaviourinawaythat canappearcounterintuitive(asmanyfindingsinpsychologyare),andcertainly outsideconsciouscontrol(itappears).Asweetodourcanenhancetheintensity ofasweettaste(Frank&Byram,1988)andimaginingasweetodourcan enhanceapersonsabilitytodetectsucrose(Djordjevic,Zatorre&JonesGotman, 2004).Someodourssmellsweet(vanillin,amylacetate),andsomesuchas hexanoicacidareperceivedassour,leadingsomeresearcherstodescribethis asatruetastesmellsynaesthesiainwhichonesensorymodalityinvariably evokesasensationinanother(Stevenson&Boakes,2004).Thereisevidence thatinformationinonesensorymodalitycansignificantlyanddramatically affectourperceptionofother,seeminglyunrelatedqualitiesoffoodandthisis takenupinthenextsection. Whatyouseeisnotwhatyouget:Theeffectofcolourandlabelingonfood perception Itisoftenremarkedthatweeatwithoureyes:inthewordsofApicius,Thefirst tasteisalwayswiththeeyes.Visualstimulationincreasesappetiteandthis increasecorrelatespositivelywithchangesinbrainactivationwhenpeoplelook athighlydesirable,calorific(i.e.,fatty,sweet,carbohydrateladen)foods(Smeets,

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Weijzen,deGraaf,&Viergever,2010).Thegreatertheappetite,thestrongerthe brainsresponse.Visualcuesareimportantbecausethey(i)triggeraseriesof associationswhich,inturn,triggersthehunger/increasedappetiteand(ii)they confirmtheaccumulationandaccommodationofpreviousexperienceand knowledge.Weexpectcertainfoodsanditemstobeaspecificcolourandany deviationfromthatcolourleadstoconfusion(andrejection).Weexpect chocolateflavoureddesserttobebrown,aBordeauxtobered,alemonmousse tobeyellow(ish)andsoonandwedonotexpectorangejuicetobegreenor freshmilktobepurple.Colourlessfoodaffectsitsperception:itsodour,flavour andacceptanceislowerthaniscolouredfood(DuBose,Cardello&Maller,1980; Zellner,Bartoli,&Eckard,1991)andweratefoodsasbeingmorelikewhatthey are(morechocolatey,lemony,redwiney)whenourexpectationofwhattheyare matchestheircolour. Whatoccurswhenamismatcharisesisnoteworthy.DuBoseetal(1980) examinedtheeffectofcolouringvariouscarbonatedfruitflavoureddrinks(and colouringcakes)onpeoplesacceptanceofthefoodandtheirassessmentofit. Whenthecolourwasmasked,peoplesabilitytoidentifythefoodwasimpaired. Whenthedrinkwasatypicallycoloured,responsesassociatedwiththeflavourof thecolour(ratherthantheactualdrink)wereelicited.Drinkswereconsidered moreacceptablewhenthecolourmatchedthefruit.Evenwhenindividualsare askedtoignorethecolourofadrinkandareaskedtodiscriminatebetween differentflavours,thecolourinterfereswiththisabilitytodiscriminate(Zampini, Sanabria,Phillips&Spence,2007).Peoplewhobelievethatredandgreen Smartiestastethesame(theydointheUK)judgethesesweetstotastesimilarly

 comparedtopeoplewhobelievetheyhavedifferentflavours.Whenpeople believethatanorangeSmartiehasadifferentflavourtoaredandgreenone

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(whichtheydointheUK,butnotGermany),thisbeliefwillleadthemtobelieve thatagenericorangecoloured(ratherthanflavoured)Smartietastesdifferent toaredorgreenone(Levitan,Zampini,Li&Spence,2008).Increasingthe yellowcolourinlemoncakeincreasestheperceivedintensityoflemonflavour DuBoseetal,1980)andredcolouraddedtofoodenhancestheperceptionofthe sweetnessinstrawberry,cherryandfruitpunchdrinks(Johnson,Dzendolet& Clydesdale,1983;Johnson,Dzendolet,Damon,Sawyer&Clydesdale,1982). WhenparticipantsweretoldthatanewlineofM&Mswerebeingmarket researched,brownconfectionswereratedasmorechocolateythangreen shelledones.Whenthesweetwaslabeleddarkchocolate(allsweetswerethe samechocolate),theywerejudgedtobemorechocolatey(althoughnomore likeable)thanthoselabeledmilkchocolate(Shankar,Levitan,Prescott& Spence,2009). Wineisafoodparticularlysusceptibletovisualbias.Whenthecolourofred wineismaskedandwhitewineiscolouredred(withflavourlesscolouring) peoplecontinuetodescribetherespectivewinesusingtermsnormally associatedwiththecolourratherthantheactualwine(Morrot,Brochet& Dubourdier,2001).Thus,redwineisassociatedwithdarkobjects/termsand whitewinewithclear/yellowterms.Evenexpertscanbeconfusedbycolour, describingthescentofadifferentlycolouredwinebyitscolour(Parr,White& Heatherbell,2003).Similarly,coconutscenteddetergentisjudgedasless effectivethanacitrusscentedoneand,conversely,acitrusscentedsuntanlotion

 isratedasbeinglesseffectivethanacoconutscentedone(Bone&Jantrania,

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1992).Wehavelearnedtoassociatetheseproductswithparticularscentsandif thisscentdeviatesfromexpectationsandisincongruentwiththem,this influencesourjudgementoftheproduct. Thesechoicesanddecisionsaredrivenbyassociationsandtheseassociations, strengthenedbyexperience,aredifficulttodislodge(forgoodreasonifwehad tounlearnalloftheseassociationsrepeatedly,thiswouldbeavastsquandering ofcognitiveresourcesthatwouldbenecessaryfornewlearning).Someofthese associationsareclearlyexpectedandpredictable:tomatosoupcolouredgreen, oranorangefilletofbeefwouldraiseeyebrows(theintentionbehindHeston Blumenthalsbespectacledoneswhenheandhisbrigadecreatedthehistorical foisgrastangerineathisrestaurant,Dinner).Otherassociationsaresubtler.For example,wearewellacquaintedwithproductseulogizingtheirmeadow freshnessorsundrynessandwe,perhaps,believeourselvesimmunetothe linguisticfloridityofsomeofthesedescriptions.Theevidence,however, suggeststhecontrary.Descriptivemenunameshavebeenfoundtoincrease salesbyaround27%(Wansink,Painter&vanIttersum2001)andpeopleeat moreofanitemlabeledcreamyandsatisfyingthancaloricandfilling (Wansink,VanIttersum,&Painter,2004).Inasixweekexperimentina cafeteria,Wansink,vanIttersum&Painter(2005)foundthatpeopleexpressed morepositiveattitudesaboutfoodlabeledsucculentItalianseafoodfilletthan seafoodfillet,judgingit(thesameitem)tobemoreappealing,tastyand calorific.

 Thelabelsweattachtofoodandtheimpressionsthatweformbasedonour

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visual,auditoryandgustatoryprocessingcanleadustocommiterrors,butones thatarelogicalandreasonable.Ourresponsetofoodisinfluencedbyphysiology andphysiologicalstateandthemostobviousofthesestatesarehungerand satiety.Whatismoreunusual,andlessselfevident,isthatsatietycanbespecific tocertaintastes,smellsandfoodsandthatthisspecificityextendstothefoods shapeandcolour,aswellasitstasteandsmell. Sensoryspecificsatiety Sensoryspecificsatiety(SSS)describesthephenomenonwherebythe pleasantnessandconsumptionofspecificfooddecreasesafterbeingeatento satiety.Thesatietyissensoryspecificbecauseindividualsmaybecomesated eatingfoodswithspecifictastes,shapes,sizesandtexturesbutnotfoodsof differenttaste,shape,sizeandtexture(Rolls,1986).Satietyisenhancedby increasedorosensorystimulation:thegreaterthestimulation,therefore,the lesstheintakewhichiswhyfoodsarealwaysmoresatiatingthandrinks (Weijzen,Smeets&deGraaf,2009).ThephenomenonofSSSexplainswhy,ifwe eatamealcomposedofavarietyofspecificfoods,ourtotalconsumption increasesbecausethereislesssensoryspecificexhaustionfromeatingavaried mealofabowlofsoup,sausages,eggandbacon,andchocolatemousse,thana bigplateofsausagesonly. Ifafoodiseatentosatiety,asecondcourseofthesamefoodwillresultina reductioninintakeofaround50percent(seeRolls,1986fordetailsofthisand otherstudies).InRollssearlyexperiment,allfoods,withtheexceptionofroast

 beef,producedsensoryspecificsatiety.Inonestudy,participantsateeithera

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fourcoursemealofsausages,breadandbutter,chocolatedessertandbananas orateonlyoneofthesefoodstosatiety.Consumptionwas60percenthigher whenfoodswerepresentedtogetherthanwhenpresentedseparately.Atapost satietytastingsession,thosefoodspresentedalonewerealsoratedasless pleasantthanthoseeatenaspartofafourcoursemeal.Whenavarietyofpasta shapeswaspresentedforconsumption,morewaseatenthanwhenonlyone pastashapewaspresented;peoplealsoatemorefoodifitwasmadeupof differentcoloursthanonecolour.Thepleasantnessofchickenandbanana odours(butnotthoseofotherfoods)alsodeclinedsignificantlyafterthesefoods wereeatentosatiety(RollsandRolls,1997).OneexplanationforSSSisthatit allowsustoenjoyandconsumeagreatervarietyoffoodand,therefore,consume avarietyofnutrients. ThechangesinbehaviouralSSSappeartobematchedbycerebralchanges.Small etal.(2001)foundthattheorbitofrontalcortex,atthetipofthefrontallobe,is importanttosatiety.Activationheredecreasedwhenpeopleatechocolateor tomatojuicetosatietyandthisdecreaseinactivationcorrelatedwithreduced pleasantnessratings(Kringelbach,ODoherty,Rolls&Andrews,2003). ActivationintheOFCalsodecreaseswhenpeopleareexposedtotheodourof bananaaftereatingbananatosatiety(ODohertyetal.,2000).Nosuchdecreaseis observedwhenpeoplesniffedtheodourofvanilla. Whenparticipantseatchocolatetosatietyandhavetheireatinginterruptedfora gameinwhichtheycouldwinmorechocolateorcrisps,theyshowadeclinein

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theirpleasantnessratingofthesmellandtasteofchocolateandshowlessdesire towantmorechocolate(Havermans,Janssen,Giesen,Roefs&Jansen,2008). Recentresearchsuggeststhatinterruptingtheconstancyofthesinglefoodby introducingnewfoodtoratecaninterruptSSS.Crackereatersinterruptedwith arequirementtoeatandratechocolateincreasedtheirintakeofcrackers. However,chocolateeatersinterruptedwithachocolateratingtaskratedthe pleasantnessofchocolatelesspositively(Hetherington,Foster,Newman, Anderson&Norton,2006). Ofcourse,crackersandchocolatehaveuniquesomatosensoryaswellas olfactoryandgustatoryfeatures.Butwhatisofparticularpsychological interestisthattheseuniquepropertiescaninteractwithothersensoryandnon sensoryfeaturestoaffectourresponsetofood.Aquestion,therefore,beforeyou venturetothenextsection:whichicecreamwouldyourateascreamier?One namedFrishoronenamedFrosh? Collisions,andinteractions,withothersenses:taste,smellandsound Potatopureewiththeconsistencyofporridge,custardwithbouldersandcrisps aslimpasdishclothsnonewouldbelikelytoreceivepositivehedonicratings. Theinteractionbetweenthechemicalsensesandtheothersparticularlythe auditoryandsomatosensorysenseshelpstocreatetheappropriate,desired flavourpercept.Intermsofsoundandtouch,themostcommonlyusedtermin foodperceptioniscrisp.However,aswithcolour,therearesomesubtlesignals sentbysoundbeyondthephysicalsoundofmasticatedfoodwhichinfluences foodperception.Recently,Ngo,Misra&Spence(2011)notedsomemarketing

 researchinwhichicecreamwasjudgedascreamierwhencalledFroschthan

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Frisch(Yorkston&Menon,2004).Ketchupwasconsideredthickerwhencalled NodaxthanNidax(Klink,2000).Thisphenomenonhasabasisinresearch demonstratingthatsomewordsareassociatedwithangularshapesandothers withroundedshapes,basedonthewordsshapeandthelabialpositionthey requireforpronunciationthatis,whetherthewordscontainbackorfront vowels(e.g.,tikiisperceivedasangularandmalumaasrounded(OBoyle& Tarte,1980)).Gallace,Boschin&Spence(2011)foundthatwhenindividuals wereaskedtoassociatewordswithfoods,saltandvinegarcrispswere associatedmorewiththewordskikiandtaletethanwerecheddarcheese, yoghurtandblueberryjam.Ngoetal(2011)foundasimilareffectwhen individualswereaskedtoeateither30%or70%cocoachocolate.Themilkier chocolatewasmoreconsistentlyassociatedwiththesoftwordmalumaandthe darkerchocolatewiththesharpertakete.Similarly,Spence&Gallace(2011) askedindividualstoassociateshapesandwordstostillandsparklingwater, Brie,cranberryjuiceandtwotypesofchocolate.Thejuice,sparklingwaterand Malteserswereassociatedwithangularshapesandwordssuchaskikiand talete.Thestillwater,Brieandcaramelnibbleswereassociatedwithrounded shapesandwords. Interactionwithothersandtheimportanceoftouch:tipsforwaitersand patrons Thenumberofpeoplethatindividualseatwith,aswellastheirsex,influences foodconsumption,caloricintakeandthespeedofingestion.Accordingto Herman,Roth&Polivy(2003),socialinfluencesareprofound,arguablygreater

 thananyotherinfluenceoneating.Weknowthatthepresenceofanother increasestheamountoffoodindividualsconsume(by212kcal)butthatthis increaseisdependentonourrelationshipwithourfellowdiner.Weeatmore

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withfriendsandfamilythanwithstrangersandmealsattheweekendarelarger (byaround12%)andcontainmoremacronurientsandalcohol(deCastro,1990; 1991;Redd&deCastro,1992).Menandwomeneatlessinthecompanyofa desirableperson(Mori,Chaiken&Pliner,1987)andwomenwhoweretoldthat theirresponseonaquestionnairewasconsideredmasculinerestrictedtheir intakewheneatingincompany(Pliner&Chaiken,1990).Womens(butnot mens)caloricintakealsoappearstobelowerwhentheyeatwithamale companion;thelargerthenumberofmen,thelesstheintake(Young,Mizzau, Mai,Sirisegaram&Wilson,2009).Womenwhoeatminimallyarealsoviewed morepositivelybyothers(Bock&Kanarek,1995)whichdemonstrateshow muchmencangetawaywith(orshowstheirindifference)intermsof impressionmanagement. Weeatmorewhentheotherpersoneatsmore,andlesswhentheyeatless (Conger,Conger,Constanzo,Wright&Matter,1980).Onereasonforthisisthatit maybeanattemptatingratiationweimitateotherswewouldliketolikeus (Sunnafrank,Ramirez&Metts,2004).Imagine,forexample,refusingabiscuit fromapotentialclient,friendorboss:onlythosewithadamantineconfidencein theirownbehaviourwoulddoso.Breakingbreadbreakssocialboundaries.We eatmorewiththosepeoplewhoseemtoshareourinterestsastudywhich askedmenandwomentodiscussactivitiestheylikedtodowithfriendsand romanticpartnersfoundthatthecoupleswithsimilarinterestsatemorebiscuits

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together(Salvy,Jarrin,Paluch,Irfan&Pliner,2007).Individualseatlessdessert butnolessofanentrewithstrangersthanwithfriends(Clenenden,Herman &Policy,1994).Wespendlesstimeinarestaurantorcafeteriawhenalone(36.5 minutes)thanwhenwithagroup(50.3minutes).Wealsoeatmorewhenthe foodscontainerislarge.Inanaturalisticstudyofpopcornconsumptionby cinemagoersduringtheviewingofafilm(Payback),thosewhoratedthe popcornunfavourablyate61%moreofitwhenitwasinalargecontainerthana smallerone(Wansink&Park,2001).Ofthosewhoratedthefoodfavourably, 49%atemorefromalargercontainerandatemorewithapersonofthe oppositesex,suggestingthatasnacksharedinasocialenvironmentmaybe consumeddifferentlybythesexesthanwouldamoreformalmeal. Thechangeinbehaviourprovokedbydistalproximityofanotheriscoupledwith someverysubtlechangesinbehaviourcausedbypropinquity.Touchappearsto resultinsomesignificantanddemonstrablechangesinbehaviourrelatedto eating.Individualsinteractingwithotherswhileholdingahotdrink,for example,ratetheirconfederateaswarmerandmorelikeablethanwhenthe drinkiscold(Williams&Bargh,2008).Wealsoknowthatalighttouchona personsarminclinesthemtosparesmallchangetosomeonerequestingit:51% willdosocomparedwiththe29%nottouched(Kleinke,1977).Touching anotherpersonsignificantlyenhancestheirwillingnesstocompletesurveys,sign petitionsorlookafteralargedogfor10minutesmorepeoplearewillingtodo sowhentouched(Guegen,2002;Hornick,1987;Gueguen&FischerLokou, 2002;Willis&Hamm,1980).Touchingalsoenhancespersonperception librarianswhotouchedstudentslightlywereratedmorefavourablyandtutors

 doingthesametotheirstudentswereregardedasmorepatientand understanding(Steward&Lupfer,1987;Fisher,Rytting&Heslin,1976).

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Touchers,ingeneral,tendtobeevaluatedmorepositivelythannontouchers (Fisheretal,1976). Inthecontextoffood,waitersandwaitressesarejudgedmorefavourablyifthey lightlytouchtheirpatrons(Hornick,1992).They,andbarstaff,arealsomore likelytoreceivehighertips(Crusco&Wetzel,1984;Guegen&Jacob,2005).As, intheUS,tippingaccountsfor$27bofstaffincome(Azar,2007),thisfinding mightprecipitateanoutbreakofwidespreadcustomerfondling.Butthe somatosensorypromptleadstomorethananincreaseintipping.Studieshave shownthatpeoplearemorelikelytotrynewfoodinasupermarket,andtaste andbuymore,whentouchedbystaff(Smith,Gier&Willis,1982;Hornick,1992). OnestudyofUSpatronsfoundthatwhentouchedbyawaitresswhenorderinga drink,theirconsumptionincreased(Kaufman&Mahoney,1999).Similarly, Gueguen,Jacob&Boulbry(2007)foundthatpatronsinamediumsizedFrench restaurantwhowererecommendedadish,weremorelikelytoorderthedish whentheyweretouched.Ifthewaitercomplimentedthepatrononhis/her choiceofmeal,thiswasassociatedwithmoregeneroustipgiving(Seiter,2007). Othercircumstances,beyondourcontrol Inadditiontocompaniontypeandnumber,andtouch,exposuretoambient odourandambientnoise(whicharenotwithinourcontrol)cansignificantly affectconsumptionand/ortheperceptionofourexperiencewithfood.People spendlongerinarestaurantwhentheambientmusicisslowtempo,andtake

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longertogetserved.Slowtempomusicleadstoanunderestimationofthelength oftimespenteatingwhiletheoppositeresultisfoundwithquicktempomusic (Caldwell&Hibbett,2002).Thespeedofthemusicaffectsalsotheamount consumed:fastmusicisassociatedwith4.4bitesperminuteandslowmusic with3.83bitesaminute(Roballey,McGreevy&Rongo,1985).Exposuretono musicresultsin3.23bites. Milliman(1982)reportedthatwhenasupermarketplayedslowmusic, customerswalkedaroundthestoremoreslowlythanwhenitplayedfastmusic. Similarly,AreniandKim(1993)foundthatwhenanAmericanwinestoreplayed eithercountrymusicorclassicalmusic,peopleboughtmoreexpensivewine whenclassicalmusicwasplayed.Amorespecificapplicationofexposureto musiconconsumerdecisionmakingwasdescribedbyNorth,Hargreaves& McKendrick(1997).TheresearcherssetupanexperimentinwhichfourFrench andfourGermanwinesweredisplayedonasupermarketswineshelveswhile eitherFrenchaccordionmusicorGermanBierkellermusicwasplayed.National flagsalsoaccompaniedthedisplaysandconsumerswereaskedtocomplete questionnairesdistributedbytheexperimentersposingascustomers.Fortyfour individualsagreedtocompletethequestionnaire(54%ofthoseapproached). TheresearchersfoundthatmoreFrenchthanGermanwinewasboughtwhen FrenchmusicwasplayedwhereasmoreGermanwinewasboughtwhenGerman musicwasplayed;noneofthecustomersexpressedanabsolutepreferencefor eithernationalityswinesopersonalpreferenceforGermanorFrenchwine couldnothavebeenresponsiblefortheresults.Northandcolleaguessuggest thatthemusictriggeredthoughtsofcountryrelevantmaterialsothattheFrench

 musicpromptedthoughtsofFrancewhichinturnattractedindividuals attentiontotheFrenchwine. NorthandHargreaves(1996)foundthatmusicofmoderatecomplexitymade morepeopleattendastallsetuptoplayvarioustypesofmusicaspartofan

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experimentinauniversitycafeteria.Individualsinthisconditionwerealsomore willingtocompletequestionnairesandratethecafeteriamorepositively.The influenceofirrelevantsensorystimulationondecisionsaboutfoodextendsto odour.Theambientscentofgeraniumincreasesthepositiveevaluationof brands,especiallyunfamiliarones,afindingwhichechoesthatofLaird(1932) whofoundthatnarcissusscentedsockswerepreferredbymorepeoplethan wereunscentedsocks(50%vs8%).Gueguen&Petr(2006)reportedthat patronsofapizzeriainBrittanyspentlongerintherestaurantandboughtmore foodwhenlavender(butnotlemon)waspercolatedviaadiffuser.Theolfactory workinthefieldofeatingandcateringisthetipofwhatisnowalargeiceberg, oneintimatedearlierwhendiscussingtheeffectofambientodouronbehaviour. PetitsFours WilliamJames,thegodfatherandmidwifeofmodernexperimentalpsychology, oncedismissivelyremarkedinoneofhisintroductorytexts,thatnothingcould bewrittenabouttaste,smellandhungeraslittleofpsychologicalinterestwas knownconcerningthem.Thisremarkwasmadein1899.Over100yearslater, weknowmuchmorethesenseofsmellhasevenbestowedNobelPrizesontwo researchersin1992butourunderstandingisfarfromcomplete.Flavour,for example,isoneofthemostcomplextopicstostudyinpsychologyinvolvingasits

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doesallofthesenses,andadegreeofsubjectivitythatisconsiderable,andthis complexityarisesevenatthemicrolevel.Whentherearejournalarticles dedicatedtovariousfrequenciesofsoundandthenatureofcolour,themacro levelbecomesallthemoreobviousandchallenging.Itcanoftenseemwithsmell andtaste,asifwearestudyingreadingbymovingourfingersalongletters.But asresearchcontinues,andasmoresophisticateddesignsareemployedin experiments,weshouldeventuallyendupinthepositionthatneuroimaging currentlyfindsitself.Thefirstneuroimagingstudyoflanguagewaspublishedin 1988andwasabasicstudyofreadingandspeaking.Now,studiesarepublished inwhichactualdiscourseismeasuredusingfMRI.Brainscienceiscurrently considered,rightly,asmoreattractiveandimportantthanthestudyofflavour, althoughthelatercontributesmoredirectlytoourlivesfromeatingto spendingtohealth.Brainsciencealsobenefitsfromaparsimonyofdirection andmethodology(and,still,fromsomenovelty).Unpackingflavourand measuringeachunpackingandhoweachunpackingisrelatedtoapreviousor forthcomingunpackingisachallenge.Atthemicrolevel,wearebeginningto establishsomefactsunderstandinghowsmellsandtastesinteract,for example.Atthemacrolevel,theworldisflavoursoyster(andthereisafood withachallenging,complexflavourprofile).Theenvironmentwefindourselves in,thenoisewehear,thepeoplewearewith,thesizeandcolourofthefoodwe ingestandthephysicalcontactofthepersonwewouldliketoorderfromareall seeminglyirrelevant,epiphenomenalfactorsinourdecisiontoeatandour perceptionoffood.Buttheyarenot.Theinvestigationofthesefactorsandthese interactionswillkeeppsychologists,chemistsandfoodresearchersinworkfor decades.

 Acknowledgements IwouldverymuchliketothankDavidWadeforhiscommentsand

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encouragementduringthewritingofthismonographandforkindlyofferingme theopportunitytodoso.IamindebtedtotheInstituteforCulturalResearchfor extendingmethehonourofcontributingalecturetoitsThemeaningoffood symposiuminNovember2010onthemysteryofsmell,tasteandflavour,which ledtothisdistillation.Thanks,too,toRickSteinforstartingthisalloff.Please sendcommentsandthoughtstomeatn.martin@mdx.ac.ukor@ThatNeilMartin

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