Topic

Report Writing

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Describe the process involved in preparing a report; 2. Explain the style for report writing; and 3. Write a report based on the format given.

X INTRODUCTION
Report writing is an important skill for both the technical and non-technical sectors. It is perhaps even more important for those involved in business. However, a report is not something that you can create out of thin air. A good report requires systematic, structured and careful thinking accompanied by careful planning and preparation. Good report writing skills are relatively easy to acquire but it takes some practice to achieve perfection. These are extremely important skills to have when you are at work because no matter how well you carry out a project, your efforts may go unnoticed unless you can report it to the people who matter.

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7.1

THE PROCESS OF PREPARING A REPORT

Let us take a look at the process of preparing a report. There are, in total, six stages.

7.1.1

Stages/Tasks in Report Preparation

Information is valuable but only when it is researched, gathered and presented in a coherent and easily understood way. Your job may be to primarily execute a plan and implement a project but it is also your responsibility to show that your efforts have achieved the intended target. This can only be done with a good report. The important steps in report writing, presented in the form of tasks, are shown in Figure 7.1:

Figure 7.1: Important steps/tasks in writing a good report

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7.1.2

Gathering the Data

The first thing you need to do when preparing a report is to gather the necessary data to write the report. In fact, the ability to work with data efficiently may be more important than the writing skill itself because without good data and good results, your writing will inevitably fail to shine. The process of report writing begins when you plan your project. When making your project plans, take into account how you will report your project because this will give you an idea of what information you need to collect. You must have an idea of how you want your project to unfold and how you intend to report things at the end. This will give you direction as you execute your project plan. Most importantly, keep accurate and complete notes. Some tips for basic data gathering are illustrated in Figure 7.2:

Figure 7.2: Tips for basic data gathering

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SELF-CHECK 7.1
Why is data gathering important when it comes to writing reports? How would you go about gathering data for your report?

7.1.3

Analysing and Sorting the Results

Once you have gathered your data, it needs to be sorted out and analysed. Most analysis is carried out after ALL the data has been collected. Begin by choosing which data is relevant in relation to the report you want to write. To analyse your data, first review the conclusion you are trying to achieve. Try taking the following steps: (a) (b) (c) (d) Write down all the results and observations (in your data) in no particular order. Note down all the opinions you have gained when gathering data. Note down new ones you get as you are compiling these opinions. Choose the ones that you need. Be strict with yourself; always remember how long your final report is going to be and throw out everything except the data you really need. Arrange all data in order of importance. Decide on what is important and what is not. Some people like to start with the least important point and lead up to the most important, whilst others prefer the converse. Decide which format best suits your purpose. Select the data you want in your conclusion. In the conclusion, points are often arranged in reverse order, with the most important ones first. Remember to include only absolutely necessary points because too much data will obscure your ideas and opinions. Support your points with illustrations as you present them. This will help to make your report easily comprehensible and your presentation more effective. Outline your final report and draft it.

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

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7.1.4

Outlining the Report

Outlining is necessary as a report should be logically organised, concise and easy to read, and outlining helps you achieve this. It is also a natural progression from the analysis and sorting process. Remember three key words to bear in mind as you draft the outline of your report: (a) Subject: For example: The OUM Distance Learning Research Centre: Report On The Effectiveness Of Distance Learning And Its Impact On Students Families. Scope: For example: Covers the results of a survey done on OUM students and families from 2003 to 2005. Purpose: For example: The study was done to help convince the Malaysian Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development to increase sponsorship opportunities and support infrastructure for students families.

(b)

(c)

ACTIVITY 7.1
Suggest a possible topic for a research report, bearing in mind the subject, scope and purpose. Share your topic with your friends at the next tutorial session. Basically, your outline not only needs to specify the scope of the report but should also pay attention to the following aspects: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Sections and parts; Relationship/connection between the various parts discussed; Amount of space to be given to each part; Order of treatment; Places for inclusion of illustrations; and Conclusions.

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Remember, the more detailed your outline, the more useful it will be to you. Headings and subheadings should be detailed enough to help you use them in sentences and paragraphs. Some typical report headings are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) Abstract. Introduction. Symbols. Theory. Analysis. Discussion. Summary of results. Conclusions. Appendix. References.

If you are writing a technical report, your outline may include: (a) (b) (c) (d) Apparatus. Test specimens. Test procedures. Sample calculations.

Note that you do not need to use all these headings in every report; just the ones that you need and that will help make your report better. You may also replace these headings with others that you think are more descriptive and reflective of your content. Be original but remember to be brief and clear. The final outline should show the exact form and wording of the headings to be used in the report. Your headings can be your guide to completing the final report but do not be too rigid in following the outline because you might get better ideas as you are writing your report.

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Here are some tips when it comes to headings: 1. Be consistent in grammar. 2. Do not use verbs. 3. Should cover the whole report. 4. May need introductory and transition paragraphs to make the report flow smoothly. There is no best way of drawing up an outline. Just start listing what you think are possible headings. You can always erase, add, re-arrange or edit them later. For simplicity and clarity, stick to just three levels of headings and subheadings. Too many levels may confuse your readers: (a) (b) (c) Main Heading. Subheading. Run-in heading: This is indented on the same line as the first line of the paragraph.

A good outline will make your writing more systematic and helps the report fall into place logically and smoothly.

7.1.5

Writing the Draft

With a good outline and illustrations, you are well prepared to write your first draft. Do not be too ambitious; no one gets a good final version on the first attempt. Everyone edits. Most people edit extensively. Remember to always keep in mind who you are writing for. Start writing as soon as possible, after finishing your outline, while the ideas are still fresh in your mind. Then, keep writing; let your ideas flow. Do not worry about minor details as those can be dealt with in the editing stage. In your second draft, check for style and look at how you want to say things. Remember your readers; will they be able to understand your draft easily? Be honest. Be tactful. Be concise and logical.

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7.1.6

Revising the Draft

Next comes the revision stage. This is where you chisel your report out of the rock that was your draft. This stage is very important; if your final report does not look and sound good, it will probably not be effective. Many new writers do not enjoy this stage and try to avoid it. It is important to remember to maintain the structure as you work on the style and content. Keep the basic structure intact. Be critical of yourself and your work. Sometimes, it helps if you leave the draft aside for a short while, and then come back to look at it again later. You tend to be more critical when you look at the draft again, after a short lapse of time. You can use the three stages shown in Table 7.1 below as a guide when you are revising your draft:
Table 7.1: The Three Stages of Revision Stage One Check for Material Make sure that you have included all the data, statistics, opinions and other material that you need to get your thoughts across in the report. Check for Organisation, Mechanics and Conventions Make sure that your objective, subject and methods are clearly stated. Check for a smooth flow, clear illustrations and proper labelling. Make sure all the parts are there. Check Your Language Make sure that your spelling, grammar and language mechanics are correct. There are few things more damaging to a report than bad language. Try to avoid unnecessarily complicated language. Language is like a machine; the more parts you add to a machine, the more likely it is to break down. Get a good grammar book to refer to, like the Comprehensive Guide to the English Language by David Nunan (1999).

Stage Two

Stage Three

You can interchange stages one and two but you should keep the third stage for last because you might still make language mistakes when you edit for other things.

ACTIVITY 7.2
In your opinion, what will be the outcome if you miss out on writing and revising the rough draft in report writing? Will your report be just as effective?

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7.2

STYLE MATTERS

Style is difficult to define but it is something that determines the success of your report. If your readers do not like your style, your report will not be read with enthusiasm and will definitely be less effective. So, how do you create your own style? There is no simple answer and there are no short cuts. You need to practise. This course is a good place to start if you have never written reports before.

7.2.1

The Report Style

Reports are written for different purposes and thus have different requirements, but where style is concerned, four things are crucial in all reports. Good reports are: (a) (b) (c) (d) Clear; Concise; Smooth flowing; and Written from an objective point of view.

You write reports to convey ideas and support them with strong arguments, so it is very important that the reader understands what he/she reads. Help the reader understand your report by using plain, clear and unambiguous language. Define all symbols adequately and re-read your report from the readers perspective when editing. This will make you more critical and help to ensure that your reader understands what you wish to convey. Your readers are usually busy people, so be concise. A good report is not necessarily long but it must be clear. Reports explain problems. Describe your plans to handle these problems, justify your plans, describe the implementation of these plans, convey the findings and finally, defend the significance in as few words as possible while maintaining clarity. Excessive and unnecessary content will only obscure your main points. A report must be logical, interesting and have good continuity between sentences, paragraphs, sections and between texts, figures and tables. Use transitional markers to lead your readers through the story. Use figures and tables carefully; do not distract the reader from the main argument.

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Reports should be objective and honest. Readers are already suspicious that you are trying to convince them of something. Do not fuel their fears by hiding your plans or the programmes defects, or by misrepresenting your facts. Your readers have feelings, so be tactful. You may have strong ideas but tone down your narrative and rely more on facts to convince your readers. Try to sound rational, not emotional.

7.2.2

The Writing Style

Write naturally. Use words and phrases that come naturally to you. Some writers try to sound formal by using big words. This will only complicate your report and increase the likelihood of things going wrong. The use of complicated language can prove distracting to your readers because they will be focusing on understanding the words you use rather than the things you want to say. Concentrate on using simple words to convey your exact meaning. Your readers will be more interested in what you have to say than how you say it. To make your report clear to your readers, arrange your paragraphs and report in the following manner: (a) (b) (c) (d) In the introduction, tell them what you are going to tell them in the rest of the report. In the body of your report, tell them what you want to tell them. In the summary or conclusion, tell them what you have told them. At the end of each section, tie your parts together by telling them what you want to do next.

Get to your point quickly. You are not writing a mystery novel. Everything you write must lead to your objective. Do not get sidetracked and lead your readers down blind alleys. They will lose interest and your report will fail. If you have to add anything that is not directly related to the report, put it in an appendix. That way you will not distract your reader from your main points. Always emphasise your main ideas. They are the reason you are writing the report in the first place. This is where your outline becomes useful as your heading will help identify major and supporting ideas. To emphasise major ideas, state them briefly at the beginning of each section and then summarise them at the end of the section.

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Keep your facts and opinions separated. Let your readers know which points are facts and which points are your opinions. Generally, you can use the first person pronoun to express your opinion: (a) (b)

I conclude from the data that The resulting figures lead me to surmise that

Avoid statements like Some believe that or As it is commonly known as your readers will not know whose opinion this really is and this may confuse them. The way you present your data is an important element of your writing style. It will also be an indicator of your judgment. Only use figures and tables that are essential to your reports; minor and irrelevant ones will distract the reader. You can explain a table but do NOT repeat yourself unnecessarily. Present your data in a way that is easiest for your reader to understand. If you are writing a technical paper for experts, you can use more numbers and charts but if you are writing for the layman, you might need to use more narrative. Your data must support your conclusion that is the objective. The only data you can use are data that support your conclusions. Quality is important, not quantity. Whether you tabulate or plot your data, or use graphs, tables or simple listing, what is important is that you make your illustrations as self-explanatory as possible. Do not make your reader go back and forth between the illustrations and the main text. In a technical report, three types of figures are commonly used; namely graphs, drawings and pictures. Mark your figures in sequence consecutively with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ) or with letters (a, b, c, d, e, ) or Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, ). You can also group the figures on one page in sequence from top to bottom to reduce the number of printed pages. If you are using graphs, try not to use too many lines. Tables are excellent for relaying exact and concentrated data but they can be difficult to understand; so if you can put the information into words, do this first.

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Figure 7.3: Microfiche Source: usacademic.net

Technical films, videotapes, video clips and animation can be very informative but they cannot be placed into a written text. However, they can be a big help when you need to do an audio-visual presentation of your report. If your report is in the form of a multimedia presentation, it is strongly recommended that you use these. Microfiche (please refer to Figure 7.3) and CDs are also extremely useful when you need to present an enormous amount of data to back up your report. They can be difficult to prepare but they can really help get your point across. Now, start working on developing your writing style by reading the next section.

ACTIVITY 7.3
1. What is the difference between report style and writing style? 2. How does your personal writing style influence your report writing?

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7.3

TIPS AND GUIDELINES

In this section, you will be offered general tips and guidelines that help ensure your report reads well. (a) Have a Catchy Title The title of your report should catch readers attention, yet be concise and precise. As far as possible, mention the main variables involved. Include an Abstract If your report is for academic purposes, for instance, a research report or dissertation, it needs to have an abstract. An abstract is a concise, singleparagraph summary of your work. It is usually about 200 words in length, and informs readers about the rationale for the study, your approach to the problem, pertinent results, and important conclusions or new questions. Your abstract should be able to stand on its own, without having to refer to any other part of the paper, or figure or table. If well written, an abstract makes the readers want to learn more about your research. Take care that what you write in the abstract is consistent with what is contained in the actual report. Write a Good Introduction It is important to spend some time and thought on writing a good introduction for your report because: (i) (ii) It is the first thing that your readers read; It prepares your readers to easily receive what you intend to present by telling them exactly what you plan to say, and why and how you will say it;

(b)

(c)

(iii) It focuses your readers attention on the subject to be treated, and enables them to approach the body of the report naturally and intelligently. (iv) It sets parameters for dealing with the issue in question, making clear the subject/problem under discussion, the reasons for considering the subject for study, the organisation of ideas and the scope of the report, etc.

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Put in a nutshell, your introduction is important because it guides your readers and prepares them for what they will encounter in the rest of the paper. The introduction has parts that have very specific primary functions. The primary functions of the introduction are elaborated in the following paragraphs. (d) State Subject Your introduction must clearly identify the subject of your report. It tells your readers exactly what you will be reporting on, including why it is necessary for you to report it, and a definition of the subject. State Purpose State your purpose clearly in the introduction. Tell your reader why you are writing the report. You might need to give some background to explain your objective. You can state your objective very explicitly, for example,The objective of this paper is ... If you have more than one objective, you can number them. Try to restrict your objectives to one. However, if you have more than one, try not to exceed three, at the most. More than that would be too ambitious. State Scope and Organisation Your introduction should also alert your readers as to the organisation of ideas in the paper. This is important in case your readers are interested in finding out specific information about a particular thing and do not have the time to read your entire report. Your readers need to be told: (i) (ii) How long the report will be; How the content will be arranged;

(e)

(f)

(iii) What the important parts are; and (iv) Why they are important. (g) Style and Length Report styles vary but all reports must be clear, direct and accurate. Other than that, you are free to exercise your creativity. Build in the functions mentioned previously into paragraphs if you can but you can also just stick to the basic style: The subject is, The purpose is, The organisation and

scope are

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Are you feeling worried? Well, dont be. All this advice may make writing seem difficult but it is not. Just bring together everything you need and start writing. Once you get the flow, it will be plain sailing. Complete the introduction first and worry about the rest when you are editing the draft. The length of your introduction depends on how much background you want to give it. Try to restrict it to between 200 and 300 words, if it is a simple report. If you are introducing new ideas, you might have to make your introduction several pages long. One idea is to include only a brief background in your introduction and put the rest into a section entitled theory or research background. (h) Format Earlier sections have already touched on this sub-topic. Basically, the format of your report has to consider the following aspects: (i) (ii) Arrangement of information; References; and

(iii) Content and style. (i) Arrange Report Systematically Basically, the information in your report should be systematically arranged, with headings and sub-headings, laid out in the following order: (i) (ii) Title; Abstract;

(iii) Introduction; (iv) Methods (and logistics); (v) Results; (vi) Discussion; and (vii) Conclusion. (j) Cite References When citing references, you need to be mindful of the following: (i) (ii) Double or 1.5 spacing. Font 12 in Malaysia, the font Times New Roman is very popular for reports.

(iii) Left justify is easier to read and the most commonly used convention. It makes your references look neater.

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(k)

Content and Style With regards to content and style, observe the following points: (i) (ii) Avoid using footnotes. This is not really accepted in Malaysian academia these days. Use the past tense.

(iii) Put in headings for each section. (iv) Subheadings also make things clearer. (v) Avoid excessively long and complex sentences.

(vi) Avoid too many commas. (vii) Avoid too many conjunctions (and, but, or). (viii) Avoid too many nouns and adjectives. (ix) Make your sentences positive: The findings show that (x) Reduce use of jargon or avoid it altogether, if possible.

(xi) Do not be repetitive. (xii) Be concise and precise if something is irrelevant, keep it out. (l) Writers Checklist And finally, here is a checklist which may help you. After you have written your report, ask yourself these questions: (i) Is my title too long? You should keep your title short and sweet about 120 characters or less. Have I included the Abstract, Summary, Introduction, Results and Conclusion?

(ii)

(iii) Have I made the significance and limitations clear? (iv) Have I given the headings roughly equal weight? I should give each heading about two subheadings respectively. Have I done that? (v) Have I limited my abstract to 200 words or less?

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(vi) Have I limited my summary to only things I included in the body of the report? Is my conclusion based only on the things I have in the body of the report? (vii) Have I numbered my tables, figures, references and appendices in the order I refer to them in my report? Have I given them all titles where needed? (viii) Are my references complete? (ix) Have I defined my symbols, acronyms and abbreviations? (x) Have I made my conclusions comprehensible?

(xi) Have I made my purpose and scope clear? Have I made my report sound like it is worth reading? (xii) Have I tailored my report to my target audience? (xiii) Have I identified: x x x The things I want my readers to learn from my report? What I need to know about my report? The important/significant parts of my report?

(xiv) Have I ordered my points consistently in: x x x x A decreasing order of importance in the conclusion? An increasing order of importance in the body? A chronological order for processes and experiments? A logical sequence?

SELF-CHECK 7.2
How does the writers checklist help you in writing reports?

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ACTIVITY 7.4
The sentences below highlight important rules in report writing. However, they contain grammatical errors. See if you can spot the errors and correct them. Selected Writing Rules: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Verbs HAS to agree with their subjects. And dont start a sentence with a conjunction. Be more or less specific. No sentence fragments. Contractions arent necessary and shouldnt be used. Foreign words and phrases are not apropos. Do not be redundant; do not use more words than necessary; its highly superfluous. One should NEVER generalise. Comparisons are as bad as cliches. The passive voice is to be ignored. Eliminate commas, that are, not necessary. One-word sentences? Eliminate. Never use a big word when a diminutive one would suffice. Understatement is always the absolute best way to put forth earthshaking ideas. Proof read carefully to see if you any words out.

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x x x

This topic highlights the processes in report writing. The stages are preparation, data collection, analysing data and sorting the results, going through the first draft, writing it and revising it. In addition, the topic describes the writing styles writers should follow and how the written work relates to the statement of purpose, organisation, length and style.

Authors checklist Data gathering Format Outlining Report style

Report writing Revision Rough draft Writing style

Ross-Larson, B. (1996). Edit yourself: A manual for everyone who works with words. New York: WW Norton. Strunk, Jr. W., & White, E. B. (2000). The elements of style. Reading, MA: Longman.