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Contents
Articles
Tribocorrosion Tribology Friction Wear Turbine Turbine blade Water turbine Tungsten carbide Titanium carbide 1 2 6 17 24 30 34 42 48

References
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Tribocorrosion

Tribocorrosion
Tribocorrosion is a material degradation process due to the combined effect of corrosion and wear.[1] The name tribocorrosion expresses the underlying disciplines of tribology and corrosion. Tribology is concerned with the study of friction, lubrication and wear (its name comes from the Greek "tribo" meaning to rub) and corrosion is concerned with the chemical and electrochemical interactions between a material, normally a metal, and its environment. As a field of research tribocorrosion is relatively new, but tribocorrosion phenomena have been around ever since machines and installations are being used. Wear is a mechanical material degradation process occurring on rubbing or impacting surfaces, while corrosion involves chemical or electrochemical reactions of the material. Corrosion may accelerate wear and wear may accelerate corrosion.[2] One then speaks of corrosion accelerated wear or wear accelerated corrosion. Both these phenomena, as well as fretting corrosion (which results from small amplitude oscillations between contacting surfaces) fall into the broader category of tribocorrosion. Erosion-corrosion is another tribocorrosion phenomenon involving mechanical and chemical effects: impacting particles or fluids erode a solid surface by abrasion, chipping or fatigue while simultaneously the surface corrodes.[3]

Phenomena in different engineering fields

Tribocorrosion occurs in many engineering fields. It reduces the life-time of pipes, valves and pumps, of waste incinerators, of mining equipment or of medical implants, and it can affect the safety of nuclear reactors or of transport systems. On the other hand, tribocorrosion phenomena can also be applied to good use, for example in the chemical-mechanical planarization of wafers in the electronics industry [4] or in metal grinding and cutting in presence of aqueous emulsions. Keeping this in mind, we may define tribocorrosion in a more general way independently of the notion of usefulness or damage or of the particular type of mechanical interaction: Tribocorrosion concerns the irreversible transformation of materials or of their function as a result of simultaneous mechanical and chemical/electrochemical interactions between surfaces in relative motion.

Biotribocorrosion
Biotribocorrosion covers the science of surface transformations resulting from the interactions of mechanical loading and chemical/electrochemical reactions that occur between elements of a tribological system exposed to biological environments.[5] It has been studied for aritificial joint prostheses. It is important to understand material degradation processes for joint implants to achieve longer service life and better safety issues for such devices.

Passive metals
While tribocorrosion phenomena may affect many materials, they are most critical for metals, especially the normally corrosion resistant so-called passive metals. The vast majority of corrosion resistant metals and alloys used in engineering (stainless steels, titanium, aluminium etc.) fall into this category. These metals are thermodynamically unstable in the presence of oxygen or water and they derive their corrosion resistance from the presence at the surface of a thin oxide film, called the passive film, which acts as a protective barrier between the metal and its environment.[6] Passive films are usually just a few atomic layers thick. Nevertheless, they can provide excellent corrosion protection because if damaged accidentally they spontaneously self-heal by metal oxidation. However, when a metal surface is subjected to severe rubbing or to a stream of impacting particles the passive film damage becomes continuous and extensive. The self-healing process may no longer be effective and in addition it requires a high rate of metal oxidation. In other words, the underlying metal will strongly corrode before the protective passive film is reformed, if at all. In such a case, the total material loss due to tribocorrosion will be much higher than the sum of wear and corrosion one would measure in experiments with the same metal where only wear or only

Tribocorrosion corrosion takes place. The example illustrates the fact that the rate of tribocorrosion is not simply the addition of the rate of wear and the rate of corrosion but it is strongly affected by synergistic and antagonistic effects between mechanical and chemical mechanisms. To study such effects in the laboratory, one most often uses mechanical wear testing rigs which are equipped with an electrochemical cell.[7] This permits one to control independently the mechanical and chemical parameters. For example, by imposing a given potential to the rubbing metal one can simulate the oxidation potential of the environment and in addition, under certain conditions, the current flow is a measure of the instantaneous corrosion rate. For a deeper understanding tribocorrosion experiments are supplemented by detailed microscopic and analytical studies of the contacting surfaces. At high temperatures, the more rapid generation of oxide due to a combination of temperature and tribological action during sliding wear can generate potentially wear resistant oxide layers known as 'glazes'. Under such circumstances, tribocorrosion can be used potentially in a beneficial way.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] D. Landolt, Electrochemical and materials aspects of tribocorrosion systems, J. Physics D: Appl. Phys. 39, 1-7 (2006) S. W. Watson, F. J. Friedersdorf, B. W. Madsen, S. D. Cramer, Wear 181-183, (1995) 476-484 K. Sasaki, G.T. Burstein, Philosophical Magazine Letters, 80 (2000) 489-493 S. Tagella, A.K. Skder, A. Kumar,J. Electrochem. Soc. 151 (2004) G205

[5] Y.Yan, Biotribocorrosion an appraisal of the time dependence of wear and corrosion interactions Part II: Surface analysis. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics. 39(2006) p.3206-3212 [6] D. Landolt, Corrosion and Surface Chemistry of Metals, EPFL Press, Lausanne Switzerland 2007 p.227-274 [7] S. Mischler, P. Ponthiaux, WEAR, 248 (2001) 211-225

Tribology
Tribology is the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It includes the study and application of the principles of friction, lubrication and wear. Tribology is a branch of mechanical engineering and materials science.

Etymology
The word tribology derives from the Greek root - of the verb , tribo, "I rub" in classic Greek; and the suffix -logy from -, -logia "study of", "knowledge of". It was coined by the British physicist David Tabor,[1] and also by Peter Jost in 1964, a lubrication expert who noticed the problems with increasing friction on machines, and started the new discipline of tribology.[2]

Fundamentals
The tribological interactions of a solid surface's exposed face with interfacing materials and environment may result in loss of material from the surface. The process leading to loss of material is known as "wear". Major types of wear include abrasion, friction (adhesion and cohesion), erosion, and corrosion. Wear can be minimized by modifying the surface properties of solids by one or more of "surface engineering" processes (also called surface finishing) or by use of lubricants (for frictional or adhesive wear). Estimated direct and consequential annual loss to industries in the USA due to wear is approximately 1-2% of GDP. (Heinz, 1987). Engineered surfaces extend the working life of both original and recycled and resurfaced equipment, thus saving large sums of money and leading to conservation of material, energy and the environment. Methodologies to minimize wear include systematic approaches to diagnose the wear and to prescribe appropriate solutions. Important methods include:

Tribology Terotechnology, where multidisciplinary engineering and management techniques are used to protect equipment and machinery from degradation (Peter Jost, 1972) Horst Czichos's systems approach, where appropriate material is selected by checking properties against tribological requirements under operating environment (H. Czichos,1978) Asset Management by Material Prognosis - a concept similar to terotechnology which has been introduced by the US Military (DARPA) for upkeep of equipment in good health and start-ready condition for 24 hours. Good health monitoring systems combined with appropriate remedies at maintenance and repair stages have led to improved performance, reliability and extended life cycle of the assets, such as advanced military hardware and civil aircraft. In recent years, micro- and nanotribology have been gaining ground. Frictional interactions in microscopically small components are becoming increasingly important for the development of new products in electronics, life sciences, chemistry, sensors and by extension for all modern technology.

Friction regimes
Friction regimes for sliding lubricated surfaces have been broadly categorized into: 1. Solid/boundary friction 2. Fluid friction 3. Mixed friction on the basis of the Stribeck curve. These curves clearly show the minimum value of friction as the demarcation between full fluid-film lubrication and some solid asperity interactions. Stribeck and others systematically studied the variation of friction between two liquid lubricated surfaces as a function of a dimensionless lubrication parameter N/P, where is the dynamic viscosity, N the speed (e.g. revolutions per minute of a bearing) and P the load projected on to the geometrical surface.[3]

A typical Stribeck curve obtained by Martens

The Stribeck-curve has been a classic teaching element in tribology classes.[4]

History
The history of tribology is surveyed by Duncan Dowson in his book "History of Tribology (2nd edition)".[5] This comprehensive book covers developments from prehistory, though early civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt) and finally the key developments up to the end of the previous century. Historically, Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) was the first to enunciate two laws of friction.[6] According to da Vinci, the frictional resistance Tribological experiments suggested by Leonardo was the same for two different objects of the same weight but making da Vinci contacts over different widths and lengths. He also observed that the force needed to overcome friction is doubled when the weight is doubled, but his findings remained unpublished in his notebooks.[7][8] The classic rules were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons (1699) and were further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785). The first reliable test on frictional wear was carried out by Charles Hatchett (17601820) using a simple reciprocating machine to evaluate wear on gold coins. He found that compared to self-mated coins, coins with grits

Tribology between them wore at a faster rate.

Stribeck curve
The "Stribeck curve" or "StribeckHersey curve" (named after Richard Stribeck,[9][10][11] who heavily documented and established examples of it, and Mayo D. Hersey[12][13]), used to categorize the friction properties between two surfaces, was developed in the first half of the 20th century. The research of Professor Richard Stribeck (18611950) was performed in Berlin at the Royal Prussian Technical Testing Institute (MPA, now BAM). Similar work was previously performed around 1885 by Prof. Adolf Martens (18501914) at the same Institute and in the mid-1870s by Dr. Robert H. Thurston [14][15] at the Stevens Institute of Technology in the U.S. Prof. Dr. Thurston was therefore close to establishing the Stribeck curve, but he presented no Stribeck-like graphs, as he evidently did not fully believe in the relevance of this dependency. Since that time the Stribeck-curve has been a classic teaching element in tribology classes.[4] The graphs of friction force reported by Stribeck stem from a carefully conducted, wide-ranging series of experiments on journal bearings. Stribeck systematically studied the variation of friction between two liquid lubricated surfaces.[3] His results were presented on 5 December 1901 during a public session of the railway society and published on 6 September 1902. They clearly showed the minimum value of friction as the demarcation between full fluid-film lubrication and some solid asperity interactions. Stribeck studied different bearing materials and aspect ratios D/L from 1:1 to 1:2. The maximum sliding speed was 4m/s and the geometrical contact pressure was limited to 5 MPa. (These operating conditions were related to railway wagon journal bearings.) The reason why the form of the friction curve for liquid lubricated surfaces was later attributed to Stribeck, although both Thurston and Martens achieved their results considerably earlier, (Martens even in the same organization roughly 15 years before), may be because Stribeck published in the most important technical journal in Germany at that time, Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI, Journal of German Mechanical Engineers). Martens published his results only in the official journal of the Royal Prussian Technical Testing Institute, which has now become BAM. The VDI journal, as one of the most important journals for engineers, provided wide access to these data and later colleagues rationalized the results into the three classical friction regimes. Thurston however, did not have the experimental means to record a continuous graph of the coefficient of friction but only measured the friction at discrete points; this may be the reason why the minimum in the coefficient of friction was not discovered by him. Instead, Thurston's data did not indicate such a pronounced minimum of friction for a liquid lubricated journal bearing as was demonstrated by the graphs of Martens and Stribeck.

Jost Report
The term tribology became widely used following The Jost Report in 1966, in which huge sums of money were reported to have been lost in the UK annually due to the consequences of friction, wear and corrosion. As a result several national centres for tribology were created in the UK. Since then the term has diffused into the international engineering field and many specialists now claim to be tribologists. There are now numerous national and international societies, such as the Society for Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE [16]) in the USA and the Institution of Mechanical Engineers' Tribology Group (IMechE Tribology Group [17]) in the UK or the German Society for Tribology (Gesellschaft fr Tribologie, www.gft-ev.de). Most technical universities have a group working on tribology, often as part of their mechanical engineering departments. The limitations in tribological interactions are however no longer mainly determined by mechanical designs, but rather by material limitations so the discipline of tribology now counts at least as many materials engineers, physicists and chemists as it does mechanical engineers.

Tribology

Applications
The study of tribology is commonly applied in bearing design but extends into almost all other aspects of modern technology, even to such unlikely areas as hair conditioners and cosmetics such as lipstick, powders and lipgloss. Any product where one material slides or rubs over another is affected by complex tribological interactions, whether lubricated like hip implants and other artificial prostheses, or unlubricated as in high temperature sliding wear in which conventional lubricants cannot be used but in which the formation of compacted oxide layer glazes have been observed to protect against wear. Tribology plays an important role in manufacturing. In metal-forming operations, friction increases tool wear and the power required to work a piece. This results in increased costs due to more frequent tool replacement, loss of tolerance as tool dimensions shift, and greater forces required to shape a piece. The use of lubricants which minimize direct surface contact reduces tool wear and power requirements.

References
[1] Field, J. (2008). "David Tabor. 23 October 1913 -- 26 November 2005". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 54: 425. doi:10.1098/rsbm.2007.0031. [2] Mitchell, Luke (November 2012). Ward, Jacob. ed. "The Fiction of Nonfriction". Popular Science. No. 5 281 (November 2012): 40. [3] R. Stribeck, Die wesentlichen Eigenschaften der Gleit- und Rollenlager (The basic properties of sliding and rolling bearings), Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure, 2002, Nr. 36, Band 46, p. 1341-1348, p. 1432-1438 and 1463-1470 [4] H. Czichos, K.-H. Habig, Tribologie-Handbuch (Tribology handbook), Vieweg Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2nd edition, 2003, ISBN 3-528-16354-2 [5] Duncan Dowson, History of Tribology, Second Edition, Professional Engineering Publishing, 1997, ISBN 1-86058-070-X [6] Palaci, Ismal (2007), Atomic Force Microscopy Studies of Nanotribology and Nanomechanics. p. 52. (http:/ / biblion. epfl. ch/ EPFL/ theses/ 2007/ 3905/ EPFL_TH3905. pdf) [7] Armstrong-Hlouvry, Brian (1991). Control of machines with friction (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=0zk_zI3xACgC& pg=PA10). USA: Springer. pp.10. ISBN0-7923-9133-0. . [8] van Beek, Anton. "History of Science Friction" (http:/ / www. tribology-abc. com/ abc/ history. htm). tribology-abc.com. . Retrieved 2011-03-24. [9] Stribeck, R. (1901), Kugellager fr beliebige Belastungen (Ball Bearings for any Stress), Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure 45. [10] Stribeck, R. (1902), Die wesentlichen Eigenschaften der Gleit- und Rollenlager (Characteristics of Plain and Roller Bearings), Zeit. des VDI 46. [11] Jacobson, Bo (2003), The Stribeck memorial lecture. (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6V57-497HBKM-4& _user=10& _coverDate=11/ 30/ 2003& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high& _orig=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _searchStrId=1433619808& _rerunOrigin=google& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=634f43c7420d0709195dbd4ac5e8a719) [12] Hersey, M. D. (1914), The Laws of Lubrication of Horizontal Journal Bearings, J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 4, 542-552. [13] Biography of Mayo D. Hersey (http:/ / www. nndb. com/ people/ 221/ 000169711/ ) [14] Robert H. Thurston, Friction and lubrication - Determination of the laws and co-fficients of friction by new methods and with new apparatus, Trbner and Co., Ludgate Hill, London, 1879 [15] Robert H. Thurston, A treatise on friction and lost work in machinery and millwork, John Wiley&Sons, New York, 1894, fifth edition [16] http:/ / www. stle. org [17] http:/ / www. imeche. org/ knowledge/ industries/ tribology/ overview

Bibliography
Surface Wear Analysis, Treatment, and Prevention: R. Chattopadhyay, published by ASM-International, Materials Park, OH, 2001, ISBN 0-87170-702-0. Advanced Thermally Assisted Surface Engineering Processes: Ramnarayan Chattopadhyay, Kluwer Academic Publishers, MA (now Springer, NY), 2004. DeGarmo, E. Paul, J T. Black, and Ronald A. Kohser. Materials and Processes in Manufacturing. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1997. ISBN 0-02-328621-0 Zum Gahr, Karl-Heinz (1987). Microstructure and Wear of Materials. Tribology Series, 10. Elsevier. ISBN0-444-42754-6. Heshmat, Hooshang. Tribology of Interface Layers. CRC Press. ISBN978-0-8247-5832-5.

Tribology Litt, Fred. "Starting from Scratch: Tribology Basics Volume I" (http://www.stle.org/assets/document/ Starting_from_Scratch.pdf). STLE. Retrieved 2010-06-10.

External links
Tribology NL (http://www.tribology-abc.com/default.htm) an overview of tribology topics targeted at mechanical engineers. (http://rtec-instruments.com/tribometer.htm) Rtec Instrument- Tribology studies instrument manufacturer IET Tribology Network (http://kn.theiet.org/communities/tribology/index.cfm?origin-wiki) IET Tribology Network (http://kn.theiet.org/communities/tribology/index.cfm?origin-wiki) Tribology: Friction, Wear, and Lubrication (http://web.mit.edu/professional/short-programs/courses/ designing_tribological_systems.html) a short course offered at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction: Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is subdivided into static friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces. Fluid friction describes the friction between layers within a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.[1][2] Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.[3][4][5] Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a solid body through a fluid. Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation.[2] When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat. This property can have dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to heat whenever motion with friction occurs, for example when a viscous fluid is stirred. Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance degradation and/or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology. Friction is not itself a fundamental force but arises from fundamental electromagnetic forces between the charged particles constituting the two contacting surfaces. The complexity of these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impossible and necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory.

History
The classic rules of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da Vinci (14521519), but remained unpublished in his notebooks.[6][7][8] They were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons (1699). Amontons presented the nature of friction in terms of surface irregularities and the force required to raise the weight pressing the surfaces together. This view was further elaborated by Belidor (representation of rough surfaces with spherical asperities, 1737)[6] and Leonhard Euler (1750) who derived the angle of repose of a weight on an inclined plane and first distinguished between static and kinetic friction.[9] A different explanation was provided by Desaguliers (1725), who demonstrated the strong cohesion forces between lead spheres of which a small cap is cut off and which were then brought into contact with each other.

Friction The understanding of friction was further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1785). Coulomb investigated the influence of four main factors on friction: the nature of the materials in contact and their surface coatings; the extent of the surface area; the normal pressure (or load); and the length of time that the surfaces remained in contact (time of repose).[6] Coulomb further considered the influence of sliding velocity, temperature and humidity, in order to decide between the different explanations on the nature of friction that had been proposed. The distinction between static and dynamic friction is made in Coulomb's friction law (see below), although this distinction was already drawn by Johann Andreas von Segner in 1758.[6] The effect of the time of repose was explained by Musschenbroek (1762) by considering the surfaces of fibrous materials, with fibers meshing together, which takes a finite time in which the friction increases. John Leslie (17661832) noted a weakness in the views of Amontons and Coulomb. If friction arises from a weight being drawn up the inclined plane of successive asperities, why isn't it balanced then through descending the opposite slope? Leslie was equally skeptical about the role of adhesion proposed by Desaguliers, which should on the whole have the same tendency to accelerate as to retard the motion.[6] In his view friction should be seen as a time-dependent process of flattening, pressing down asperities, which creates new obstacles in what were cavities before. Arthur Morrin (1833) developed the concept of sliding versus rolling friction. Osborne Reynolds (1866) derived the equation of viscous flow. This completed the classic empirical model of friction (static, kinetic, and fluid) commonly used today in engineering.[7] The focus of research during the last century has been to understand the physical mechanisms behind friction. F. Phillip Bowden and David Tabor (1950) showed that at a microscopic level, the actual area of contact between surfaces is a very small fraction of the apparent area.[8] This actual area of contact, caused by "asperities" (roughness) increases with pressure, explaining the proportionality between normal force and frictional force. The development of the atomic force microscope (1986) has recently enabled scientists to study friction at the atomic scale.[7]

Laws of dry friction

The elementary properties of sliding (kinetic) friction were discovered by experiment in the 15th to 18th centuries and were expressed as three empirical laws: Amontons' First Law: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load. Amontons' Second Law: The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact. Coulomb's Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity.

Dry friction
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of dry friction are 'static friction' ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces. Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is an approximate model used to calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the equation:

where is the force of friction exerted by each surface on the other. It is parallel to the surface, in a direction opposite to the net applied force. is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials, is the normal force exerted by each surface on the other, directed perpendicular (normal) to the surface.

Friction The Coulomb friction may take any value from zero up to , and the direction of the frictional force against

a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence. This maximum force is known as traction. The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a curling stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road.

Normal force
The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together; and its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where . In this case, the magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the acceleration due to gravity, and the coefficient of friction. However, the coefficient of friction is not a function of mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force, and hence on the mass of the block. If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal, the normal force between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal to its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to earth's gravity, g. If the object is on a tilted surface such as an inclined plane, the normal force is less, because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane. Therefore, the normal force, and ultimately the frictional force, is determined using vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the situation, the calculation of the normal force may include forces other than gravity.

Coefficient of friction
Free-body diagram for a block on a ramp.

The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter , Arrows are vectors indicating directions and magnitudes of forces. N is the normal force, is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of mg is the force of gravity, and Ff is the force friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The of friction. coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one. Under good conditions, for example, a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction of 1.7. For surfaces at rest relative to each other larger than its kinetic counterpart. , where is the coefficient of static friction. This is usually

Friction For surfaces in relative motion equal to other surface. It was Arthur-Jules Morin who introduced the term and demonstrated the utility of the coefficient of friction.[6] The coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement it has to be measured experimentally, and cannot be found through calculations. Rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective values. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contact; for a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of kinetic friction; in some sets the two coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon. Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property even magnetic levitation vehicles have drag. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that is always < 1, but this is not true. While in most relevant applications < 1, a value above 1 merely implies that the force required to slide an object along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the object. For example, silicone rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than 1. While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a "system property." Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield strength), the COF for any two materials depends on system variables like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also what are now popularly described as aging and deaging times; as well as on geometric properties of the interface between the materials. For example, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6 at low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of course, does not determine the COF uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test. Negative coefficient of friction As of 2012, a single study has demonstrated the potential for a negative coefficient of friction, meaning that a decrease in force leads to an increase in friction. This contradicts the everyday experience that an increase of normal force improves friction.[10] This was reported in the journal Nature in October 2012 and involved the friction encountered by an atomic force microscope stylus when dragged across a graphene sheet in the presence of graphene-adsorbed oxygen.[10] Approximate coefficients of friction
Materials Static friction, Dry and clean Aluminium Copper Brass Cast iron Cast iron Steel Steel Steel 0.61 0.53 0.51 Lubricated

9 , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The Coulomb friction is

, and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the

Copper 1.05 Zinc 0.85

Concrete (wet) Rubber 0.30 Concrete (dry) Rubber 1.0 Concrete Copper Glass Wood Glass Glass 0.62 0.68 0.94 [11]

Friction
[11] [11]

10
Metal Polyethene Steel Steel PTFE Wood Wood Steel Steel PTFE PTFE Wood

0.20.6 0.2 [12]

0.2 (wet) 0.2 [12] [12] [12] [12]

0.80 0.04 0.04

[12] [12] [12] [11]

0.16 0.04 0.04

0.250.5

0.2 (wet)

[11]

An AlMgB14-TiB2 composite has an approximate coefficient of friction of 0.02 in water-glycol-based lubricants,[13][14] and 0.040.05 when dry.[15] Under certain conditions, some materials have even lower friction coefficients. An example is (highly ordered pyrolytic) graphite, which can have a friction coefficient below 0.01.[16] This ultralow-friction regime is called superlubricity.

Static friction
Static friction is friction between two or more solid objects that are not moving relative to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as s, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move. The maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of static friction and the normal force: . When there is no sliding occurring, the friction force can have any value from zero up to . Any force smaller than attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional force overcomes the force of static friction and of equal magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger than

causes sliding to occur. The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no longer applicablethe friction between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction. An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction. The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as limiting friction,[17] although this term is not used universally.[1] It is also known as traction.

Kinetic friction
Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as k, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials.[18][19] However, Richard Feynman comments that "with dry metals it is very hard to show any difference."[20] New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction.[21] Kinetic friction is now understood, in many cases, to be primarily caused by chemical bonding between the surfaces, rather than interlocking asperities;[22] however, in many other cases roughness effects are dominant, for example in rubber to road friction.[21] Surface roughness and contact area, however, do affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces.[23]

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Angle of friction
For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the angle of friction or friction angle. It is defined as: where is the angle from vertical and s is the static coefficient of friction between the objects.[24] This formula can also be used to calculate s from empirical measurements of the friction angle.

Friction at the atomic level

Determining the forces required to move atoms past each other is a challenge in designing nanomachines. In 2008 scientists for the first time were able to move a single atom across a surface, and measure the forces required. Using ultrahigh vacuum and nearly-zero temperature (5 K), a modified atomic force microscope was used to drag a cobalt atom, and a carbon monoxide molecule, across surfaces of copper and platinum.[25]

Limitations of the Coulomb model

The Coulomb approximation mathematically follows from the assumptions that surfaces are in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area, that this contact area is proportional to the normal force (until saturation, which takes place when all area is in atomic contact), and that frictional force is proportional to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area (you can see the experiments on friction from Leonardo da Vinci). Such reasoning aside, however, the approximation is fundamentally an empirical construction. It is a rule of thumb describing the approximate outcome of an extremely complicated physical interaction. The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and versatility though in general the relationship between normal force and frictional force is not exactly linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces), the Coulomb approximation is an adequate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical systems. When the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for example, adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal force). In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact. Some drag racing tires are adhesive in this way. However, despite the complexity of the fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in many applications.

Numerical simulation of the Coulomb model

Despite being a simplified model of friction, the Coulomb model is useful in many numerical simulation applications such as multibody systems and granular material. Even its most simple expression encapsulates the fundamental effects of sticking and sliding which are required in many applied cases, although specific algorithms have to be designed in order to efficiently numerically integrate mechanical systems with Coulomb friction and bilateral and/or unilateral contact.[26][27][28][29][30] Some quite nonlinear effects, such as the so-called Painlev paradoxes, may be encountered with Coulomb friction.[31]

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Dry friction and instabilities

Dry friction can induce several types of instabilities in mechanical systems, which display a stable behaviour in the absence of friction.[33] For instance, friction-related dynamical instabilities are thought to be responsible of brake squeal and of the 'song' of a glass harp,[34][35] phenomena which involve stick and slip, modelled as a drop of friction coefficient with velocity.[36] A connection between dry friction and flutter instability in a simple mechanical system has been discovered.[37]

Fluid friction
Fluid friction occurs between layers within a fluid that are moving relative to each other. This internal resistance to flow is described by viscosity. In everyday terms viscosity is "thickness". Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of movement.

A physical model of the so-called 'Ziegler column', a two-degree-of-freedom system, exhibiting flutter instability as [32] induced by dry friction. Watch the complete movie for more details.

All real fluids (except superfluids) have some resistance to stress and therefore are viscous, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.

Lubricated friction
Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces. Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close proximity moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the surfaces. In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can rub destructively over each other, causing heat and possibly damage or failure.

Skin friction
Skin friction arises from the friction of the fluid against the "skin" of the object that is moving through it. Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body, and is directly related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows the drag equation and rises with the square of the velocity. Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the object. There are two ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible, like an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the moving object as much as is practicable.

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Internal friction
Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes plastic deformation. Plastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an object. This change may be due to either (or both) an applied force or a change in temperature. The change of an object's shape is called strain. The force causing it is called stress. Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation occurs, internal forces oppose the applied force. If the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may completely resist the applied force, allowing the object to assume a new equilibrium state and to return to its original shape when the force is removed. This is what is known in the literature as elastic deformation (or elasticity). Larger forces in excess of the elastic limit may cause a permanent (irreversible) deformation of the object. This is what is known as plastic deformation.

Other types of friction

Rolling resistance
Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a surface caused by deformations in the object and/or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction.[38] Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 0.001.[39] One of the most common examples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road, a process which generates heat and sound as by-products.[40]

Triboelectric effect
Rubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge, which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture.

Belt friction
Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a pulley, when one end is being pulled. The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can be modeled by the belt friction equation. In practice, the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction equation can be compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a designer of such a rig to know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from slipping. Mountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge of belt friction when accomplishing basic tasks.

Reducing friction
Devices
Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, roller bearings, and air cushion or other types of fluid bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction. Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used in low friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing imposed load. For improved wear resistance, very high molecular weight grades are usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.

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Lubricants
A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives. Superlubricity, a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated. Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant. Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one of the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration noise, known as dither.

Energy of friction
According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into heat. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force. When an object is pushed along a surface, the energy converted to heat is given by:

where is the normal force, is the coefficient of kinetic friction, is the coordinate along which the object transverses. Energy lost to a system as a result of friction is a classic example of thermodynamic irreversibility.

Work of friction
In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does no work, because there is never displacement between the surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic friction is always in the direction opposite the motion, and does negative work.[41] However, friction can do positive work in certain frames of reference. One can see this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary. Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing positive work.[42] The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as in polishing. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of friction welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating surfaces occur when work due frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels. Harder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. Bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction. As surfaces are worn by work due to friction, fit and surface finish of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly.[43]

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Applications
Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.

Transportation
Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails, see Frictional contact mechanics. Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobiles Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on either side of a car. Road texture affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface.

Measurement
A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction on a surface. A profilograph is a device used to measure pavement surface roughness.

Household usage
Friction is used to ignite matchstick (Friction between the head of a matchstick and the rubbing surface of the match box).

Instances where friction is advantageous

Friction between meteorite and air helps to increase its temperature and ignite it, protecting the living things on Earth. Finger prints and palm prints on hand help to hold up objects easily in human and ape hands. Foot prints increase friction and helps to stand up. Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a vehicle by converting its kinetic energy into heat. Incidentally, dispersing this large amount of heat safely is one technical challenge in designing brake systems.

References
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[15] Tian, Y.; Bastawros, A. F.; Lo, C. C. H.; Constant, A. P.; Russell, A. M.; Cook, B. A. (2003). "Superhard self-lubricating AlMgB[sub 14] films for microelectromechanical devices". Applied Physics Letters 83 (14): 2781. Bibcode2003ApPhL..83.2781T. doi:10.1063/1.1615677. [16] Martin Dienwiebel, Gertjan S. Verhoeven, Namboodiri Pradeep, Joost W. M. Frenken, Jennifer A. Heimberg, and Henny W. Zandbergen (2004). "Superlubricity of Graphite" (http:/ / www. physics. leidenuniv. nl/ sections/ cm/ ip/ group/ PDF/ Phys. rev. lett/ 2004/ 92(2004)12601. pdf). Phys. Rev. Lett. 92 (12): 126101. Bibcode2004PhRvL..92l6101D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.126101. . [17] Bhavikatti, S. S.; K. G. Rajashekarappa (1994). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=4wkLl4NvmWAC& pg=PA112& lpg=PA112). New Age International. p.112. ISBN978-81-224-0617-7. . Retrieved 2007-10-21. [18] Sheppard and Tongue (2005). Statics: Analysis and Design of Systems in Equilibrium. Wiley and Sons. p.618. ISBN0-471-37299-4. "In general, for given contacting surfaces, k < s" [19] Meriam and Kraige (2002). Engineering Mechanics: Statics. Wiley and Sons. p.330. ISBN0-471-40646-5. "Kinetic friction force is usually somewhat less than the maximum static friction force." [20] Feynman, Leighton, and Sands (1964). "The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I, p. 12-5" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ frict2. html). Addison-Wesley. . Retrieved 2009-10-16. [21] Persson, B. N.; Volokitin, A. I (2002). "Theory of rubber friction: Nonstationary sliding" (http:/ / juwel. fz-juelich. de:8080/ dspace/ bitstream/ 2128/ 1343/ 1/ 17249. pdf). Physical Review B 65 (13): 134106. Bibcode2002PhRvB..65m4106P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.65.134106. . [22] Beatty, William J.. "Recurring science misconceptions in K-6 textbooks" (http:/ / amasci. com/ miscon/ miscon4. html#fric). . Retrieved 2007-06-08. [23] B. N. J. Persson (2000). Sliding friction: physical principles and applications (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1jb-nZMnRGYC). Springer. ISBN978-3-540-67192-3. . Retrieved 12 December 2011. [24] Nichols, Edward Leamington; Franklin, William Suddards (1898). The Elements of Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=8IlCAAAAIAAJ). 1. Macmillan. p.101. . [25] Ternes, Markus; Lutz, Christopher P.; Hirjibehedin, Cyrus F.; Giessibl, Franz J.; Heinrich, Andreas J. (2008-02-22). "The Force Needed to Move an Atom on a Surface". Science 319 (5866): 10661069. Bibcode2008Sci...319.1066T. doi:10.1126/science.1150288. PMID18292336. [26] Haslinger, J.; Nedlec, J.C. (1983). "Approximation of the Signorini problem with friction, obeying the Coulomb law". Mathematical Methods in the Applied Sciences 5: 422437. Bibcode1983MMAS....5..422H. doi:10.1002/mma.1670050127. [27] Alart, P.; Curnier, A. (1991). "A mixed formulation for frictional contact problems prone to Newton like solution method". Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 92 (3): 353375. Bibcode1991CMAME..92..353A. doi:10.1016/0045-7825(91)90022-X. [28] Acary, V.; Cadoux, F.; Lemarchal, C.; Malick, J. (2011). "A formulation of the linear discrete Coulomb friction problem via convex optimization". Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics / Zeitschrift fr Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik 91 (2): 155175. doi:10.1002/zamm.201000073. [29] De Saxc, G.; Feng, Z.-Q. (1998). "The bipotential method: A constructive approach to design the complete contact law with friction and improved numerical algorithms". Mathematical and Computer Modelling 28 (4): 225245. doi:10.1016/S0895-7177(98)00119-8. [30] Simo, J.C.; Laursen, T.A. (1992). "An augmented lagrangian treatment of contact problems involving friction". Computers and Structures 42 (2): 97116. doi:10.1016/0045-7949(92)90540-G. [31] Acary, V.; Brogliato, B. (2008). Numerical Methods for Nonsmooth Dynamical Systems. Applications in Mechanics and Electronics. 35. Springer Verlag Heidelberg. [32] http:/ / www. ing. unitn. it/ ~bigoni/ flutter. html [33] Bigoni, D.. Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: Bifurcation Theory and Material Instability. Cambridge University Press, 2012. ISBN9781107025417. [34] J. Flint and J. Hultn (2002). "Lining-deformation-induced modal coupling as squeal generator in a distributed parameter disk brake model". J. Sound and Vibration 254: 121. Bibcode2002JSV...254....1F. doi:10.1006/jsvi.2001.4052. [35] M. Krger, M.Neubauer, and K. Popp (2008). "Experimental investigation on the avoidance of self-excited vibrations". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 366 (1866): 785810. Bibcode2008RSPTA.366..785K. doi:10.1098/rsta.2007.2127. PMID17947204. [36] Rice and Ruina; Ruina, A. L. (1983). "Stability of Steady Frictional Slipping" (http:/ / ruina. tam. cornell. edu/ research/ topics/ friction_and_fracture/ stability_steady. pdf). Journal of Applied Mechanics 50 (2): 343349. Bibcode1983JAM....50..343R. doi:10.1115/1.3167042. . [37] D. Bigoni and G. Noselli (2011). "Experimental evidence of flutter and divergence instabilities induced by dry friction" (http:/ / www. ing. unitn. it/ ~bigoni). Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids 59 (10): 22082226. Bibcode2011JMPSo..59.2208B. doi:10.1016/j.jmps.2011.05.007. . [38] Benjamin Silliman, Principles of Physics, Or Natural Philosophy, Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & company publishers (1871) [39] Hans-Jrgen Butt, Karlheinz Graf, Michael Kappl, Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces, Wiley, ISBN 3-527-40413-9 (2006) [40] Hogan, C. Michael (1973). "Analysis of highway noise". Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2 (3): 387. doi:10.1007/BF00159677. [41] Den Hartog, J. P. (1961). Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=WRXrtu44W9UC). Courier Dover Publications. p.142. ISBN0-486-60754-2. . [42] Leonard, William J (2000). Minds-on Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=t_AKvmza5s8C& pg=PA603). Kendall/Hunt. p.603. ISBN0-7872-3932-1. .

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[43] Bayer, Raymond George (2004). Mechanical wear (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Q64Kq2HlyucC& pg=PA3& lpg=PA3& dq=Physical+ wear+ is+ associated+ with+ friction). CRC Press. pp.1, 2. ISBN0-8247-4620-1. . Retrieved 2008-07-07.

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External links
Coefficients of Friction (http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Tribology/co_of_frict.htm) tables of coefficients, plus many links Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips (http://www.physclips.unsw.edu.au/) from the University of New South Wales CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics Values for Coefficient of Friction (http://books.google.com/ books?id=WDll8hA006AC&pg=PT2503&lpg=PT2503) Characteristic Phenomena in Conveyor Chain (http://chain-guide.com/basics/2-3-1-coefficient-of-friction. html) Atomic-scale Friction Research and Education Synergy Hub (AFRESH) (http://nsfafresh.org) an Engineering Virtual Organization for the atomic-scale friction community to share, archive, link, and discuss data, knowledge and tools related to atomic-scale friction.

Wear
In materials science, wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material from its "derivative" and original position on a solid surface performed by the action of another surface. Wear is related to interactions between surfaces and more specifically the removal and deformation of material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite surface.[1] The need for relative motion between two surfaces and initial mechanical contact between asperities is an important distinction between mechanical wear compared to other processes with similar outcomes.[2] The definition of wear may include loss of dimension from plastic deformation if it is originated at the interface between two sliding surfaces. However, plastic deformation such as yield stress is excluded from the wear definition if it doesn't incorporates a relative sliding motion and contact against another surface despite the possibility for material removal, because it then lacks the relative sliding action of another surface. Impact wear is in reality a short sliding motion where two solid bodies interact at an exceptional short time interval. Previously due to the fast execution, the contact found in impact wear was referred to as an impulse contact by the nomenclature. Impulse can be described as a mathematical model of a synthesised average on the energy transport between two travelling solids in opposite converging contact. Cavitation wear is a form of wear where the erosive medium or counter-body is a fluid. Corrosion may be included in wear phenomenons, but the damage is amplified and performed by chemical reactions rather than mechanical action. Wear can also be defined as a process where interaction between two surfaces or bounding faces of solids within the working environment results in dimensional loss of one solid, with or without any actual decoupling and loss of material. Aspects of the working environment which affect wear include loads and features such as unidirectional sliding, reciprocating, rolling, and impact loads, speed, temperature, but also different types of counter-bodies such as solid, liquid or gas and type of contact ranging between single phase or multiphase, in which the last multiphase may combine liquid with solid particles and gas bubbles.

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Measurement
Today there exist a couple of standard test methods for different types of wear to determine the amount of material removal during a specified time period under well-defined conditions. The ASTM International Committee G-2 attempts to standardise wear testing for specific applications, which are periodically updated. The Society for Tribology and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) has documented a large number of frictional wear and lubrication tests. But all test methods have inbuilt limitations and do not give a true picture in every aspect. This can be attributed to the complex nature of wear, in particular "industrial wear", and the difficulties associated with accurately simulating wear processes.(ref4)

Rear sprocket for a bicycle where the left is unused and the right has obvious wear from clockwise rotation.

A standard result review for wear tests, defined by the ASTM International and respective subcommittees such as Committee G-2, should be expressed as loss of material during wear in terms of volume. The volume loss gives a truer picture than weight loss, particularly when comparing the wear resistance properties of materials with large differences in density. For example, a weight loss of 14 g in a sample of tungsten carbide + cobalt (density = 14000kg/m) and a weight loss of 2.7 g in a similar sample of aluminium alloy (density = 2700kg/m) both result in the same level of wear (1cm) when expressed as a volume loss. The inverse of volume loss can be used as a comparable index of wear resistance. Standard wear tests are only used for comparative material ranking of a specific test parameter as stipulated in the test method. For more realistic values of material deterioration in industrial applications it is necessary to conduct wear testing under conditions simulating the exact wear process.(ref4) The working life of an engineering component is expired when dimensional losses exceed the specified tolerance limits. Wear, along with other ageing processes such as fatigue and creep in association with stress concentration factors such as fracture toughness causes materials to progressively degrade, eventually leading to material failure at an advanced age. Wear in industrial applications is one of a limited number of fault factors in which an object loses its usefulness and the economic implication can be of enormous value to the industry.(ref 4) The Archard Equation is the classic wear prediction model - see Bisson [3]

Stages of wear
Under normal mechanical and practical procedures, the wear-rate normally changes through three different stages(ref.4): Primary stage or early run-in period, where surfaces adapt to each other and the wear-rate might vary between high and low. Secondary stage or mid-age process, where a steady rate of ageing is in motion. Most of the components operational life is comprised in this stage. Tertiary stage or old-age period, where the components are subjected to rapid failure due to a high rate of ageing. The secondary stage is shortened with increasing severity of environmental conditions such as higher temperatures, strain rates, stress and sliding velocities etc. Note that, wear rate is strongly influenced by the operating conditions. Specifically, normal loads and sliding speeds play a pivotal role in determining wear rate. In addition, tribo-chemical reaction is also important in order to

Wear understand the wear behavior. Different oxide layers are developed during the sliding motion. The layers are originated from complex interaction among surface, lubricants, and environmental molecules. In general, a single plot, namely wear map. demonstrating wear rate under different loading condition is used for operation. This graph also represents dominating wear modes under different loading conditions (ref. 13). In explicit wear tests simulating industrial conditions between metallic surfaces, there are no clear chronological distinction between different wear-stages due to big overlaps and symbiotic relations between various friction mechanisms. Surface engineering and treatments are used to minimize wear and extend the components working life.
[4][5]

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Types
The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology. The complex nature of wear has delayed its investigations and resulted in isolated studies towards specific wear mechanisms or processes.[6] Some commonly referred to wear mechanisms (or processes) include: 1. Adhesive wear 2. Abrasive wear 3. Surface fatigue 4. Fretting wear 5. Erosive wear A number of different wear phenomena are also commonly encountered and presented in the literature. Impact-, cavitation-, diffusive- and corrosive- wear are all such examples. These wear mechanisms, however, do not necessarily act independently and wear mechanisms are not mutually exclusive.[2] "Industrial Wear" are commonly described as incidence of multiple wear mechanisms occurring in unison. Another way to describe "Industrial Wear" is to define clear distinctions in how different friction mechanisms operate, for example distinguish between mechanisms with high or low energy density. Wear mechanisms and/or sub-mechanisms frequently overlap and occur in a synergistic manner, producing a greater rate of wear than the sum of the individual wear mechanisms.

Adhesive wear
Adhesive wear can be found between surfaces during frictional contact and generally refers to unwanted displacement and attachment of wear debris and material compounds from one surface to another. Two separate mechanisms operate between the surfaces. ==Friccohesity== defines actual changes in cohesive forces and their reproduction in form of kinetic or frictional forces in liquid when the clustering of the nano-particles scatter in medium for making smaller cluster or aggregates of different manometer levels. 1. Adhesive wear are caused by relative motion, "direct contact" and plastic deformation which create wear debris and material transfer from one surface to another. 2. Cohesive adhesive forces, holds two surfaces together even though they are separated by a measurable distance, with or without any actual transfer of material. The above description and distinction between "Adhesive wear" and its Counterpart "cohesive adhesive forces" are quite common. Usually cohesive surface forces and adhesive energy potentials between surfaces are examined as a special field in physics departments. The adhesive wear and material transfer due to direct contact and plastic deformation are examined in engineering science and in industrial research. Two aligned surfaces may always cause material transfer and due to overlaps and symbiotic relations between relative motional wear and chemical cohesive attraction, the wear-categorization have been a source for discussion. Consequently, the definitions and nomenclature must evolve with the latest science and empiric observations.

Wear Generally, adhesive wear occurs when two bodies slide over or are pressed into each other, which promote material transfer. This can be described as plastic deformation of very small fragments within the surface layers. The asperities or microscopic high points or surface roughness found on each surface, define the severity on how fragments of oxides are pulled off and adds to the other surface, partly due to strong adhesive forces between atoms[1] but also due to accumulation of energy in the plastic zone between the asperities during relative motion.

20

SEM micrograph of adhesive wear (transferred materials) on 52100 steel sample sliding against Al alloy. (Yellow arrow indicate sliding direction)

The outcome can be a growing roughening and creation of protrusions (i.e., lumps) above the original surface, in industrial manufacturing referred to as galling, which eventually breaches the oxidized surface layer and connects to the underlying bulk material which enhance the possibility for a stronger adhesion[7] and plastic flow around the lump. The geometry and the nominal sliding velocity of the lump defines how the flowing material will be transported and accelerated around the lump which is critical to define contact pressure and developed temperature during sliding. The mathematical function for acceleration of flowing material is thereby defined by the lumps surface contour. It's clear, given these prerequisites, that contact pressure and developed temperature is highly dependent on the lumps geometry. Flow of material exhibits an increase in energy density, because initial phase transformation and displacement of material demand acceleration of material and high pressure. Low pressure is not compatible with plastic flow, only after deceleration may the flowing material be exposed to low pressure and quickly cooled. In other words, you can't deform a solid material using direct contact without applying a high pressure and somewhere along the process must acceleration and deceleration take place, i.e., high pressure must be applied on all sides of the deformed material. Flowing material will immediately exhibit energy loss and reduced ability to flow due to phase transformation, if ejected from high pressure into low pressure. This ability withholds the high pressure and energy density in the contact zone and decreases the amount of energy or friction force needed for further advancement when the sliding continues and partly explain the difference between the static and sliding coefficient of friction () if the main fracture mechanisms are equal to the previous. Adhesive wear is a common fault factor in industrial applications such as sheet metal forming (SMF) and commonly encountered in conjunction with lubricant failures and are often referred to as welding wear or galling due to the exhibited surface characteristics, phase transition and plastic flow followed by cooling.

Wear The type of mechanism and the amplitude of surface attraction, varies between different materials but are amplified by an increase in the density of "surface energy". Most solids will adhere on contact to some extent. However, oxidation films, lubricants and contaminants naturally occurring generally suppress adhesion.[8] and spontaneous exothermic chemical reactions between surfaces generally produce a substance with low energy status in the absorbed species.[7]

21

Abrasive wear
Abrasive wear occurs when a hard rough surface slides across a softer surface.[1] ASTM International (formerly American Society for Testing and Materials) defines it as the loss of material due to hard particles or hard protuberances that are forced against and move along a solid surface.[9] Abrasive wear is commonly classified according to the type of contact and the contact environment.[10] The type of contact determines the mode of abrasive wear. The two modes of abrasive wear are known as two-body and three-body abrasive wear. Two-body wear occurs when the grits or hard particles remove material from the opposite surface. The common analogy is that of material being removed or displaced by a cutting or plowing operation. Three-body wear occurs when the particles are not constrained, and are free to roll and slide down a surface. The contact environment determines whether the wear is classified as open or closed. An open contact environment occurs when the surfaces are sufficiently displaced to be independent of one another

Deep 'groove' like surface indicates abrasive wear over cast iron (yellow arrow indicate sliding direction)

There are a number of factors which influence abrasive wear and hence the manner of material removal. Several different mechanisms have been proposed to describe the manner in which the material is removed. Three commonly identified mechanisms of abrasive wear are: 1. Plowing 2. Cutting 3. Fragmentation Plowing occurs when material is displaced to the side, away from the wear particles, resulting in the formation of grooves that do not involve direct material removal. The displaced material forms ridges adjacent to grooves, which may be removed by subsequent passage of abrasive particles. Cutting occurs when material is separated from the

Wear surface in the form of primary debris, or microchips, with little or no material displaced to the sides of the grooves. This mechanism closely resembles conventional machining. Fragmentation occurs when material is separated from a surface by a cutting process and the indenting abrasive causes localized fracture of the wear material. These cracks then freely propagate locally around the wear groove, resulting in additional material removal by spalling.[10] Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass by the Taber Abrasion Test according to ISO 9352 or ASTM D 1044.

22

Surface fatigue
Surface fatigue is a process by which the surface of a material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one type of general material fatigue. Fatigue wear is produced when the wear particles are detached by cyclic crack growth of microcracks on the surface. These microcracks are either superficial cracks or subsurface cracks.

Fretting wear
Fretting wear is the repeated cyclical rubbing between two surfaces, which is known as fretting, over a period of time which will remove material from one or both surfaces in contact. It occurs typically in bearings, although most bearings have their surfaces hardened to resist the problem. Another problem occurs when cracks in either surface are created, known as fretting fatigue. It is the more serious of the two phenomena because it can lead to catastrophic failure of the bearing. An associated problem occurs when the small particles removed by wear are oxidised in air. The oxides are usually harder than the underlying metal, so wear accelerates as the harder particles abrade the metal surfaces further. Fretting corrosion acts in the same way, especially when water is present. Unprotected bearings on large structures like bridges can suffer serious degradation in behaviour, especially when salt is used during winter to deice the highways carried by the bridges. The problem of fretting corrosion was involved in the Silver Bridge tragedy and the Mianus River Bridge accident.

Erosive wear
Erosive wear can be described as an extremely short sliding motion and is executed within a short time interval. Erosive wear is caused by the impact of particles of solid or liquid against the surface of an object.[8] The impacting particles gradually remove material from the surface through repeated deformations and cutting actions.[11] It is a widely encountered mechanism in industry. A common example is the erosive wear associated with the movement of slurries through piping and pumping equipment. The rate of erosive wear is dependent upon a number of factors. The material characteristics of the particles, such as their shape, hardness, impact velocity and impingement angle are primary factors along with the properties of the surface being eroded. The impingement angle is one of the most important factors and is widely recognized in literature.[12] For ductile materials the maximum wear rate is found when the impingement angle is approximately 30, whilst for non ductile materials the maximum wear rate occurs when the impingement angle is normal to the surface.[12]

Wear

23

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Rabinowicz, E. (1995). Friction and Wear of Materials. New York, John Wiley and Sons. Williams, J. A. (2005). "Wear and wear particles - Some fundamentals." Tribology International 38(10): 863-870 Bisson, Edmond E. (1968). Various Modes of Wear and their Controlling Factors. NASA Technical Memorendum TM X-52426. Chattopadhyay, R. (2001). Surface Wear - Analysis, Treatment, and Prevention. OH, USA: ASM-International. ISBN0-87170-702-0. Chattopadhyay, R. (2004). Advanced Thermally Assisted Surface Engineering Processes. MA, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN1-4020-7696-7. [6] Jones, M., H., and D. Scott, Eds. (1983). Industrial Tribology: the practical aspects of friction, lubrication, and wear. New York, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company. [7] Glaeser, W. A., Ed. (1993). [8] Stachowiak, G. W., and A. W. Batchelor (2005). Engineering Tribology. Burlington, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann [9] Standard Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion, Annual Book of Standards, Vol 03.02, ASTM, 1987, p 243-250 [10] ASM Handbook Committee (2002). ASM Handbook. Friction, Lubrication and Wear Technology. U.S.A., ASM International. Volume 18. [11] Mamata, K. P. (2008). "A review on silt erosion in hydro turbines." Renewable & sustainable energy reviews 12(7): 1974. [12] Sinmazcelik, T. and I. Taskiran (2007). "Erosive wear behaviour of polyphenylenesulphide (PPS) composites." Materials in engineering 28(9): 2471-2477.

General references
S.C. Lim. Recent Development in Wear Mechanism Maps. Trib. Intl. 1998;31; 87-97 H.C. Meng and K. C Ludema. Wear 1995; 183; 443-457 R. Bosman and D. J. Schipper. Wear 2012; 280;54-62 M. W. Akram, K. Polychronopoulou, A. A. Polycarpou. Trib. Int. : 2013;57;92-100

Further reading
Bowden, Tabor: Friction and Lubrication of Solids (Oxford:Clarendon Press 1950) Kleis I. and Kulu P.: Solid Particle Erosion. Springer-Verlag, London, 2008, 206 pp. Zum Gahr K.-H.: Microstructure and wear of materials, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1987, 560 S. Jones J.R.:Lubrication, Friction, and Wear, NASA-SP-8063, 1971, 75 pp. A nice, free and good document available here (http://hdl.handle.net/2060/19710021995).

Turbine

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Turbine
A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels. Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to the British engineer Sir Charles Parsons (18541931), for invention of the reaction turbine and to Swedish engineer Gustaf de Laval (18451913), for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery.

A steam turbine with the case opened

The word "turbine" was coined in 1822 by the French mining engineer Claude Burdin from the Latin turbo, or vortex, in a memoir, "Des turbines hydrauliques ou machines rotatoires grande vitesse", which he submitted to the Acadmie royale des sciences in Paris.[1] Benoit Fourneyron, a former student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine.

Turbine

25

Theory of operation
A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head). The fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by turbines to collect this energy: Impulse turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or gas jet. The resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no pressure change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades (the moving blades), as in the case of a steam or gas turbine, all the pressure drop takes place in the stationary blades (the nozzles). Before reaching the turbine, the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blading on the rotor. Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.

Schematic of impulse and reaction turbines, where the rotor is the rotating part, and the stator is the stationary part of the machine.

Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines. In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for marine applications or for land-based electricity generation, a Parsons type reaction turbine would require approximately double the number of blade rows as a de Laval type impulse turbine, for the same degree of thermal energy conversion. Whilst this makes the Parsons turbine much longer and heavier, the overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is slightly higher than the equivalent impulse turbine for the same thermal energy conversion. In practice, modern turbine designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate a reaction lift from the moving fluid and impart it to the rotor. Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by deflecting it at an angle. Crossflow turbines are designed as an impulse machine, with a nozzle, but in low head applications maintain some efficiency through reaction, like a traditional water wheel. Turbines with multiple stages may utilize either reaction or impulse blading at high pressure. Steam turbines were traditionally more impulse but continue to move towards reaction designs similar to those used

Turbine in gas turbines. At low pressure the operating fluid medium expands in volume for small reductions in pressure. Under these conditions, blading becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the blade solely impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade. As the volume increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the blade spins at a slower speed relative to the tip. This change in speed forces a designer to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction style tip. Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century. Vector analysis related the fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation methods were used at first. Formulae for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a highly efficient machine can be reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the calculations are empirical or 'rule of thumb' formulae, and others are based on classical mechanics. As with most engineering calculations, simplifying assumptions were made. Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage. Gas exits the stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1. The rotor rotates at velocity U. Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor entrance is Vr1. The gas is turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity Vr2. However, in absolute terms the rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity triangles are constructed using these various velocity vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed at any section through the blading (for example: hub, tip, midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean performance for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the Euler equation:

26

Hence:

where: specific enthalpy drop across stage turbine entry total (or stagnation) temperature turbine rotor peripheral velocity change in whirl velocity The turbine pressure ratio is a function of and the turbine efficiency.

Modern turbine design carries the calculations further. Computational fluid dynamics dispenses with many of the simplifying assumptions used to derive classical formulas and computer software facilitates optimization. These tools have led to steady improvements in turbine design over the last forty years. The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number describes the speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate. The specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow conditions and the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and an appropriate turbine design selected. The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably scale an existing design of known performance to a new size with corresponding performance. Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.

Turbine

27

Types
Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power plants, such as plants using coal, fuel oil or nuclear power. They were once used to directly drive mechanical devices such as ships' propellers (for example the Turbinia, the first turbine-powered steam launch,[2]) but most such applications now use reduction gears or an intermediate electrical step, where the turbine is used to generate electricity, which then powers an electric motor connected to the mechanical load. Turbo electric ship machinery was particularly popular in the period immediately before and during World War II, primarily due to a lack of sufficient gear-cutting facilities in US and UK shipyards. Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle (possibly other assemblies) in addition to one or more turbines. Transonic turbine. The gas flow in most turbines employed in gas turbine engines remains subsonic throughout the expansion process. In a transonic turbine the gas flow becomes supersonic as it exits the nozzle guide vanes, although the downstream velocities normally become subsonic. Transonic turbines operate at a higher pressure ratio than normal but are usually less efficient and uncommon. Contra-rotating turbines. With axial turbines, some efficiency advantage can be obtained if a downstream turbine rotates in the opposite direction to an upstream unit. However, the complication can be counter-productive. A contra-rotating steam turbine, usually known as the Ljungstrm turbine, was originally invented by Swedish Engineer Fredrik Ljungstrm (18751964) in Stockholm, and in partnership with his brother Birger Ljungstrm he obtained a patent in 1894. The design is essentially a multi-stage radial turbine (or pair of 'nested' turbine rotors) offering great efficiency, four times as large heat drop per stage as in the reaction (Parsons) turbine, extremely compact design and the type met particular success in backpressure power plants. However, contrary to other designs, large steam volumes are handled with difficulty and only a combination with axial flow turbines (DUREX) admits the turbine to be built for power greater than ca 50 MW. In marine applications only about 50 turbo-electric units were ordered (of which a considerable amount were finally sold to land plants) during 1917-19, and during 1920-22 a few turbo-mechanic not very successful units were sold.[3] Only a few turbo-electric marine plants were still in use in the late 1960s (ss Ragne, ss Regin) while most land plants remain in use 2010. Statorless turbine. Multi-stage turbines have a set of static (meaning stationary) inlet guide vanes that direct the gasflow onto the rotating rotor blades. In a statorless turbine the gasflow exiting an upstream rotor impinges onto a downstream rotor without an intermediate set of stator vanes (that rearrange the pressure/velocity energy levels of the flow) being encountered. Ceramic turbine. Conventional high-pressure turbine blades (and vanes) are made from nickel based alloys and often utilise intricate internal air-cooling passages to prevent the metal from overheating. In recent years, experimental ceramic blades have been manufactured and tested in gas turbines, with a view to increasing rotor inlet temperatures and/or, possibly, eliminating aircooling. Ceramic blades are more brittle than their metallic counterparts, and carry a greater risk of catastrophic blade failure. This has tended to limit their use in jet engines and gas turbines to the stator (stationary) blades. Shrouded turbine. Many turbine rotor blades have shrouding at the top, which interlocks with that of adjacent blades, to increase damping and thereby reduce blade flutter. In large land-based electricity generation steam turbines, the shrouding is often complemented, especially in the long blades of a low-pressure turbine, with lacing wires. These wires pass through holes drilled in the blades at suitable distances from the blade root and are usually brazed to the blades at the point where they pass through. Lacing wires reduce blade flutter in the central part of the blades. The introduction of lacing wires substantially reduces the instances of blade failure in large or low-pressure turbines. Shroudless turbine. Modern practice is, wherever possible, to eliminate the rotor shrouding, thus reducing the centrifugal load on the blade and the cooling requirements.

Turbine Bladeless turbine uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the blades as in a conventional turbine. Water turbines Pelton turbine, a type of impulse water turbine. Francis turbine, a type of widely used water turbine. Kaplan turbine, a variation of the Francis Turbine. Turgo turbine, a modified form of the Pelton wheel. Cross-flow turbine, also known as Banki-Michell turbine, or Ossberger turbine. Wind turbine. These normally operate as a single stage without nozzle and interstage guide vanes. An exception is the olienne Bolle, which has a stator and a rotor. Velocity compound "Curtis". Curtis combined the de Laval and Parsons turbine by using a set of fixed nozzles on the first stage or stator and then a rank of fixed and rotating blade rows, as in the Parsons or de Laval, typically up to ten compared with up to a hundred stages of a Parsons design. The overall efficiency of a Curtis design is less than that of either the Parsons or de Laval designs, but it can be satisfactorily operated through a much wider range of speeds, including successful operation at low speeds and at lower pressures, which made it ideal for use in ships' powerplant. In a Curtis arrangement, the entire heat drop in the steam takes place in the initial nozzle row and both the subsequent moving blade rows and stationary blade rows merely change the direction of the steam. Use of a small section of a Curtis arrangement, typically one nozzle section and two or three rows of moving blades, is usually termed a Curtis 'Wheel' and in this form, the Curtis found widespread use at sea as a 'governing stage' on many reaction and impulse turbines and turbine sets. This practice is still commonplace today in marine steam plant. Pressure compound multistage impulse, or "Rateau". The Rateau employs simple impulse rotors separated by a nozzle diaphragm. The diaphragm is essentially a partition wall in the turbine with a series of tunnels cut into it, funnel shaped with the broad end facing the previous stage and the narrow the next they are also angled to direct the steam jets onto the impulse rotor.

28

Uses
Almost all electrical power on Earth is produced with a turbine of some type. Very high efficiency steam turbines harness about 40% of the thermal energy, with the rest exhausted as waste heat. Most jet engines rely on turbines to supply mechanical work from their working fluid and fuel as do all nuclear ships and power plants. Turbines are often part of a larger machine. A gas turbine, for example, may refer to an internal combustion machine that contains a turbine, ducts, compressor, combustor, heat-exchanger, fan and (in the case of one designed to produce electricity) an alternator. Combustion turbines and steam turbines may be connected to machinery such as pumps and compressors, or may be used for propulsion of ships, usually through an intermediate gearbox to reduce rotary speed. Reciprocating piston engines such as aircraft engines can use a turbine powered by their exhaust to drive an intake-air compressor, a configuration known as a turbocharger (turbine supercharger) or, colloquially, a "turbo". Turbines can have very high power density (i.e. the ratio of power to weight, or power to volume). This is because of their ability to operate at very high speeds. The Space Shuttle's main engines used turbopumps (machines consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to feed the propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the engine's combustion chamber. The liquid hydrogen turbopump is slightly larger than an automobile engine (weighing approximately 700lb) and produces nearly 70,000 hp (52.2 MW). Turboexpanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes.

Turbine Military jet engines, as a branch of gas turbines, have recently been used as primary flight controller in post-stall flight using jet deflections that are also called thrust vectoring.[4] The U.S. FAA has also conducted a study about civilizing such thrust vectoring systems to recover jetliners from catastrophes.

29

Notes
[1] In 1822, Claude Burdin submitted his memoir "Des turbines hydrauliques ou machines rotatoires grande vitesse" (Hydraulic turbines or high-speed rotary machines) to the Acadmie royale des sciences in Paris. (See: Annales de chimie et de physique, vol. 21, page 183 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rzNCAAAAcAAJ& pg=PA183#v=onepage& q& f=false) (1822).) However, it was not until 1824 that a committee of the Acadmie (composed of Prony, Dupin, and Girard) reported favorably on Burdin's memoir. See: Prony and Girard (1824) "Rappport sur le mmoire de M. Burdin intitul: Des turbines hydrauliques ou machines rotatoires grande vitesse" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=03BRAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA207#v=onepage& q& f=false) (Report on the memoir of Mr. Burdin titled: Hydraulic turbines or high-speed rotary machines), Annales de chimie et de physique, vol. 26, pages 207-217. [2] Adrian Osler (October 1981). "Turbinia" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5xujimKGb). (ASME-sponsored booklet to mark the designation of Turbinia as an international engineering landmark). Tyne And Wear County Council Museums. Archived from the original (http:/ / files. asme. org/ ASMEORG/ Communities/ History/ Landmarks/ 5652. pdf) on 13 April 2011. . Retrieved 13 April 2011. [3] Ingvar Jung, 1979, The history of the marine turbine, part 1, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, dep of History of technology [4] "Multiaxis Thrust Vectoring Flight Control Vs Catastrophic Failure Prevention," Reports to U.S. Dept. of Transportation/FAA, Technical Center, ACD-210, FAA X88/0/6FA/921000/4104/T1706D, FAA Res. Benjamin Gal-Or, Grant-Award No: 94-G-24, CFDA, No. 20.108, Dec. 26, 1994; "Vectored Propulsion, Supermanoeuvreability, and Robot Aircraft", by Benjamin Gal-Or, Springer Verlag, 1990, ISBN 0-387-97161-0, 3-540-97161-0.

Further reading
Layton, Edwin T. "From Rule of Thumb to Scientific Engineering: James B. Francis and the Invention of the Francis Turbine," NLA Monograph Series. Stony Brook, NY: Research Foundation of the State University of New York, 1992.

External links
Turbine introductory math (http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/turbine.htm)

Turbine blade

30

Turbine blade
Turbine blade

Turbine blade from a Turbo-Union RB199 jet engine.

A turbine blade is the individual component which makes up the turbine section of a gas turbine. The blades are responsible for extracting energy from the high temperature, high pressure gas produced by the combustor. The turbine blades are often the limiting component of gas turbines.[1] To survive in this difficult environment, turbine blades often use exotic materials like superalloys and many different methods of cooling, such as internal air channels, boundary layer cooling, and thermal barrier coatings.

Introduction
In a gas turbine engine, a single turbine section is made up of a disk or hub that holds many turbine blades. That turbine section is connected to a compressor section via a shaft (or "spool"), and that compressor section can either be axial or centrifugal. Air is compressed, raising the pressure and temperature, through the compressor stages of the engine. The pressure and temperature are then greatly increased by combustion of fuel inside the combustor, which sits between the compressor stages and the turbine stages. The high temperature and high pressure exhaust gases then pass through the turbine stages. The turbine stages extract energy from this flow, lowering the pressure and temperature of the air, and transfer the kinetic energy to the compressor stages along the spool. This is process is very similar to how an axial compressor works, only in reverse.[2]

Diagram of a twin spool jet engine. The high pressure turbine is connected by a single spool to the high pressure compressor (purple), and the low pressure turbine is connected to the low pressure compressor by a second spool (green).

The number of turbine stages varies in different types of engines, with high bypass ratio engines tending to have the most turbine stages. The number of turbine stages can have a great effect on how the turbine blades are designed for each stage. Many gas turbine engines are twin spool designs, meaning that there is a high pressure spool and a low pressure spool. Other gas turbines used three spools, adding an intermediate pressure spool between the high and low pressure spool. The high pressure turbine is exposed to the hottest, highest pressure, air, and the low pressure turbine is subjected to cooler, lower pressure air. That difference in conditions leads the design of high pressure and low pressure turbine blades to be significantly different in material and cooling choices even though the aerodynamic and thermodynamic principles are the same.[3]

Turbine blade

31

Environment and failure modes

Turbine blades are subjected to very strenuous environments inside a gas turbine. They face high temperatures, high stresses, and a potentially high vibration environment. All three of these factors can lead to blade failures, which can destroy the engine, and turbine blades are carefully designed to resist those conditions.[4] Turbine blades are subjected to stress from centrifugal force (turbine stages can rotate at tens of thousands of revolutions per minute (RPM)) and fluid forces that can cause fracture, yielding, or creep[5] failures. Additionally, the first stage (the stage directly following the combustor) of a modern turbine faces temperatures around 2,500 F (C),[6] up from temperatures around 1,500 F (C) in early gas turbines.[7] Modern military jet engines, like the Snecma M88, can see turbine temperatures of 2,900 F (C).[8] Those high temperatures weaken the blades and make them more susceptible to creep failures. The high temperatures can also make the blades susceptible to corrosion failures. Finally, vibrations from the engine and the turbine itself (see blade pass frequency [9]) can cause fatigue failures.[4]

Materials
A key limiting factor in early jet engines was the performance of the materials available for the hot section (combustor and turbine) of the engine. The need for better materials spurred much research in the field of alloys and manufacturing techniques, and that research resulted in a long list of new materials and methods that make modern gas turbines possible.[7] One of the earliest of these was Nimonic, used in the British Whittle engines. The development of superalloys in the 1940s and new processing methods such as vacuum induction melting in the 1950s greatly increased the temperature capability of turbine blades. Further processing methods like hot isostatic pressing improved the alloys used for turbine blades and increased turbine blade performance.[7] Modern turbine blades often use nickel-based superalloys that incorporate chromium, cobalt, and rhenium.[4][10] Aside from alloy improvements, a major breakthrough was the development of directional solidification (DS) and single crystal (SC) production methods. These methods help greatly increase strength against fatigue and creep by aligning grain boundaries in one direction (DS) or by eliminating grain boundaries all together (SC).[7] Another major improvement to turbine blade material technology was the development of thermal barrier coatings (TBC). Where DS and SC developments improved creep and fatigue resistance, TBCs improved corrosion and oxidation resistance, both of which become greater concerns as temperatures increased. The first TBCs, applied in the 1970s, were aluminide coatings. Improved ceramic coatings became available in the 1980s. These coatings increased turbine blade capability by about 200F (90C).[7] The coatings also improve blade life, almost doubling the life of turbine blades in some cases.[11] Most turbine blades are manufactured by investment casting (or lost-wax processing). This process involves making a precise negative die of the blade shape that is filled with wax to form the blade shape. If the blade is hollow (i.e., it has internal cooling passages), a ceramic core in the shape of the passage is inserted into the middle. The wax A turbine blade with thermal barrier coating. blade is coated with a heat resistant material to make a shell, and then that shell is filled with the blade alloy. This step can be more complicated for DS or SC materials, but the process is similar. If there is a ceramic core in the middle of the blade, it is dissolved in a solution that leaves the blade hollow. The blades are coated with an TBC they will have, and then cooling holes are machined as needed, creating a complete turbine blade.[12]

Turbine blade

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List of turbine blade materials

Note: This list is not inclusive of all alloys used in turbine blades.[13][14] U-500 This material was used as a first stage (the most demanding stage) material in the 1960s, and is now used in later, less demanding, stages.[14] Rene 77[14] Rene N5[15] Rene N6[15] PWA1484[15] CMSX-4 [16] CMSX-10[15] Inconel IN-738 - GE used IN-738 as a first stage blade material from 1971 until 1984, when it was replaced by GTD-111. It is now used as a second stage material. It was specifically designed for land-based turbines rather than aircraft gas turbines.[14] GTD-111 Blades made from directionally solidified GTD-111 are being using in many GE Aviation gas turbines in the first stage. Blades made from equiaxed GTD-111 are being used in later stages.[14] EPM-102 (MX4 (GE), PWA 1497 (P&W)) is a single crystal superalloy jointly developed by NASA, GE Aviation, and Pratt & Whitney for the High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT). While the HSCT program was canceled, the alloy is still being considered for use by GE and P&W.[17]

Cooling
Another strategy to improving turbine blades and increasing their operating temperature, aside from better materials, is to cool the blades. There are three main types of cooling used in gas turbine blades; convection, film, and transpiration cooling. While all three methods have their differences, they all work by using cooler air (often bled from the compressor) to remove heat from the turbine blades.[18] Convection cooling works by passing cooling air through passages internal to the blade. Heat is transferred by conduction through the blade, and then by convection into the air flowing inside of the blade. A large internal surface area is desirable for this method, so the cooling paths tend to be serpentine and full of small fins.[18][19] A variation of convection cooling, impingement cooling, works by hitting the inner surface of the blade with high velocity air. This allows more heat to be transferred by convection than regular convection cooling does. Impingement cooling is often used on certain areas of a turbine blade, like the leading edge, with standard convection cooling used in the rest of the blade.[19] The second major type of cooling is film cooling (also called thin film cooling). This type of cooling works by pumping cool air out of the blade through small holes in the blade. This air creates a thin layer (the film) of cool air on the surface of the blade, protecting it from the high temperature air. The air holes can be in many different blade locations, but they are most often along the leading edge.[18] A United State Air Force program in the early 1970s funded the development of a turbine blade that was both film and convection cooled, and that method has become common in modern turbine blades.[7]
Rendering of a turbine blade with cooling holes for film cooling.

One consideration with film cooling is that injecting the cooler bleed into the flow reduces turbine efficiency. That drop in efficiency also increases as the amount of cooling flow increases. The drop in efficiency, however, is usually mitigated by the increase in overall performance produced by the higher turbine temperature.[20]

Turbine blade Transpiration cooling, the third major type of cooling, is similar to film cooling in that it creates a thin film of cooling air on the blade, but it is different in that air is "leaked" through a porous shell rather than injected through holes. This type of cooling is effective at high temperatures as it uniformly covers the entire blade with cool air.[19][21] Transpiration-cooled blades generally consist of a rigid strut with a porous shell. Air flows through internal channels of the strut and then passes through the porous shell to cool the blade.[22] As with film cooling, increased cooling air decreases turbine efficiency, so that decrease has to be balanced with improved temperature performance.[20]

33

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Boyce, p. 368. Flack, p. 406 Flack, p. 407 Flack, p. 429. Creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods, and near the melting point. Creep always increases with temperature. From Creep (deformation). [6] Flack, p. 410 [7] Koff, Bernard L. (2003). "Gas Turbine Technology Overview - A Designer's Perspective". AIAA/ICAS International Air and Space Symposium and Exposition: The Next 100 Years. 1417 July 2003, Dayton, Ohio. AIAA 2003-2722. [8] Dexclaux, Jacques and Serre, Jacque (2003). "M88-2 E4: Advanced New Generation Engine for Rafale Multirole Fighter". AIAA/ICAS International Air and Space Symposium and Exposition: The Next 100 Years. 1417 July 2003, Dayton, Ohio. AIAA 2003-2610 [9] http:/ / www. engineeringtoolbox. com/ fan-blade-pass-frequency-d_1137. html [10] Magyar, Michael J.. "Mineral Yearbook: Rhenium" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ rhenium/ myb1-2006-rheni. pdf) (PDF). United States Geological Survey. . [11] Boyce, p. 449 [12] Flack, p. 430-3 [13] Boyce, p. 440-2 [14] Schilke, P. W. (2004). Advanced Gas Turbine Materials and Coatings (http:/ / st-www. ge-energy. com/ prod_serv/ products/ tech_docs/ en/ downloads/ ger3569g. pdf). GE Energy. August 2004. Retrieved: 25 May 2011. [15] MacKay, Rebecca A., et. al. (2007). Low-Density, Creep-Resistant Superalloys Developed for Turbine Blades (http:/ / www. grc. nasa. gov/ WWW/ RT/ 2006/ RX/ RX02-mackay. html). NASA Glenn's Research & Technology. Updated: 7 November 2007. Retrieved: 16 June 2010. [16] P. Caron, Y. Ohta, Y.G. Nakagawa, T. Khan (1988): Superalloys 1988 (edited by S. Reichmann et al.), p. 215. The Metallurgical Society of AIME, Warrendale, PA. [17] S. Walston, A. Cetel, R. MacKay, K. OHara, D. Duhl, and R. Dreshfield (2004). Joint Development of a Fourth Generation Single Crystal Superalloy (http:/ / gltrs. grc. nasa. gov/ reports/ 2004/ TM-2004-213062. pdf). NASA TM2004-213062. December 2004. Retrieved: 16 June 2010. [18] Flack, p.428. [19] Boyce, p. 370. [20] Boyce, p. 379-80 [21] Flack, p. 428-9 [22] Boyce, p. 375

References
Bibliography Flack, Ronald D. (2005). "Chapter 8: Axial Flow Turbines". Fundamentals of Jet Propulsion with Applications. Cambridge Aerospace Series. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-81983-1. Boyce, Meherwan P. (2006). "Chapter 9: Axial Flow Turbines and Chapter 11: Materials". Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook (3rd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. ISBN978-0-7506-7846-9.

Water turbine

34

Water turbine
A water turbine is a rotary engine that takes energy from moving water. Water turbines were developed in the 19th century and were widely used for industrial power prior to electrical grids. Now they are mostly used for electric power generation.

History
Water wheels have been used for thousands of years for industrial power. Their main shortcoming is size, which limits the flow rate and head that can be harnessed. The migration from water wheels to modern turbines took about one hundred years. Development occurred during the Industrial revolution, using scientific principles and methods. They also made extensive use of new materials and manufacturing methods developed at the time.

Kaplan turbine and electrical generator cut-away view.

Swirl
The word turbine was introduced by the French engineer Claude Burdin in the early 19th century and is derived from the Latin word for "whirling" or a "vortex". The main difference between early water turbines and water wheels is a swirl component of the water which passes energy to a spinning rotor. This additional component of motion allowed the turbine to be smaller than a water wheel of the same power. They could process more water by spinning faster and could harness much greater heads. (Later, impulse turbines were developed which didn't use swirl).
The runner of the small water turbine

Water turbine

35

Time line
The earliest known water turbines date to the Roman Empire. Two helix-turbine mill sites of almost identical design were found at Chemtou and Testour, modern-day Tunisia, dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The horizontal water wheel with angled blades was installed at the bottom of a water-filled, circular shaft. The water from the mill-race entered the pit tangentially, creating a swirling water column which made the fully submerged wheel act like a true turbine.[1] Jn Andrej Segner developed a reactive water turbine (Segner wheel) in the mid-18th century. It had a horizontal axis and was a precursor to modern water turbines. It is a very simple machine that is still produced today for use in small hydro sites. Segner worked with Euler on some of the early mathematical theories of turbine design. In the 18th century, a Dr. Barker invented a similar reaction hydraulic turbine that became popular as a lecture-hall demonstration. The only known surviving example of this type of engine used in power production, dating from 1851, is found at Hacienda Buena Vista in Ponce, Puerto Rico. [2][3] In 1820, Jean-Victor Poncelet developed an inward-flow turbine. In 1826, Benoit Fourneyron developed an outward-flow turbine. This was an efficient machine (~80%) that sent water through a runner with blades curved in one dimension. The stationary outlet also had curved guides. In 1844, Uriah A. Boyden developed an outward flow turbine that improved on the performance of the Fourneyron turbine. Its runner shape was similar to that of a Francis turbine. In 1849, James B. Francis improved the inward flow reaction turbine to over 90% efficiency. He also conducted sophisticated tests and developed engineering methods for water turbine design. The Francis turbine, named for him, is the first modern water turbine. It is still the most widely used water turbine in the world today. The Francis turbine is also called a radial flow turbine, since water flows from the outer circumference towards the centre of runner.

Roman turbine mill at Chemtou, Tunisia. The tangential water inflow of the millrace made the submerged horizontal wheel in the shaft turn like [1] a true turbine.

A Francis turbine runner, rated at nearly one million hp (750 MW), being installed at the Grand Coulee Dam, United States.

Water turbine

36

Inward flow water turbines have a better mechanical arrangement and all modern reaction water turbines are of this design. As the water swirls inward, it accelerates, and transfers energy to the runner. Water pressure decreases to atmospheric, or in some cases subatmospheric, as the water passes through the turbine blades and loses energy. Around 1890, the modern fluid bearing was invented, now universally used to support heavy water turbine spindles. As of 2002, fluid bearings appear to have a mean time between failures of more than 1300 years. Around 1913, Viktor Kaplan created the Kaplan turbine, a propeller-type machine. It was an evolution of the Francis turbine but revolutionized the ability to develop low-head hydro sites.
A propeller-type runner rated 28,000 hp (21 MW)

New concept
All common water machines until the late 19th century (including water wheels) were basically reaction machines; water pressure head acted on the machine and produced work. A reaction turbine needs to fully contain the water during energy transfer. In 1866, California millwright Samuel Knight invented a machine that took the impulse system to a new level.[4][5] Inspired by the high pressure jet systems used in hydraulic mining in the gold fields, Knight developed a bucketed wheel which captured the energy of a free jet, which had converted a high head (hundreds of vertical feet in a pipe or penstock) of water to kinetic energy. This is called an impulse or tangential turbine. The water's velocity, roughly twice the velocity of the bucket periphery, does a u-turn in the bucket and drops out of the runner at low velocity. In 1879, Lester Pelton (1829-1908), experimenting Figure from Pelton's original patent (October 1880) with a Knight Wheel, developed a double bucket design, which exhausted the water to the side, eliminating some energy loss of the Knight wheel which exhausted some water back against the center of the wheel. In about 1895, William Doble improved on Pelton's half-cylindrical bucket form with an elliptical bucket that included a cut in it to allow the jet a cleaner bucket entry. This is the modern form of the Pelton turbine which today achieves up to 92% efficiency. Pelton had been quite an effective promoter of his design and although Doble took over the Pelton company he did not change the name to Doble because it had brand name recognition. Turgo and Crossflow turbines were later impulse designs.

Water turbine

37

Theory of operation
Flowing water is directed on to the blades of a turbine runner, creating a force on the blades. Since the runner is spinning, the force acts through a distance (force acting through a distance is the definition of work). In this way, energy is transferred from the water flow to the turbine Water turbines are divided into two groups; reaction turbines and impulse turbines. The precise shape of water turbine blades is a function of the supply pressure of water, and the type of impeller selected.

Reaction turbines
Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. They must be encased to contain the water pressure (or suction), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines. Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and are used in low (<30m/98ft) and medium (30-300m/98984ft) head applications. In reaction turbine pressure drop occurs in both fixed and moving blades.

Impulse turbines
Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet. The jet pushes on the turbine's curved blades which changes the direction of the flow. The resulting change in momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine blades. Since the turbine is spinning, the force acts through a distance (work) and the diverted water flow is left with diminished energy.An impulse turbine is one which the pressure of the fluid flowing over the rotor blades is constant and all the work output is due to the change in kinetic energy of the fluid. Prior to hitting the turbine blades, the water's pressure (potential energy) is converted to kinetic energy by a nozzle and focused on the turbine. No pressure change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't require a housing for operation. Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines. Impulse turbines are often used in very high (>300m/984ft) head applications .

Power
The power available in a stream of water is;

where: power (J/s or watts) turbine efficiency density of water (kg/m) acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s) head (m). For still water, this is the difference in height between the inlet and outlet surfaces. Moving water has an additional component added to account for the kinetic energy of the flow. The total head equals the pressure head plus velocity head. = flow rate (m/s)

Water turbine

38

Pumped storage
Some water turbines are designed for pumped storage hydroelectricity. They can reverse flow and operate as a pump to fill a high reservoir during off-peak electrical hours, and then revert to a turbine for power generation during peak electrical demand. This type of turbine is usually a Deriaz or Francis in design.

Efficiency
Large modern water turbines operate at mechanical efficiencies greater than 90%.

Types of water turbines

Reaction turbines: Francis Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb, Tube, Straflo Tyson Gorlov

Impulse turbine Waterwheel Pelton Turgo Crossflow (also known as the Michell-Banki or Ossberger turbine) Jonval turbine Reverse overshot water-wheel Archimedes' screw turbine

Various types of water turbine runners. From left to right: Pelton Wheel, two types of Francis Turbine and Kaplan Turbine

Design and application

Turbine selection is based mostly on the available water head, and less so on the available flow rate. In general, impulse turbines are used for high head sites, and reaction turbines are used for low head sites. Kaplan turbines with adjustable blade pitch are well-adapted to wide ranges of flow or head conditions, since their peak efficiency can be achieved over a wide range of flow conditions. Small turbines (mostly under 10 MW) may have horizontal shafts, and even fairly large bulb-type turbines up to 100 MW or so may be horizontal. Very large Francis and Kaplan machines usually have vertical shafts because this makes best use of the available head, and makes installation of a generator more economical. Pelton wheels may be either vertical or horizontal shaft machines because the size of the machine is so much less than the available head. Some impulse turbines use multiple water jets per runner to increase specific

Water turbine speed and balance shaft thrust.

39

Typical range of heads

Hydraulic wheel turbine Archimedes' screw turbine Kaplan Francis Pelton Turgo 0.2 < H < 4 (H = head in m) 1 < H < 10 2 < H < 40 10 < H < 350 50 < H < 1300 50 < H < 250

Specific speed
The specific speed of a turbine characterizes the turbine's shape in a way that is not related to its size. This allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing design of known performance. The specific speed is also the main criteria for matching a specific hydro site with the correct turbine type. The specific speed is the speed with which the turbine turns for a particular discharge Q, with unit head and thereby is able to produce unit power.

Affinity laws
Affinity Laws allow the output of a turbine to be predicted based on model tests. A miniature replica of a proposed design, about one foot (0.3 m) in diameter, can be tested and the laboratory measurements applied to the final application with high confidence. Affinity laws are derived by requiring similitude between the test model and the application. Flow through the turbine is controlled either by a large valve or by wicket gates arranged around the outside of the turbine runner. Differential head and flow can be plotted for a number of different values of gate opening, producing a hill diagram used to show the efficiency of the turbine at varying conditions.

Runaway speed
The runaway speed of a water turbine is its speed at full flow, and no shaft load. The turbine will be designed to survive the mechanical forces of this speed. The manufacturer will supply the runaway speed rating.

Maintenance

Water turbine

40 Turbines are designed to run for decades with very little maintenance of the main elements; overhaul intervals are on the order of several years. Maintenance of the runners and parts exposed to water include removal, inspection, and repair of worn parts. Normal wear and tear includes pitting from cavitation, fatigue cracking, and abrasion from suspended solids in the water. Steel elements are repaired by welding, usually with stainless steel rods. Damaged areas are cut or ground out, then welded back up to their original or an improved profile. Old turbine runners may have a significant amount of stainless steel added this way by the end of their lifetime. Elaborate welding procedures may be used to achieve the highest quality repairs.[6]

A Francis turbine at the end of its life showing cavitation pitting, fatigue cracking and a catastrophic failure. Earlier repair jobs that used stainless steel weld rods are visible.

Other elements requiring inspection and repair during overhauls include bearings, packing box and shaft sleeves, servomotors, cooling systems for the bearings and generator coils, seal rings, wicket gate linkage elements and all surfaces.[7]

Environmental impact
Water turbines are generally considered a clean power producer, as the turbine causes essentially no change to the water. They use a renewable energy source and are designed to operate for decades. They produce significant amounts of the world's electrical supply. Historically there have also been negative consequences, mostly associated with the dams normally required for power production. Dams alter the natural ecology of rivers, potentially killing fish, stopping migrations, and disrupting peoples' livelihoods. For example, American Indian tribes in the Pacific Northwest had livelihoods built around salmon fishing, but aggressive dam-building destroyed their way of life. Dams also cause less obvious, but potentially serious consequences, including increased evaporation of water (especially in arid regions), build up of silt behind the dam, and changes to water temperature and flow patterns. In the United States, it is now illegal to block the migration of fish, for example the endangered great white sturgeon in North America, so fish ladders must be provided by dam builders.

References
[1] Wilson 1995, pp.507f.; Wikander 2000, p.377; Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p.13 [2] R. Sackett, p. 16. [3] Barker Turbine/Hacienda Buena Vista (1853) Nomination. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Nomination Number 177. (http:/ / www. asme. org/ about-asme/ history/ landmarks/ topics-m-z/ mechanical-power-production-steam/ -177-barker-turbine-hacienda-buena-vista-(1853)) [4] W. A. Doble, The Tangential Water Wheel, Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XXIX, 1899. [5] W. F. Durrand, The Pelton Water Wheel, Stanford University, Mechanical Engineering, 1939. [6] Cline, Roger: Mechanical Overhaul Procedures for Hydroelectric Units (Facilities Instructions, Standards, and Techniques, Volume 2-7) (http:/ / www. usbr. gov/ power/ data/ fist/ fist2_7/ fist2-7. pdf); United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado, July 1994 (800KB pdf). [7] United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation; Duncan, William (revised April 1989): Turbine Repair (Facilities Instructions, Standards & Techniques, Volume 2-5) (http:/ / www. usbr. gov/ power/ data/ fist/ fist2_5/ vol2-5. pdf) (1.5 MB pdf).

Water turbine

41

Notes
Robert Sackett, Preservationist, PRSHPO (Original 1990 draft). Arleen Pabon, Certifying Official and State Historic Preservation Officer, State Historic Preservation Office, San Juan, Puerto Rico. September 9, 1994. In National Register of Historic Places Registration FormHacienda Buena Vista. United States Department of the Interior. National Park Service. (Washington, D.C.)

Sources
Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology", Anatolian Studies 52: 117 Wikander, rjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, rjan, Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, 2, Leiden: Brill, pp.371400, ISBN90-04-11123-9 Wilson, Andrew (1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel", Journal of Roman Archaeology 8: 499510

External links
Introductory turbine math (http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/fluids/turbine.htm) European Union publication, Layman's hydropower handbook,12 MB pdf (http://ec.europa.eu/comm/energy/ library/hydro/layman2.pdf) "Selecting Hydraulic Reaction Turbines", US Bureau of Reclamation publication, 48 MB pdf (http://www.usbr. gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/em/EM20.pdf) "Laboratory for hydraulic machines", Lausanne (Switzerland) (http://lmh.epfl.ch/) DoradoVista, Small Hydro Power Information (http://www.doradovista.com/DVPower2.html)

Tungsten carbide

42

Tungsten carbide
Tungsten carbide

Tungsten carbide milling bits Identifiers CAS number PubChem Jmol-3D images 12070-12-1 2724274 Image 1 Properties Molecular formula Molar mass Appearance Density Melting point Boiling point Solubility in water WC 195.851 g/mol Grey-black lustrous solid 15.63 g/cm
3

[1]

[2]

[3]

2870C, 3143K, 5198F 6000C, 6273K, 10832F Insoluble Structure

Crystal structure

Hexagonal, hP2, [4] space group = P6m2, No. 187 Hazards

EU classification

Not listed Related compounds

Other anions Other cations

Tungsten boride Tungsten nitride Molybdenum carbide Titanium carbide Silicon carbide
(verify) [5]

(what is: / ?) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25C, 100kPa)

Infobox references

Tungsten carbide (WC) is an inorganic chemical compound (specifically, a carbide) containing equal parts of tungsten and carbon atoms. In its most basic form, tungsten carbide is a fine gray powder, but it can be pressed and formed into shapes for use in industrial machinery, cutting tools, abrasives, other tools and instruments, and jewelry. Tungsten carbide is approximately three times stiffer than steel, with a Young's modulus of approximately 550 GPa,[6] and is much denser than steel or titanium. It is comparable with corundum (-Al2O3) or sapphire in hardness and can only be polished and finished with abrasives of superior hardness such as cubic boron nitride and diamond

Tungsten carbide amongst others, in the form of powder, wheels, and compounds.

43

Naming
Colloquially among workers in various industries (such as machining and carpentry), tungsten carbide is often simply called carbide (without precise distinction from other carbides). Among the lay public, the growing popularity of tungsten carbide rings has led to some consumers calling the material just tungsten, despite the inaccuracy of the usage.

Synthesis
WC can be prepared by reaction of tungsten metal and carbon at 14002000 C.[7] Other methods include a patented fluid bed process that reacts either tungsten metal or blue WO3 with CO/CO2 mixture and H2 between 900 and 1200 C.[8] WC can also be produced by heating WO3 with graphite in hydrogen at 670 C following by carburization in Ar at 1000 C or directly heating WO3 with graphite at 900 C.[9] Chemical vapor deposition methods that have been investigated include:[7] reacting tungsten hexachloride with hydrogen, as a reducing agent, and methane, as the source of carbon at 670 C (F) WCl6 + H2 + CH4 WC + 6 HCl reacting tungsten hexafluoride with hydrogen, as reducing agent, and methanol, as source of carbon at 350 C (F) WF6 + 2 H2 + CH3OH WC + 6 HF + H2O

Chemical properties
There are two well characterized compounds of tungsten and carbon, WC and tungsten semicarbide, W2C. Both compounds may be present in coatings and the proportions can depend on the coating method.[10] At high temperatures WC decomposes to tungsten and carbon and this can occur during high-temperature thermal spray, e.g., in high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) and high energy plasma (HEP) methods.[11] Oxidation of WC starts at 500600 C.[7] It is resistant to acids and is only attacked by hydrofluoric acid/nitric acid (HF/HNO3) mixtures above room temperature.[7] It reacts with fluorine gas at room temperature and chlorine above 400 C (F) and is unreactive to dry H2 up to its melting point.[7] WC dissolves readily in diluted hydrogen peroxide.[12]

Physical properties
Tungsten carbide is high melting, 2,870 C (F), extremely hard (~9 Mohs scale, 17002400 Vickers number[13]) with low electrical resistivity (~2107Ohmm), comparable with that of some metals (e.g. vanadium 2107Ohmm).[7][14] WC is readily wetted by both molten nickel and cobalt.[15] Investigation of the phase diagram of the W-C-Co system shows that WC and Co form a pseudo binary eutectic. The phase diagram also shows that there are so-called -carbides with composition (W,Co)6C that can be formed and the fact that these phases are brittle is the reason why control of the carbon content in WC-Co hard metals is important.[15]

Tungsten carbide

44

Structure
There are two forms of WC, a hexagonal form, -WC (hP2, space group P6m2, No. 187),[4][16] and a cubic high-temperature form, -WC, which has the rock salt structure.[17] The hexagonal form can be visualized as made up of hexagonally close packed layers of metal atoms with layers lying directly over one another, with carbon atoms filling half the interstices giving both tungsten and carbon a regular trigonal prismatic, 6 coordination.[16] From the unit cell dimensions[18] [4] the following bond lengths can be determined; the distance between -WC structure, carbon atoms are gray. the tungsten atoms in a hexagonally packed layer is 291 pm, the shortest distance between tungsten atoms in adjoining layers is 284 pm, and the tungsten carbon bond length is 220 pm. The tungsten-carbon bond length is therefore comparable to the single bond in W(CH3)6 (218 pm) in which there is strongly distorted trigonal prismatic coordination of tungsten.[19] Molecular WC has been investigated and this gas phase species has a bond length of 171 pm for 184W12C.[20]

Applications
Cutting tools for machining
Sintered tungsten carbide cutting tools are very abrasion resistant and can also withstand higher temperatures than standard high speed steel tools. Carbide cutting surfaces are often used for machining through materials such as carbon steel or stainless steel, as well as in situations where other tools would wear away, such as high-quantity production runs. Because carbide tools maintain a sharp cutting edge better than other tools, they generally produce a better finish on parts, and their temperature resistance allows faster machining. The material is usually called cemented carbide, hardmetal or tungsten-carbide cobalt: it is a metal matrix composite where tungsten carbide particles are the aggregate and metallic cobalt serves as the matrix. Manufacturers use tungsten carbide as the main material in some high-speed drill bits, as it can resist high temperatures and is extremely hard.[21][22]

Ammunition
Tungsten carbide is often used in armor-piercing ammunition, especially where depleted uranium is not available or is politically unacceptable. W2C projectiles were first used by German Luftwaffe tank-hunter squadrons in World War II. Owing to the limited German reserves of tungsten, W2C material was reserved for making machine tools and small numbers of projectiles. It is an effective penetrator due to its combination of great hardness and very high density.[23][24] Tungsten carbide ammunition can be of the sabot type (a large arrow surrounded by a discarding push cylinder) or a subcaliber ammunition, where copper or other relatively soft material is used to encase the hard penetrating core, the two parts being separated only on impact. The latter is more common in small-caliber arms, while sabots are usually reserved for artillery use.[25][26]

Tungsten carbide

45

Nuclear
Tungsten carbide is also an effective neutron reflector and as such was used during early investigations into nuclear chain reactions, particularly for weapons. A criticality accident occurred at Los Alamos National Laboratory on 21 August 1945 when Harry K. Daghlian, Jr. accidentally dropped a tungsten carbide brick onto a plutonium sphere, causing the subcritical mass to go supercritical with the reflected neutrons.

Sports
Hard carbides, especially tungsten carbide, are used by athletes, generally on poles that strike hard surfaces. Trekking poles, used by many hikers for balance and to reduce pressure on leg joints, generally use carbide tips in order to gain traction when placed on hard surfaces (like rock); carbide tips last much longer than other types of tip.[27] While ski pole tips are generally not made of carbide, since they do not need to be especially hard even to break through layers of ice, rollerski tips usually are. Roller skiing emulates cross country skiing and is used by many skiers to train during warm weather months.

A Nokian tire with tungsten carbide spikes. The spikes are surrounded by aluminum.

Sharpened carbide tipped spikes (known as studs) can be inserted into the drive tracks of snowmobiles. These studs enhance traction on icy surfaces. Longer v-shaped segments fit into grooved rods called wear rods under each snowmobile ski. The relatively sharp carbide edges enhance steering on harder icy surfaces. The carbide tips and segments reduce wear encountered when the snowmobile must cross roads and other abrasive surfaces.[28] Some tire manufacturers offer bicycle tires with tungsten carbide studs for better traction on ice. These are generally preferred to steel studs because of their superior resistance to wear.[29] Tungsten carbide may be used in farriery, the shoeing of horses, to improve traction on slippery surfaces such as roads or ice. Carbide-tipped hoof nails may be used to attach the shoes,[30] or alternatively borium, tungsten carbide in a matrix of softer metal, may be welded to small areas of the underside of the shoe before fitting.[31]

Surgical instruments
It is also used for making surgical instruments meant for open surgery (scissors, forceps, hemostats, blade-handles, etc.) and laparoscopic surgery (graspers, scissors/cutter, needle holder, cautery, etc.). They are much costlier than their stainless-steel counterparts and require delicate handling, but give better performance.[32]

Jewelry
Tungsten carbide, typically in the form of a cemented carbide (carbide particles held together by a metal), has become a popular material in the bridal jewelry industry due to its extreme hardness and high resistance to scratching. This extreme hardness also means that it can be shattered under certain circumstances.[33] Tungsten carbide is roughly 10 times harder than 18k gold (gold being the traditional material of wedding bands). In addition to its design and high polish, part of its attraction to consumers is its technical nature.[34]

Tungsten carbide

46

Other
Tungsten carbide is sometimes used to make the rotating ball in the tips of ballpoint pens that disperse ink during writing.[35] English guitarist Martin Simpson is known to use a custom made tungsten carbide slide for playing slide guitar. The hardness, weight, and density of the slide give it superior sustain and volume compared to standard glass, steel, ceramic, or brass slides. WC has been investigated for its potential use as a catalyst and it has been found to resemble platinum in its catalysis of the production of water from hydrogen and oxygen at room temperature, the reduction of tungsten trioxide by hydrogen in the presence of water, and the isomerisation of 2,2-dimethylpropane to 2-methylbutane.[36] It has been proposed as a replacement for the iridium catalyst in hydrazine powered satellite thrusters.[37]

Toxicity
The primary health risks associated with carbide relate to inhalation of dust, leading to fibrosis.[38] CobaltTungsten Carbide is also reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen by the National Toxicology Program.[39]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=12070-12-1 http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary. cgi?cid=2724274 http:/ / chemapps. stolaf. edu/ jmol/ jmol. php?model=%5BC-%5D%23%5BW%2B%5D Krawitz, Aaron D.; Reichel, Daniel G.; Hitterman, Richard (1989). "Thermal Expansion of Tungsten Carbide at Low Temperature". Journal of the American Ceramic Society 72 (3): 515. doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1989.tb06169.x. [5] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special%3Acomparepages?rev1=452024347& page2=%3ATungsten+ carbide [6] Elastic Properties and Young Modulus for some Materials (http:/ / www. engineeringtoolbox. com/ young-modulus-d_417. html) [7] Pierson, Hugh O. (1992). Handbook of Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): Principles, Technology, and Applications. William Andrew Inc.. ISBN0-8155-1300-3. [8] Lackner, A. and Filzwieser A. "Gas carburizing of tungsten carbide (WC) powder" U.S. Patent 6,447,742 (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=6447742) (2002) [9] Zhong, Y.; et al. (2011). Journal of Materials Science 46: 6323. doi:10.1007/s10853-010-4937-y. [10] Jacobs, L.; M. M. Hyland; M. De Bonte (1998). "Comparative study of WC-cermet coatings sprayed via the HVOF and the HVAF Process". Journal of Thermal Spray Technology 7 (2): 213218. doi:10.1361/105996398770350954. [11] Nerz, J.; B. Kushner; A. Rotolico (1992). "Microstructural evaluation of tungsten carbide-cobalt coatings". Journal of Thermal Spray Technology 1 (2): 147152. doi:10.1007/BF02659015. [12] Noritaka Mizuno, Hitoshi Nakajima (1999). "Reaction of Metal, Carbide, and Nitride of Tungsten with Hydrogen Peroxide Characterized by 183W Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Raman Spectroscopy". Chemistry of Materials 11 (3): 691697. doi:10.1021/cm980544o. [13] CRC Materials Science and Engineering Handbook (2001). [14] Kittel, Charles (1995). Introduction to Solid State Physics (7 ed.). Wiley-India. ISBN81-265-1045-5. [15] Ettmayer, Peter; Walter Lengauer (1994). Carbides: transition metal solid state chemistry encyclopedia of inorganic chemistry. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0-471-93620-0. [16] Wells, A. F. (1984). Structural Inorganic Chemistry (5 ed.). Oxford Science Publications. ISBN0-19-855370-6. [17] Sara, R. V. (1965). "Phase Equilibria in the System TungstenCarbon". Journal of the American Ceramic Society 48 (5): 251257. doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1965.tb14731.x. [18] Rudy, E.; F. Benesovsky (1962). "Untersuchungen im System Tantal-Wolfram-Kohlenstoff". Monatshefte fr chemie 93 (3): 11761195. doi:10.1007/BF01189609. [19] Kleinhenz, Sven; Valrie Pfennig; Konrad Seppelt (1998). "Preparation and Structures of [W(CH3)6], [Re(CH3)6], [Nb(CH3)6]-, and [Ta(CH3)6]-". ChemistryA European Journal 4 (9): 168791. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-3765(19980904)4:9<1687::AID-CHEM1687>3.0.CO;2-R. [20] Sickafoose, S.M.; A.W. Smith; M. D. Morse (2002). "Optical spectroscopy of tungsten carbide (WC)". J. Chem. Phys. 116 (993): 993. doi:10.1063/1.1427068. [21] Rao. Manufacturing Technology Vol-Ii 2E (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3sS5a4jqzS8C& pg=PA30). Tata McGraw-Hill Education. pp.30. ISBN978-0-07-008769-9. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [22] Joseph R. Davis; ASM International. Handbook Committee (1995). Tool materials (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kws7x68r_aUC& pg=PA289). ASM International. pp.289. ISBN978-0-87170-545-7. . Retrieved 10 February 2012.

Tungsten carbide
[23] Roger Ford (21 May 2000). Germany's Secret Weapons in World War II (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lU8xBhe9ntsC& pg=PA125). Zenith Imprint. pp.125. ISBN978-0-7603-0847-9. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [24] Steven J. Zaloga (1 January 2005). US Tank and Tank Destroyer Battalions in the ETO 194445 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sCdlGIbmHjoC& pg=PA37). Osprey Publishing. pp.37. ISBN978-1-84176-798-7. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [25] Michael Green; Greg Stewart (10 November 2005). M1 Abrams at War (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=M1P6jT8_yrgC& pg=PA66). Zenith Imprint. pp.66. ISBN978-0-7603-2153-9. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [26] Spencer Tucker (30 November 2004). Tanks: an illustrated history of their impact (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=N481TmqiSiUC& pg=PA348). ABC-CLIO. pp.348. ISBN978-1-57607-995-9. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [27] Craig Connally (10 December 2004). The mountaineering handbook: modern tools and techniques that will take you to the top (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=c0MUESWJo2oC& pg=PA14). McGraw-Hill Professional. pp.14. ISBN978-0-07-143010-4. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [28] Richard Hermance (30 October 2006). Snowmobile and ATV accident investigation and reconstruction (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-msCn1jK8z8C& pg=PA13). Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company. pp.13. ISBN978-0-913875-02-5. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [29] Ron Hamp; Eric Gorr; Kevin Cameron (3 July 2011). Four-Stroke Motocross and Off-Road Performance Handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=24kHuJV2LcAC& pg=PA69). MotorBooks International. pp.69. ISBN978-0-7603-4000-4. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [30] "Road nail" (http:/ / www. mustadhoofnails. com/ subcat/ 40/ product/ 1369/ page/ 0/ road_nail/ ). Mustad Hoof Nails. . Retrieved July 2011. [31] Breningstall, F. Thomas. "Winter shoes" (http:/ / www. wiwfarm. com/ wntrs. htm). Windt im Wald Farm. . Retrieved July 2011. [32] Marimargaret Reichert; Jack H. Young (1 February 1997). Sterilization technology for the health care facility (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HDzcboqJR9kC& pg=PA30). Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp.30. ISBN978-0-8342-0838-4. . Retrieved 10 February 2012. [33] Breaking Tungsten Carbide (http:/ / cherylkremkow. com/ the-new-luxury/ breaking-tungsten-carbide/ ). cherylkremkow.com (2009-10-29) [34] Tungsten Carbide Manufacturing (http:/ / www. forevermetals. com/ jewelry-tungsten-carbide-ring/ ). forevermetals.com (2005-06-18) [35] "How does a ballpoint pen work?" (http:/ / science. howstuffworks. com/ question683. htm). Engineering. HowStuffWorks. 1998-2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-16. [36] Levy, R. B.; M. Boudart (1973). "Platinum-Like Behavior of Tungsten Carbide in Surface Catalysis". Science 181 (4099): 547549. doi:10.1126/science.181.4099.547. PMID17777803. [37] Rodrigues, J.A.J.; G.M. Cruz; G. Bugli; M. Boudart; G. Djga-Mariadassou; (1997). "Nitride and carbide of molybdenum and tungsten as substitutes of iridium for the catalysts used for space communication". Catalysis Letters 45: 12. doi:10.1023/A:1019059410876. [38] Sprince, NL.; Chamberlin, RI.; Hales, CA.; Weber, AL.; Kazemi, H. (Oct 1984). "Respiratory disease in tungsten carbide production workers". Chest 86 (4): 54957. doi:10.1378/chest.86.4.549. PMID6434250. [39] "12th Report on Carcinogens" (http:/ / ntp. niehs. nih. gov/ go/ roc12). National Toxicology Program. . Retrieved 2011-06-24.

47

External links
International Chemical Safety Card 1320 (http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1320.htm) NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0647.html) Processing of Hardmetals (a review of presentations at Euro PM2012 conference) (http://www.ipmd.net/ articles/001919.html)

Titanium carbide

48

Titanium carbide
Titanium carbide

Identifiers CAS number 12070-08-5 Properties Molecular formula Molar mass Appearance Density Melting point Boiling point Solubility in water TiC 59.89 g/mol black powder 4.93 g/cm
3

[1]

3160C, 3433K, 5720F 4820C, 5093K, 8708F insoluble in water Structure

Crystal structure Space group Coordination geometry

(verify) [2]

Cubic, cF8 Fm3m, No. 225 Octahedral

(what is: / ?) Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25C, 100kPa)

Infobox references

Titanium carbide, TiC, is an extremely hard (Mohs 9-9.5) refractory ceramic material, similar to tungsten carbide. It is commercially used in tool bits. It has the appearance of black powder with NaCl-type face centered cubic crystal structure. It is mainly used in preparation of cermets, which are frequently used to machine steel materials at high cutting speed. It is also used as a surface coating on some titanium watches made by Citizen and marketed as Super Titanium. The resistance to wear, corrosion, and oxidation of a tungsten carbide-cobalt material can be increased by adding 6-30% of titanium carbide to tungsten carbide. This forms a solid solution that is more brittle and susceptible to breakage than the original material. Tool bits without tungsten content can be made of titanium carbide in nickel-cobalt matrix cermet, enhancing the cutting speed, precision, and smoothness of the workpiece. This material is sometimes called high-tech ceramics and is used as a heat shield for atmospheric reentry of spacecraft. The substance may be also polished and used in scratch-proof watches.

Titanium carbide It can be etched with reactive-ion etching. The mineralogical form is very rare and called khamrabaevite - (Ti,V,Fe)C.

49

Titanium-carbon clusters
A surprisingly stable cluster with formula Ti8C12+, was detected in 1992.[3][4] The 20 atoms were conjectured to be arranged as the vertices of a dodecahedron, with the titanium atoms at the corners of a cube [3] However, this claim was soon disputed by Linus Pauling[5] who proposed an alternative arrangement with the Ti atoms still at the corners of a cube, but with the carbon atoms pushed inwards so as to be nearly coplanar with the faces of that cube.

References
[1] http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=12070-08-5 [2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special%3Acomparepages?rev1=441066916& page2=%3ATitanium+ carbide [3] Guo, Bc; Kerns, Kp; Castleman, Aw, Jr (Mar 1992). "Ti8C12+-Metallo-Carbohedrenes: A New Class of Molecular Clusters?". Science 255 (5050): 14111413. doi:10.1126/science.255.5050.1411. ISSN0036-8075. PMID17801229. [4] Guo, Bc; Wei, S; Purnell, J; Buzza, S; Castleman, Aw, Jr (Apr 1992). "Metallo-Carbohedrenes M8C12+ (M = V, Zr, Hf, and Ti): A Class of Stable Molecular Cluster Ions". Science 256 (5056): 515516. doi:10.1126/science.256.5056.515. ISSN0036-8075. PMID17787948. [5] L Pauling (1992). "Molecular structure of Ti8C12 and related complexes" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ content/ 89/ 17/ 8175. full. pdf+ html). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89 (17): 81756. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.17.8175. PMC49879. PMID11607323. .

Article Sources and Contributors

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