Time depende d ent beh haviour r-Creep p

Definit tions Creep Deformatio on that occ curs over a period of f time when n a materia al is subjec cted to constant stress s at co onstant tem mperature. In metals, creep usu ually occur rs only at elevated d temperat tures. Cree ep at room m temperatu ure is more e common in plastic ma aterials and d is called c cold flow or o deformat tion under load. Data a obtained in n a creep test t usually y is presen nted as a plot p of cree ep vs. time with stress and d temperatu ure consta ant. Slope of o the curve is creep rate and end e point of the e curve is time for ru upture. As indicated i in n the acco mpanying diagram, the t creep of o a materia al can be divided d into o three sta ages. First stage, or primary y creep, sta arts at a ra pid rate an nd slows with w time. S Second stag ge (secondar ry) creep has a relativ vely uniform m rate. Third stage (t tertiary) creep has an acc celerating creep rate e and terminates by fa ailure of m material at time for rupture. Se ee also Str ress-Relax xation.

Creep Limit Alternate term for creep strength. Creep Rate Time rate of deformation of a material subject to stress at a constant temperature. It is the slope of the creep vs. time diagram obtained in a creep test. Units usually are in/in/hr or % of elongation/hr. Minimum creep rate is the slope of the portion of the creep vs. time diagram corresponding to secondary creep.

Creep Recovery Rate of decrease in deformation that occurs when load is removed after prolonged application in a creep test. Constant temperature is maintained to eliminate effects of thermal expansion, and measurements are taken from time load is zero to eliminate elastic effects. Creep Limit.

Creep Rupture Strength Stress required to cause fracture in a creep test within a specified time. Alternate term is stress rupture strength. Creep Strength Maximum stress required to cause a specified amount of creep in a specified time. Also used to describe maximum stress that can be generated in a material at constant temperature under which creep rate decreases with time. An alternate term is creep limit.

Creep Test Method for determining creep or stress relaxation behaviour. To determine creep properties, material is subjected to prolonged constant tension or compression loading at constant temperature. Deformation is recorded at specified time intervals and a creep vs. time diagram is plotted. Slope of curve at any point is creep rate. If failure occurs, it terminates test and time for rupture is recorded. If specimen does not fracture within test period, creep recovery may be measured. To determine stress relaxation of material, specimen is deformed a given amount and decrease in stress over prolonged period of exposure at constant temperature is recorded. Standard creep testing procedures are detailed in ASTM E-139, ASTM D-2990 and D-2991 (plastics) and ASTM D-2294 (adhesives).

The Bi ig Picture

Lea ad pipes de eform over r the years due to cre eep. From Ashby and d Jones, 19 996.

Dama aged gas tu urbine blad de. The ex xcessive temperature is the cau use of high creep d deformation n. Fro om Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, A 19 974.

Why is s creep im mportant? Some m machine component c s are subje ected to stresses dur ring length y periods of o time. For exa ample, rota ary components of je et engines, such as blades b and disks, experie ence stress ses due to centrifuga al force. In addition, the hot com mbustion gases that flo ow through a jet engin ne cause t he temperature to be e very high h. In fact, in n some cases i it may reac ch levels as a high as 8 80% of the e melting te emperature e of the ma aterials the eng gine compo onents are e made of. The data from f creep p tests on m many different materia als, which are collect ted in data bases, alo ong with the e exact kno owledge of the service e stress and tempera ature condit tions help designers in the cho oice of the suitable e material for a given n compone ent and in the t predict tion of its lif fetime und der those c conditions.

Theory y In gene eral, the mechanical m properties s and perfo ormance of f materials change with increas sing tempe eratures. Some prope erties and performance, such a as elastic modulu us and stre ength decre ease with iincreasing temperatu ure. Others s, such as ductility y, increase e with incre easing tem mperature.

It is important to note that atomic mobility is related to diffusion which can be described using Ficks Law: D = DO exp( Q / RT) where D is the diffusion rate, Do is a constant, Q is the activation energy for atomic motion, R is the universal gas constant (8.314J/mole K) and T is the absolute temperature. Thus, diffusion-controlled mechanisms will have significant effect on high temperature mechanical properties and performances. For example, dislocation climb, concentration of vacancies, new slip systems, and grain boundary sliding all are diffusion-controlled and will affect the behaviour of materials at high temperatures. In addition, corrosion or oxidation mechanisms, which are diffusionrate dependent, will have an effect on the life time of materials at high temperatures. Creep is a performance-based behaviour since it is not an intrinsic materials response. Furthermore, creep is highly dependent on environment including temperature and ambient conditions. Creep can be defined as time-dependent deformation at absolute temperatures greater than one half the absolute melting. This relative temperature ( T (abs ) /Tmp (abs )) is know as the homologous temperate. Creep is a relative phenomenon which may occur at temperatures not normally considered "high." Several examples illustrate this point. a) Ice melts at 0C=273 K and is known to creep at -50C=223 K. The homologous temperature is 223/273 = 0.82 which is greater than 0.5 so this is consistent with the definition of creep. b) Lead/tin solder melts at ~200C=473 K and solder joints are known to creep at room temperature of 20C=293 K. The homologous temperature is 293/473 = 0.62 which is greater than 0.5 so this is consistent with the definition of creep. c) Steel melts at ~1500C=1773 K and is known to creep in steam plant applications of 600C=873 K. The homologous temperature is 873/1773 = 0.50 which is equal to 0.5 so this is consistent with the definition of creep. d) Silicon nitride melts/dissociates at ~1850C=2123 K and is known to creep in advanced heat engine applications of 1300C=1573 K. The homologous temperature is 1573/2123 = 0.74 which is greater than 0.5 so this is consistent with the definition of creep.

Figu ure 1 Com mparison o of creep an nd stress rupture te ests Concep ptually a creep test is s rather sim mple: Apply a force to o a test sp pecimen an nd measure its dime ensional ch hange over r time with exposure to a relativ vely high temper rature. If a creep test t is carried to its conc clusion (tha at is, fractu ure of the test specim men), often without pr recise mea asurement of its dime ensional ch hange, then this is calle ed a stress rupture test (see Fig g 1). Althou ugh concep ptually quit te simple, creep tests in n practice are a more complicated c d. Temperature control is critica al (fluctuat tion must b be kept to <0.1 < to 0.5C). Resol ution and stability s of the extens someter is an ant concer rn (for low creeping c m materials, displaceme d ent resolutiion must be on importa the ord der of 0.5 m). Environ nmental ef ffects can complicate c e creep tes sts by caus sing prema ature failure es unrelat ted to elongation and d thus mus st either mimic the ac ctual use co onditions or o be controlled to isola ate the failu ures to cre eep mecha anisms. Uniformity of the applied stress is critical if f the creep p tests are t to interpreted. The ba asic results s of a creep p test are t the strain versus v time e curve sho own schematically in Fig. F 2. The e initial stra ain, i =i /E, is simply y the elastiic response to the app plied load (stress). ( Th he strain it tself is usually calcula ated as the e engineer ring strain, =L/Lo. The T primar ry region (I I) is charac cterized by y transient creep with h . asing creep p strain rate e (d/dt= ) due to the t creep resistance r of the mat terial decrea increas sing by virt tue of mate erial deform mation. The seconda ary region ( (II) is . charac cterized by steady sta ate creep ( creep strain rate, . min m = ss , is constan nt) in which c competing mechanis sms of stra in hardenin ng and rec covery may y be present. The tertiary y region (III I) is charac cterized by y increasing g creep str rain rate in n which nec cking

under c constant lo oad or cons solidation o of failure mechanism m m occur prio or to failure e of the test pie ece. Sometimes quat ternary reg gions are in ncluded in the analys sis of the strains time cu urve as we ell, although h these reg gions are very v specif fic and of v very short duratio on.

Figure e 2 Strain t time curve e for a cre eep test In princ ciple, the creep c defor rmation sh hould be lin nked to an applied str ress. Thus s, as the spe ecimen elo ongates the e cross sec ctional area decrease es and the e load need ds to be decrea ased to maintain a co onstant stre ess. In prac ctice, it sim mpler to ma aintain a co onstant load. W When repor rting creep p test result ts the initia al applied stress s is us sed. The effect e of constant load and d constant t stress is s shown in Fig. F 2. Note e that in ge eneral this effect (dashe ed line for constant c st tress) only really man nifests itself in the ter rtiary regio on, which i is beyond the t region of interest t in the sec condary reg gion. The e effects of increas sing tempe erature or increasing stress are to raise th he levels an nd shapes s of the strain t time curves s as shown n in Figure e 3. Creep mechanism ms can be visualized d by using superposit tion of vario ous strain-time curves as shown in Fig. 5. An A empiric cal relation which des scribes the e strain-time n is: relation

= i (1+ t )ex xp(kt)

1/3

where is a cons stant for tra ansient cre eep and k is related to t the cons stant strain n rate.

F Figure 3 Ef ffect of str ress and t temperatu ure on stra ain time cr reep curve es

What kind of tests do we carry out in order to assess the creep behaviour of a material? There are two kinds of tests that are of interest to engineers. These are the creep test and the stress rupture test. Both types of tests require similar setups.

When a creep test is performed, the specimen is subjected to a given stress and temperature that are kept constant throughout the test. Its elongation is monitored continuously up to the point where it fractures. In order to be able to verify that stress and temperature do not vary during the test, they are also monitored continuously. The elongation is then plotted as a function of elapsed time. The slope of the curve is the so-called strain rate. A creep curve usually exhibits three distinct sections: section I: where the strain rate stabilizes and hence decreases (primary or transient creep), section II: where the curve is linear, i.e. the strain rate (slope of the curve) is constant and minimum (secondary or steady state creep), section III: where the strain rate starts to increase gradually until the sample fractures (tertiary creep).

The part of the curve which is of interest to designers is the straight one. Steady state creep often takes up most of the time in a creep test. The knowledge of the creep rate allows to estimate how much time is needed until a component reaches a certain deformation and, for example, becomes incompatible with the geometry of the system it is part of. The jet engine is a good example. The gap between the tip of the rotating blades and the engine casing has to be very small in order to maximize the engine efficiency in that the amount of gas that flows through the engine without acting on the blades is kept as small as possible. However, if a blade elongates too much as a result of creep, it ends up scraping against the inner wall of the casing causing serious damage. Jet engine manufacturers and users don't want this to happen! If, however, the creep rate of the material is known along with the lifetime already spent by the blades, these can be replaced before the irreparable happens.

The stress rupture test is easier to perform because it does not require a continuous monitoring of the specimen elongation. With this test one basically wants to know how long it takes for a specimen to break at a given stress and temperature.

How are the results of creep tests represented? Usually, tests are performed at different stresses and temperatures. From the creep curve, one can determine the steady state creep rate, either graphically or through a suitable evaluation software. The different steady state creep rates are plotted as a function of the applied stress with the temperature as a parameter. Usually, on a loglog diagram, one obtains a sheaf of straight lines, each line corresponding to a

different temperature. This allows to estimate e.g. what stress must be applied in order to achieve a certain steady state creep rate. The representation of the results of stress rupture tests consists of a diagram where the time elapsed until rupture lies on the abscissa and the applied stress on the ordinate. The data points for a single temperature also lie roughly on a straight line in a log-log representation. However, the lines tend to curve downward at longer times. Hence, a linear extrapolation towards longer times turns out to be optimistic and can thus be dangerous!

What are the mechanisms that govern creep? There are different mechanisms that control creep, depending on the applied stress and on the temperature at which the test is performed. These involve dislocation motion and diffusion of vacancies and interstitials. -Dislocation glide is determined by dislocations moving conservatively along their glide planes. It occurs if the stress is high enough for the dislocations to overcome obstacles in the lattice. -Dislocation creep is the movement of dislocations outside their glide plane and is assisted by diffusion of vacancies. It occurs only at relatively high temperatures, i.e. when the influence of diffusion becomes significant. -Diffusion creep occurs at relatively low stress. The deformation of the material is due to the flow of atoms and vacancies that causes them to rearrange themselves along the direction of load. At lower temperatures the diffusion occurs mainly along easier paths, such as e.g. grain boundaries (Coble creep), whereas at high temperatures, atoms and vacancies diffuse across the bulk of the material (NabarroHerring creep). -Grain boundary sliding is also an important mechanism. In order to maintain continuity within the creeping material, the grains must rearrange themselves and they can do so only by sliding along each other. Moreover, grain boundary sliding is important as, in the third part of the creep experiment, it determines the onset of fracture.

Equipment for Engineering Education

Experiment Instruction
WP600 Creep Testing Machine

G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH PO. Box 1125 D-22881 Barsbttel Germany Phone (040) 670854-0 Fax (040) 670854-42

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

Experiment Instruction

Publication no.:912.000 00A 600 12

01/94

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

Table of contents
1 2 3
3.1 3.2
All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Technical description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Creep test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Creep in metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Creep in plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Set the end stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Clamp the sample in position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Insert the sample holder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Load the sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Mount the cold box. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

5.
5.1 5.2 5.3

Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Performing the experiment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Lead samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Polyethylene samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

6
6.1 6.2 6.3

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Technical data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Formula symbols and units used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

Introduction With the WP600 creep testing machine, it is possible to demonstrate the typical phenomena of creep responses, such as periods of different creep rate or temperature-dependent creep behaviour, in a simple creep rupture test. In order to generate acceptable creep rates at room temperature which are suitable for demonstration purposes, lead and plastic samples are used. These materials indicate clear creep at room temperature and low stresses. The test lasts between a few minutes and one hour. Creep tests with other materials may take weeks or even months. Moreover, very high test temperatures are required, particularly with metals. The device has a simple structure and is easy to operate. Simple flat samples are used which the operator can easily produce from other materials if required. The constant load is applied in a visible manner using sets of weights. Tests outside of room temperature can easily be performed with the aid of a transparent cold box with cooler elements.

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

Technical description Essentially, the unit consists of Base plate (1) Support pillar (2) with adjustable end stop (3) Transmission lever (4) Load weight (5) Upper and lower sample holder (6, 7) with sample (8) Dial gauge with receptacle (9)

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

9 4 7 8 3 6 2 5

The constant, continuous test force is generated via the transmission lever (4) with weight load. Test forces of between 50 - 250 N with increments of 5 N can be set using a graduated set of weights (5). The flat sample (8) is clamped in sample holders (6, 7). In order to protect the sample from bending stresses, the sample holders are fitted with knifeedge bearings.

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

Extension of the sample is measured by a dial gauge (9). The dial gauge is directly in contact with the upper, movable sample holder (7). This eliminates measurement errors caused by slack in transfer elements.

3
All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

An adjustable end stop (3) for the transmission lever protects the dial gauge when the sample fractures. It also prevents the load weight from striking against the base plate.

12

10

11

A transparent housing (10) serves as a climatic chamber for the sample. The temperature of the sample can be lowered using cooler elements (11). The temperature can be monitored by means of a digital push-in thermometer (12).

Flat samples made of lead or polyethylene (PE) are supplied as samples. The measured cross-section is 2 x 5 = 10 mm2, the measured length 25 mm and the distance between the fastening holes 60 mm. They are clamped to the sample holders using clamping jaws.

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

Creep test The creep or time-rupture test serves to determine the behaviour of the material with a static load. When determining the creep rupture behaviour, in addition to the level of the load, in other words, the tensile stress in the material, the temperature is also very important. For this reason, details of creep rupture behaviour must also contain the temperature.

3.1

Creep in metals In metallic materials, creep occurs above the crystal recovery temperature in the material under load. Whereas in a normal tensile test the material is strain-hardened below the crystal recovery temperature and elongation comes to a halt under constant load, above the crystal recovery temperature, an equilibrium may occur between recrystallisation and strain-hardening. The material is continuously elongated with a certain strain or creep rate. Significant creep responses generally only occur at temperatures above 0.4 - 0.5 Ts, whereby Ts is the absolute melting temperature in Kelvin. For example, lead has a melting point of 327C, corresponding to 600K. Accordingly, creep is only likely at temperatures of above 240K to 300 K, corresponding to -33C to +27C, in other words, in the region of the ambient temperature. In steel, on the other hand, creep only occurs at 500C to 600C. The device is supplied with lead and polyethylene samples so that experiments can be performed at around room temperature.

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

In a creep test, the sample is subjected to a constant load at a certain, constant temperature. The extension of the sample over time is recorded. By recording elongation over time, the so-called creep curve is obtained. Three sections of the creep curve can be distinguished:
Fracture
Elongation

Phase 1: Primary creep Reduction in the initially extremely high creep rate. At this point, the influence of material hardening predominates. Phase 2: Secondary creep Virtually constant creep rate. At this point, the crystal recovery and material hardening are in equilibrium. This section need not necessarily occur in all experiments. Phase 3: Tertiary creep As a result of increasing reduction of area after fracture and a rise in the effective stresses, the creep rate increases again, leading to fracture of the material. In the case of low-ductility fractures, phase 3 may be very short.

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

Plastic

1
Elastic

3
Time t

Creep curve

Components are generally loaded in such a way that they only enter the secondary creep phase. This determines the life of the component. Secondary creep is determined by various factors, the most important of which are stress and temperature. The most common relationship between . creep rate and stress and/or temperature T is as follows: . E = A n e RT In this equation, A and n are material constants, E is the activation energy to trigger sliding processes at the grain boundaries, and R is the universal gas constant ( 8.31 J/mol K ).

Fracture
Elongation

3 4

Time t

Influence of stress on creep

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

Logarithmizing produces the following:

. ln
T= 25C
Strain rate

. E ln = ln A + n ln .

RT

Slope n
T = 20C

At a constant temperature, recording on a graph produces straight lines with the slope n, whilst constant stress produces straight lines with the slope E.

Stress ln

Influence of temperature on creep

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

These relationships do not always apply. For example, the stress exponent n also depends on the stress itself. In practice, therefore, other formulae, in some cases considerably more complicated, have been developed to describe creep.

ln Creep strength curve

Stress at fracture

The time until fracture of the sample for various loads can be recorded in a creep diagram. This then produces the creep strength curve.

Time ln t

Creep diagram

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

3.2

Creep in plastics Creep curves in plastics are similar to those of metals. Various plastics such as polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene (PE) also indicate pronounced creep behaviour at room temperature. However, the reasons for creep are different to those of metals. In creep, the macromolecules are straightened and extended. Here, too, creep depends on stress and temperature. Because of the different molecule strctures, it is difficult to specify generally valid relationships for creep in plastics. Empirical studies have produced the following formula which is valid for most technical plastics:

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

= 0 + B m tk
In this formula, is the elongation after time t. The constants B, m and k depend on the material. Elastic elongation 0 can be calculated using the modulus of elasticity. In many polymers, this elastic part is so small in relation to elongation as a whole that it can be ignored

= B m tk.
Logarithmizing produces the following: log = log B + m log + k log t With a constant stress, recording log over log t produces straight lines with the slope k.
Slope k

log

Elongation

For plastics, the constant k is between k= 0.025 and k= 0.33. The constant is a measurement of the proportion of elastic to viscous deformation. In plastics, elongation after fracture is very large, which means that experiments often do not continue until fracture. When the load is alleviated, the

Time log t Elongation over time for plastics

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

creep deformation largely recedes - relaxation takes place. In this respect, the time response is of the same magnitude as under load.

Elastic relaxation
Elongation

Plastic relaxation

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

>0

Load

Alleviation =0 Time t

Creep curve with recovery after alleviation for plastics

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

4 4.1
1

Operation Set the end stop 3 5 4 2

Remove the dial gauge (1) Suspend the weight suspender (2) in the transmission lever (3)

After loosening the lock nut (5), adjust the end stop (4) in such a way that there is 10 mm play 10 mm between the suspender and the base plate Re-lock the end stop

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

4.2

Clamp the sample in position IMPORTANT! The lead sample is very soft To avoid bending the sample, mount the sample holder on an even table surface. Exercise particular caution when tightening the locking screw The upper and lower sample holders are identical Insert the sample in the groove of the sample holder Mount the clamping plate and carefully secure using the hexagon socket-head screw Carefully align the sample and the sample holder

DANGER when handling lead samples! Lead is poisonous and harmful! Take care to ensure that no lead is absorbed by the body. Do not eat, drink or smoke whilst handling lead samples! Do not allow the samples to come into contact with food!

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

After handling lead, wash your hands thoroughly! Do not put used lead samples in the regular waste, but dispose of correctly !

4.3

Insert the sample holder Remove the weight suspender and dial gauge

4 3 1
All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

Insert the sample with the sample holder (1) in the V-groove of the lower dolly (2). The locking screws on the sample holders should be pointing forwards Raise the transmission lever (3) and suspend the upper sample holder in the V-groove of the transmission lever (4)

Gently lower the transmission lever, without jolting, until the sample is under initial load

Insert the dial gauge (5) and adjust in such a way that the display reads zero. This guarantees maximum measurement capacity. Precisely adjust the display by rotating the scale

4.4

Load the sample Transmission ratio The sample cross-section and lever transmission are harmonised in such a way that a load of 1N corresponds to a stress of 1 N/mm2 in the sample. Initial load By virtue of its own weight, the transmission lever with an empty weight suspender generates an initial load of 5 N corresponding to 5 N/mm2.

10

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

Weights Weights are graduated in 2 x 5 N, 3 x 2 N, 3 x 1 N and 2 x 0.5 N. This means that it is possible to set a load of between 5 N and 25 N in increments of 0.5 N. As far as possible, the load should be applied to the sample without jolting. For this reason, the weight suspenders should be suspended gently.

4.5
All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

Mount the cold box Before use, freeze the cooler elements in the ice box of a refrigerator. IMPORTANT! It is essential that the contents are completely frozen, otherwise the cooling output will not be constant due to absorption of the heat of fusion. 5 6

Insert the sample holder as described under 4.3. Do not insert the dial gauge Insert the frozen coolant elements (1) at the sides of the cold box (2) in such a way that there is sufficient space in the centre for the sample Place the cold box on the fastening plate (3). Make sure that the centering pin at the bottom right snaps into place Secure the cold box using the fastening screw (4) at the top left Insert the thermometer (5) Insert the dial gauge (6) and set to zero

Do not begin the experiment until the temperature change is less than 0.5 per 5 min. IMPORTANT! Immediately prior to the experiment, re-adjust the dial gauge.

11

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

5. 5.1

Experiments Performing the experiment As high creep rates can occur, particularly in phases 1 and 3, it is advisable to perform the experiment with two people. One person monitors the stop-watch and gives the command to read the dial gauge. The second person reads the dial gauge and records the reading.

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

In the initial phase and around the time of fracture, the readings should be taken every 15 seconds. At lower creep rates, an interval of 1 or 2 minutes is sufficient. To ensure that the experiment runs smoothly, a form should be prepared with the prescribed times of the readings for recording the deflections. Insert the sample in the creep tester as described in section 4 Fit the weight suspender with weights according to the required load Have a paper and pencil ready to record the deflections Have a stop-watch ready to measure the time Set the dial gauge to zero Gently suspend the weight suspender, without jolting, and start the stop-watch Read and record the deflections in accordance with the time schedule

NOTE: With low loads, a creep test may last a very long time. In order to explore the behaviour of the sample, an experiment should first be performed with a medium load. The load can then be adjusted in small increments ( 0.5 - 1.0 N ) depending on the creep behaviour.

12

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

IMPORTANT! Even small alterations in the load may result in very large changes in the creep rate. 5.2 Lead samples Appropriate loads in this case are between 11 and 14 N, corresponding to a stress of 11 - 14 N/mm2. The diagram shows typical creep curves. The 3 phases of creep are clearly recognisable. With a sample length of 25 mm, a 10 mm extension of the sample corresponds to 40% elongation.
All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

10 Fracture 8 Sample: Lead T = 21 C

Elongation in mm

= 12.5 N/mm2
6

= 12 N/mm2
4

= 11 N/mm2
2

10

15 Time in min Creep curves for lead

20

25

30

13

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

5.3

Polyethylene samples Appropriate loads in this case are between 16 and 20 N, corresponding to a stress of 16 - 20 N/mm2. As the material permits very large elongation, fracture is unlikely. However, the effect of recovery after alleviation of the load (relaxation) can be shown very clearly. The diagram shows typical creep curves. With a sample length of 25 mm, a 10 mm extension corresponds to 40% elongation.

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

10 Sample: PE T = 20.6 C 8
Elongation in mm

Load alleviation Elastic relaxation

= 19.5 N/mm2
Plastic relaxation

= 19 N/mm2
4

= 17 N/mm2
2

0 0 5 10 Time in min Creep curves for polyethylene 15 20

14

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

6 6.1

Appendix Technical data Samples Material: Cross-section: Measured length: Settable tensile stress: Set of weights:

Lead, polyethylene (PE) 2 x 5 mm2 25 mm 5 ... 25 2x5 3x2 3x1 2 x 0.5 N/mm2 N N N N

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

Dial gauge Measurement range: Resolution:

0 ... 10 1/100

mm mm

Dimensions L x W x H: 700 x 350 x 510 Weight: 23

mm3 kg

Sample form

15

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

6.2

Formula symbols and units used

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

A: B: E: k: m: n: R: t: T:

Constant Constant Activation energy Constant Constant Constant Gas constant Time Temperature, abs. Elongation Strain rate Creep rate Tensile stress L L0

(mm2/Ns) (mm2/Ns) (J/mol)

(8.314 J/mol K) (s) (K)

: . :

(1/s) (N/mm2)

16

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

6.3

Index A Adjustable end stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 B Base plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 C Clamping sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Climatic chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Cold box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Cooler elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Creep curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 in plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 rupture behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 strength curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Crystal recovery temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 D Dial gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,3 E End stop setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 F Formula symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 I Initial load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 L Loading sample. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 P Performing the experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Primary creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 R Relaxation, elastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 , plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 S Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . holder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secondary creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Support pillar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 5 2

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

17

WP600

Creep Testing Machine

T Technical data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Tertiary creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Transmission lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Transmission ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 U Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 W Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

All rights reserved G.U.N.T. Gertebau GmbH , Hamburg

18