ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

I. Introduction

The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. Every thought, action, and
emotion, reflects its activity. Its signaling device, or means of communicating with body cells, is electrical impulses,
which are rapid and specific and cause almost immediate response. To carry out its normal role, the nervous system
has three overlapping function: (1) much like a sentry, it uses millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes
occurring both inside and outside the body. These changes are called stimuli, and the gathered information is called
sensory input. (2) It process and interprets the sensory input and makes decisions about what should he done at
each moment—a process called integration. (3) It then effects a response by activating muscles or glands
(effectors) via motor output. An example will illustrate how these functions work together. When you are driving and
see a red light just ahead (sensor• input), your nervous system integrates this information (red light means "stop")
and sends motor output to the muscles of your right leg and foot, and your foot goes for the brake pedal (the
response).

The nervous system does not work alone to regulate and maintain body homeostasis: the endocrine system is a
second important regulating system. While the nervous system controls with rapid electrical nerve impulses, the
endocrine system organs produce hormones that are released into the blood. Thus, the endocrine system typically
brings about its effects in a more leisurely way.

II. Classification

We have only one nervous system, hut, because of its complexity, it is difficult to consider all its parts at the same
time. So, to simplify its study, we divide it in terms of its structures (structural classification) or in terms of its
activities (functional classification). Each of these classification schemes is described briefly below, and their
relationships are illustrated in Figure 7.2. It is not necessary to memorize this whole scheme now, but as you are
reading the descriptions, try to get a "feel" for the major parts and how they fit together. This will make your
learning task easier as you make your way through this chapter. Later you will meet all these terms and concepts
again and in more detail.

a. Structural Classification
The structural classification which includes all nervous system organs has two subdivisions—the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system (see Figure 7.2).
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal body cavity and
act as the integrating and command centers of the nervous system. They interpret incoming sensory information
and issue instructions based on past experience and current conditions.
The peripheral (p0-rifer-al) nervous system (PNS), the part of the nervous system outside the CNS, consists
mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord. Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the
spinal cord. Cranial (kra'ne-al) nerves carry impulses to and from Tie brain. These nerves serve as
communication lines. They link all parts of the body by carrying impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS
and from the CNS to the appropriate glands or muscles.

b. Functional Classification
The functional classification scheme is concerned only with PNS structures. It divides them into two principal
subdivisions (see Figure 7.2).
The sensory, or afferent (afferent), division consists of nerve fibers that convey impulses to the central nervous
system from sensory receptors located in various parts of the body. Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called somatic (soma = body) sensory (afferent) fibers, whereas those
transmitting impulses from the visceral organs are called visceral sensory fibers, or visceral afferents. The
sensory division keeps the CNS constantly informed of events going on both inside and outside the body.
 FIGURE 7.1 The nervous system's functions.

The motor or efferent (ef'er-rent), division carries impulses

from the CNS to effector organs the muscles and glands. These
impulses activate muscles and glands; that is, they effect
(bring about) a motor response.
The motor division in turn has two subdivisions (see Figure
7.2):

1. The somatic (so-mat'ik) nervous system allows us to

consciously, or voluntarily, control our skeletal muscles. Hence
this subdivision is often referred to as the voluntary nervous
system. However, not all skeletal muscle activity controlled by
 this motor division is voluntary. Skeletal muscle reflexes, like the stretch reflex for
example are initiated involuntarily by these same fibers.

2. The autonomic (aw"to-nonfik) nervous system (ANS) regulates events that are
automatic, or involuntary, such as the activity of smooth and cardiac muscles and
glands. This subdivision, commonly called the involuntary nervous system itself
has two parts, the sympathetic and parasympathetic, which typically bring about
opposite effects. What one stimulates, the other inhibits. These will be described
later.

Although it is simpler to study the nervous system in terms of its subdivisions,

you should recognize that these subdivisions are made for the sake of
convenience only. Remember that the nervous system acts as a coordinated unit,
both structurally and functionally.

FIGURE 7.2 Organization of the nervous system.

Organizational flowchart showing that the central
nervous system receives input via sensory fibers
and issues commands via motor fibers. The
sensory and motor fibers together form the
nerves that constitute the peripheral nervous
system.
III. Neurons and Nerves

Even though it is complex, nervous tissue is made up of just two principal types of cells—supporting cells and
neurons.

a. Supporting Cells
Supporting cells in the CNS are "lumped together" as neuroglia (nu-rog'le-ah), literally "nerve glue." Neuroglia
includes many types of cells that generally support, insulate, and protect the delicate neurons (Figure 7.3). In
addition, each of the different types of neuroglia, also simply called glia (gle'ah) or ghat cells has special
functions. The CNS glia include:
 ♥ Astrocytes: abundant star-shaped cells that 'ac¬count
for nearly half of the neural tissue. Their numerous
projections have swollen ends that cling to neurons,
bracing them and anchoring them to their nutrient
supply lines, the blood capillaries (Figure 7.3a).
Astrocytes form a living barrier between capillaries and
neurons and play a role in making exchanges between
the two. In this way, they help protect the neurons from
harmful substances that might be in the blood.
FIGURE 7.3 Supporting (glial) cells of nervous
tissues. Astrocytes (a) form a living barrier between
neurons and capillaries in the CNS. Microglia (b) are
phagocytes, whereas ependymal cells (c) line the fluid-
filled cavities of the CNS. The oligodendrocytes (d) form
myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the CNS. (e) The
relationship of Schwann cells (myelinating cells) and
satellite cells to a neuron in the peripheral nervous
system.
Astrocytes also help control the chemical environment in
the brain by picking up excess ions and recapturing
released neurotransmitters.
♥ Microglia: spiderlike phago¬cytes that dispose of
debris, including dead brain cells and bacteria tFigure
7.3b).
♥ Ependymal: these glial cells line the cavities of the brain and the spinal cord (Figure 7.3c). The heating of
their cilia helps to circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and forms a protective cush¬kin
around the CNS.
♥ Oligodendrocytes: glia that wrap their flat extensions tightly around the nerve fibers, producing fatty
insulating cov¬erings called myelin sheaths (Figure 7.3d).

Although they somewhat resemble neurons structurally (both cell types have cell extensions), glia are not able
to transmit nerve impulses, a func¬tion that is highly developed in neurons. Another important difference is that
glia never lose their ability to divide, whereas most neurons do. Conse¬quently, most brain tumors are gliomas,
 or tumors formed by glial cells (neuroglia). Supporting cells in the PNS come in two major varieties—Schwann
cells and satellite cells (Figure 7.3e). Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that are found
in the PNS. Satellite cells act as protective, cushioning cells.

b. Neurons

Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part of
the body to another. Although neurons differ structurally, they have many common features (Figure 7.4). All have
a cell body, which contains the nucleus and is the metabolic center of the cell, and one or more slender
processes extending from the cell body.

The cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron. It contains the usual organelles except for centrioles (which
confirm the amitotic nature of most neurons). The rough ER, called Nissl (nisi) substance, and neurofibrils,
intermediate filaments that are important in maintaining cell shape, are particularly abundant in the cell body.
The armlike processes, or fibers, vary in length from microscopic to 3 to 4
feet. The longest ones in humans reach from the lumbar region of the
spine to the great toe. Neuron processes that convey incoming messages
(electrical signals) toward the cell body are dendrites (den'dritz), whereas
those that generate nerve impulses and typically conduct them away
from the cell body are axons (ak'sonz). Neurons may have hundreds of
the branching dendrites (dendr = tree), depending on the neuron type,
but each neuron has only one axon, which arises from a FIGURE 7.4 Structure of a typical motor neuron. (a)
conelike region of the cell body called the axon hillock. Diagrammatic view. (b) Photomicrograph (265x ).

An occasional axon gives off a collateral branch along its

length, but all axons branch profusely at their terminal
end, forming hundreds to thousands of axon terminals. These terminals
contain hundreds of tiny vesicles, or membranous sacs, that contain
chemicals called neurotransmitters

As we said, axons transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body.
When these impulses reach the axon terminals, they stimulate the
release of neurotransmitters into the extracellular space.
Each axon terminal is separated from the next neuron by a tiny gap called the synaptic (si-nap'tik) cleft. Such a
functional junction is called a synapse (syn = to clasp or join). Although they are close, neurons never actually
touch other neurons. We will learn more about synapses and the events that occur there a bit later.

Most long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish, fatty material, called myelin (mi'e-lin), which has a waxy
appearance. Myelin protects and insulates the fibers and increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses.
Axons outside the CNS are myelinated by Schwann cells, specialized supporting cells that wrap themselves
tightly around the axon jelly-roll fashion (Figure 7.5). When the wrapping process is done, a tight coil of wrapped
membranes, the myelin sheath, encloses the axon. Most of the Schwann cell cytoplasm ends up just beneath the
outermost part of its plasma mem-brane. This part of the Schwann cell, external to the myelin sheath, is called
the neurilemma (nu"ri-lem'mah, "neuron husk"). Since the myelin sheath is formed by many individual Schwann
cells, it has gaps or indentations called nodes of Ranvier (rahn-ver), at regular intervals (see Figure 7.4).

Myelinated fibers are also found in the central nervous system.

However, there it is oligodendrocytes that form CNS myelin sheaths
(see Figure 7.3d). In contrast to Schwann cells, each of which deposits
myelin around a small segment of one nerve fiber, the
oligodendrocytes with their many flat extensions can coil around as
many as 60 different fibers at the same time. Although the myelin
sheaths formed by oligodendrocytes and those formed by Schwann
cells are quite similar, the CNS sheaths lack a neurilemma. Because
the neurilemma remains intact (for the most part) when a peripheral
nerve fiber is damaged, it plays an important role in fiber regeneration,
an ability that is largely lacking in the central nervous system.
Neurons may be classified either according to boa they function or according to their structure.
FIGURE 7.5 Relationship of Schwann
cells to axons in the peripheral nervous
system. As illustrated (top to bottom), a
Schwann cell envelops part of an axon in a
trough and then rotates around the axon.
Most of the Schwann cell cytoplasm comes to
lie just beneath the exposed part of its
plasma membrane. The tight coil of plasma
membrane material surrounding the axon is
the myelin sheath. The Schwann cell
cytoplasm and exposed membrane are
referred to as the neurilemma.
1. Functional Classification Functional classifications groups neurons according to the direction the nerve
impulse is traveling relative to the CNS .On this basis, there are sensory, motor, and association neurons
(Figure 7.6). Neurons carrying impulses from sensory
receptors (in the internal organs or the skin) to the
CNS are sensory or afferent neurons. (Afferent
literally means (“To go toward”)

The cell bodies of sensory neurons always found in a

ganglion outside the CNS. Sensory neurons keep us
informed about what is happening both inside and
outside the body.

The dendrite endings of the sensory neurons are

least specialized of the cutaneous receptors. They
are also the most numerous, because pain warns us
that some type of body damage is occurring or is
about to occur. However, strong stimulation of any of
the cutaneous receptors (for example, by searing
heat, extreme cold or excessive pressure) is also
interpreted as pain.
usually associated with specialized receptors that are
activated by specific changes occurring nearby. The
very complex receptors of the special sense organs
(vision, hearing, equilibrium. taste, and smell) are
covered separately in Chapter 8. The simpler types of
sensory receptors seen in the skin (cutaneous sense
organs) and in the muscles and tendons
(proprioceptors) are shown in Figure 7 .7. The pain
receptors (actually bare dendrite endings) are the
FIGURE 7.6 Neurons classified by function. Sensory (afferent)
neurons conduct impulses from sensory receptors (in the skin, viscera,
muscles) to the central nervous system; most cell bodies are in ganglia
in the PNS. Motor (efferent) neurons transmit impulses from the CNS
(brain or spinal cord) to effectors in the body periphery. Association
neurons (interneurons) complete the communication pathway between
sensory and motor neurons; their cell bodies reside in the CNS.
 The proprioceptors detect the amount of stretch. or tension, in
skeletal muscles, their tendons, and joints. They send this
information to the brain so that the proper adjustments can be
made to maintain balance and normal posture. Propria comes from
the Latin word meaning "one's own," and the proprioceptors
constantly advise our brain of our own movements.

Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or

muscles and glands are motor, or efferent, neurons (see Figure
7.6). The cell bodies of motor neurons are always located in the
CNS.

The third category of neurons is the association neurons, or

interneurons. They connect the motor and sensory neurons in
neural pathways. Like the motor neurons, their cell bodies are
always located in the CNS.

2. Structural Classification Structural classification is based on the

number of processes extending from the cell body (Figure 7.8). If
there are several, the neuron is a multipolar neuron. Since all
motor and association neurons are multipolar, this is the most
common structural type. Neurons with two processes—an axon
and a dendrite—are called bipolar neurons. Bipolar neurons are
rare in adults, found only in some special sense organs (eye,
nose), where they act in sensory processing as receptor cells.
Unipolar neurons have a single process emerging from the cell body. However, it is very short and divides
almost immediately into proximal (central) and distal (peripheral) processes. Unipolar neurons are unique in
that only the small branches at the end of the peripheral process are FIGURE 7.8 Classification of neurons on the
dendrites. The remainder of the peripheral process and the central process basis of structure. (a) Multipolar. (b) Bipolar
function as axons; thus, in this case, the axon conducts nerve impulses both (c) Unipolar.
toward and away from the cell body. Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia
are unipolar.
Physiology

Nerve Impulses Neurons have two major functional properties: irritability,

the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse, and
conductivity, the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles,
or glands. We will consider these functional abilities next.

The plasma membrane of a resting, or inactive, neuron is polarized, which

means that there are fewer positive ions sitting on the inner face of the
neuron's plasma membrane than there are on its outer face in the tissue
fluid that surrounds it (Figure 7.9). The major positive ions inside the cell
are potassium (K), whereas the major positive ions outside the cell are
sodium (Na). As long as the inside remains more negative as compared to
the outside, the neuron will stay inactive.

FIGURE 7.9 The nerve impulse. (a) Resting membrane electrical

conditions. The external face of the membrane is slightly positive: its
internal face is slightly negative. The chief extracellular on is sodium fhlarl,
whereas the chief intracellular ion is potassium (K4). The membrane is
relatively impermeable to both ions. (b) Stimulus initiates local
depolarization. A stimulus changes the permeability of a "patch" of the
membrane, and sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell. This changes the
polarity of the membrane (the inside becomes more positive; the outside
becomes more negative). (c) Depolarization and generation of an action
potential. If the stimulus is strong enough, depolarization causes
membrane polarity to be completely reversed and an action potential is
initiated. (d) Propagation of the action potential. Depolarization of the first
membrane patch causes permeability changes in the adjacent membrane,
and the events described in (b) are repeated. Thus, the action potential
propagates rapidly along the entire length of the membrane. (e)
Repolarization. Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as membrane
permeability changes again, restoring the negative charge on the inside of
the membrane and the positive charge on the outside surface.
Many different types of stimuli excite neurons to become active and generate an impulse. For example, light
excites the eye receptors, sound excites some of the ear receptors, and pressure excites some cutaneous
receptors of the skin. However, most neurons in the body are excited by neurotransmitters released by other
neurons, as will be described shortly. Regardless of what the stimulus is, the result is always the same—the
permeability properties of the cell's plasma membrane change for a very brief period. Normally, sodium ions
cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane to any great extent; but when the neuron is adequately
stimulated, the "gates" of sodium channels in the membrane open. Because sodium is in much higher
concentration outside the cell, it will then diffuse quickly into the neuron. (Remember the laws of diffusion?) This
inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity of the neuron's membrane at that site, an event called
depolarization. Locally, the inside is now more positive, and the outside is less positive, a situation called a
graded potential. However if the stimulus is strong enough and the sodium in-flux is great enough, the local
depolarization (graded potential) activates the neuron to initiate and transmit a long distance signal called an
action potential, also called a nerve impulse in neurons. The nerve impulse is an all-or-none re- sauna like firing a
gun. It is either propagated (conducted) over the entire axon, or it doesn't happen at all. The nerve impulse
never goes partway along an axon's length, nor does it die out with distance as do graded potentials.

Almost immediately after the sodium ions rush into the neuron, the
membrane permeability changes again, becoming impermeable to
sodium ions but permeable to potassium ions. So potassium ions are
allowed to diffuse out of the neuron into the tissue fluid, and they do
so very rapidly. This outflow of positive ions from the cell restores the
electrical conditions at the membrane to the polarized, or resting,
state, an event called repolarization. Until repolarization occurs, a
neuron cannot conduct another impulse. After repolarization occurs, the initial concentrations of the sodium and
potassium ions inside and outside the neuron are restored by activation of• the
sodium-potassium pump. This pump uses ATP (cellular energy) to pump excess FIGURE 7.10 How neurons
sodium ions out of the cell and to bring potassium ions back into it. Once communicate at chemical synapses.
begun, these sequential events spread along the entire neuronal membrane. The events occurring at the synapse are
numbered in order.
The events just described explain propagation of a nerve impulse along unmyelinated fibers. Fibers that have
myelin sheaths conduct impulses much faster because the nerve impulse literally jumps, or leaps, from node to
 node along the length of the fiber. This occurs because no current can flow across the axon membrane where
there is fatty myelin insulation. This type of impulse is called salutatory (Sal’tah-to”re) conduction (saltare = to
dance or leap)

IV. Central Nervous System

Our body is made up of biological processes. Everything we feel, think or do

has biological components. Biological processes help us to understand
behavior. All of the psychological phenomena covered in this topic are a
direct product of these biological processes. Psychology is the study of what
the nervous system does. Therefore an understanding of this system is
essential to an understanding of human psychology.

Every section of this part of the case presentation is about the brain and the
nervous system. It is impossible to examine all of the major neuroanatomic
structures. The points of interest here include the structures of the brain
believed to be involved in the formation of thought and emotion.

The brain is defined in various ways. The definition that best suits the
perspective of this case study is that the brain is that part of the central
nervous system encapsulated by the skull. The brain is the core of our
humanity. Intercommunication of different parts of the brain yield the
experiences of love, hate, elation, joy or madness. The brain provides the
underlying biology for will, determination, hopes and dreams. Without the
brain to integrate experience, people would neither enjoy the wonder nor fear the horror of life.

a. Brain
Brains exist because the distribution of resources necessary for survival and the hazards that threaten survival
vary in space and time. There would be little need for a nervous system in an immobile organism or an organism
that lived in regular and predictable environment. Brains are informed by the senses about the presence of
resources and hazards; they evaluate and store this input and generate adaptive responses executed by the
muscles.

Some of the most basic features of brains can be found in bacteria because even the simplest motile organisms
must solve the problem of locating resources and avoiding toxins. They sense their environment through a large
number of receptors, which are protein molecules embedded in the cell wall. The action taken in response to the
inputs usually depends on the gradient of the chemicals. Thus memory is required to compare the inputs from
different locations. The strength of the signal is modulated by immediate past experience. This in turn regulates
the strength of the signal sent by chemical messengers from the receptor to the flagellar motors. Thus even at
the unicellular level, the bacteria have already possessed the ability to integrate numerous analog inputs and
generate a binary (digital) output of stop or go.
In multicellular organism, cells specialized for receptor function are located on the surface. Other cells
specialized for the transmission and analysis of information are located in the protected interior and are linked to

effector cells, usually muscles, which produce adaptive responses. As do unicellular organisms, neurons
integrate the diverse array of incoming information from the receptors, which in neurons may result in the firing
of an action potential (when the summation is above a threshold level) rather than swimming toward a nutrient
source as in the unicellular organisms. Once the threshold for generating an action potential is reached, the
signal is always the same, both in amplitude and shape (a nerve consists of many neurons, it does not obey the
all-or-none law).
Action potentials and voltage-gated sodium
channels are present in jellyfish, which are
the simplest organisms to possess nervous
systems. The development of this basic
neuronal mechanism set the stage for the
proliferation of animal life that occurred
during the Cambrian period. Among these
Cambrian animals were the early chordates,
which possessed very simple brains. Some of
these early fish developed a unique way to
insulate their axons by wrapping them with a
fatty material called myelin, which greatly
facilitated axonal transmission and evolution
of larger brains. Some of their descendants,
which also were small predators, crawled up
on the muddy shores and eventually took up
permanent residence on dry land.
Challenged by the severe temperature
changes in the terrestrial environment, some
experimented with becoming warm-blooded,
and the most successful became the
ancestors of birds and mammals. Changes in
the brain and parental care were a crucial
part of the set of mechanisms that enabled
these animals to maintain a constant body
temperature.

The human brain can be divided into three

parts: the hindbrain, which has been inherited from the reptiles; the limbic system, which was first emerged in
mammals; and the forebrain, which has its full development in human. Different views of the human brain are
shown in Figure 03c, d, and e. Tables 01 lists the functions of the different parts of the human brain. The brain is
separated into two hemispheres. Apart from a single little organ -- the pineal gland in the centre base of the
brain -- every brain module is duplicated in each hemisphere. The left brain is calculating, communicative and
 capable of conceiving and executing complicated plans --the reductionistic brain; while the right one is
considered as gentle, emotional and more at one with the natural world -- the holistic brain. The cerebral cortex
is covered in a thin skin of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition or perception). Table 02 below
lists the location and functions of the major components in the human brain.
Structure Location Functions
Limbic System
(Mammalian Brain)
Thalamus in the middle of the limbic system relays incoming information (except smell) to the appropriate part of the
brain for further processing.
Hypothalamus, Pituitary beneath thalamus regulates basic biological drives, hormonal levels, sexual behavior, and
Gland controls autonomic functions such as hunger, thirst, and body
temperature.
Optic Chiasm in front of the pituitary gland left-right optic nerves cross-over point.
Septum adjacent to hypothalamus stimulates sexual pleasure
Hippocampus within the temporal lobe mediates learning and memory formation.
Amygdala in front of the hippocampus responsible for anxiety, emotion, and fear
Mammillary Body, Fornix linked to the hippocampus have a role in emotional behavior, learning, and motivation.
Basal Ganglia outside the thalamus involves in movement, emotions, planning and in integrating sensory
(Striatum): Caudate information
Nucleus, Putamen,
Globus Pallidus
Ventricles and Central from tiny central canal within the spinal cord to the fills with cerebrospinal fluid for mechanical protection.
Canal enlarged hollows within the skull called ventricles
Cingulate Gyrus above corpus callosum concentrates attention on adverse internal stimuli such as pain, contains
the feeling of self.
Corpus Callosum under the cingulate gyrus is a bundle of nerve fibers linking the cerebral hemispheres, involve in
language learning.
Forebrain
(Human Brain)
Frontal Lobe in front of the head controls voluntary movement, thinking, and feeling.
(Conscious Brain)
Prefrontal Cortex in front of the frontal lobe inhibits inappropriate actions, forms plans and concepts, helps focus
attention, and bestows meaning to perceptions.
Parietal Lobe in top rear of the head contains the primary somatosensory area that manages skin sensation.
Occipital Lobe in the back of the head contains the visual cortex to manage vision.
Temporal Lobe on each side of the head above the temples contains the auditory cortex to manage hearing and speech.
Table 02 - Human Brain
 The parietal eye is not an eye in the traditional sense in that it does not see images, but rather is a
photosensitive organ which only reacts to light and dark. The parietal eye is connected to the pineal body and is
used to trigger hormone production and thermoregulation. It often shows up as either a dark spot or an
opalescent spot. Opsin proteins sensitive to blue and green light has been identified in the cell.

Throughout its lifetime, the human brain undergoes more changes than any other part of the body. They can be
broadly divided into five stages. Table 03 summarizes the significant events within each stage, the "DO" and
"DON'T" to keep a healthy mind.

S Age Event(s) DO DON'T

tag
e
1 0 - 10 * Growing neurons and connections Mother should: * Mother should stay away from
months * Making sure each section of the brain grows * be stress-free, eats well cigarettes, alcohol and other
Gestation properly and in the right place * take folic acid and vitamin B12 toxins
* stimulate the young brain with
sounds and sensations
2 Birth - 6 * A sense of self develops as the parietal and * Parents should provide a nurturing * Parents should beware of the
Childhood frontal lobe circuits become more integrated. environment and one-on-one emotional consequence of neglect
* Development of voluntary movement, interaction or harsh parenting
reasoning, and perception
* Frontal lobes become active leading to the
development of emotions, attachments,
planning, working memory and attention
* Life experiences shape the emotional well-
being in adulthood
* At age 6, the brain is 95% of its adult weight
and at its peak of energy consumption
3 7 - 22 * Wiring of the brain is still in progress * Teenagers should learn to control * Teenagers should avoid alcohol
Adolescen * Grey matter (neural connections) pruning reckless, irrational and irritable abuse, smoking, drug and
ce * White matter (fatty tissue surrounding behaviors unprotected sex.
neurons) increase helps to speed up electrical * Do learn a skill to support life in the
impulses and stabilize connections future
* The prefrontal cortex (involving control of
 impulses, judgment and decision-making) is the
last to mature
4 23 - 65 * The brain reaches the peak power at around * Stay active mentally and physically * Avoid cigarettes, booze, and
Adulthood age 22 and lasts for about 5 years; thereafter * Eat healthy diet mind-altering drugs.
it's downhill all the way
* The last to mature and first to go brain
functions are those involve executive control in
the prefrontal and temporal cortices
* Episodic memory for recalling events also
declines rapidly
* Processing speed slows down
* Working memory is able to store less
information
5 > 65 * Losing brain cells in critical areas such as the * Exercise to improve abstract * Avoid grumpiness by eating
Old Age hippocampus where memories are processed reasoning and concentration certain foods, such as yogurt,
* Learn new skill such as guitar playing chocolate, and almonds to get a
to attain the same effect good dose of dopamine (for
* Practice meditation can promote promoting positive emotions)
neutral emotions * Don't stressed out as it is related
to higher risk of developing
dementia.

Table 07 - The Five Stages of Human Brain

It is well known that the brain is an electrochemical organ; a fully functioning brain can generate as much as 20
watts of electrical power. Even though this electrical power is very limited, it does occur in very specific ways
that are characteristic of the human brain. Electrical activity emanating from the brain can be displayed in the
form of brainwaves. There are four categories of these brainwaves, ranging from the most active to the least
active. Figure 03f is produced by an EEG (ElectroEncephaloGraph) chart recorder to show the different kind of
brainwave according to the different state of the brain. These are all oscillating electrical voltages in the brain,
but they are very tiny voltages, just a few millionths of a volt. Electrodes are placed on the outer surface of the
head to detect electrical changes in the extracellular fluid of the brain in response to changes in potential among
large groups of neurons. The resulting signals from the electrodes are amplified and recorded.
Brain waves originate from the cerebral cortex, but also reflect activities in other parts of the brain that influence
the cortex, such as the reticular formation. Because the intensity of electrical changes is directly related to the
degree of neuronal activity, brain waves vary markedly in amplitude and frequency between sleep and
wakefulness. Beta wave rhythms appear to be involved in higher mental activity, including perception and
consciousness. It seems to be associated with consciousness, e.g., it disappears with general anesthesia. Other
waves that can be detected are Alpha, Theta, and Delta. When the hemispheres or regions of the brain are
producing a wave synchronously, they are said to be coherent. Alpha waves are generated in the Thalamus (the
brain within the brain), while Theta waves occur mainly in the parietal and temporal regions of the cerebrum.
The Alpha and Theta waves seem to be associated with creative, insightful thought. When an artist or scientist
has the "aha" experience, there's a good chance he or she is in Alpha or Theta. These two kinds of brain waves
are also associated with relaxation and, stronger immune systems. Therefore, many people try to train
themselves to enter such states through various biofeedback7 techniques (with varying degree of success).
Delta Waves occur during sleep. They originate from the cerebral cortex when it is not being activated by the
reticular formation. In slow-wave sleep, the entire brain oscillates in a gentle rhythm quite unlike the fragmented
oscillations of normal consciousness. The neocortical activity is often modulated by a rhythm of 40-80 Hz, called
the Gamma wave (not shown in Figure 03f). When there are strong gamma oscillations in certain parts of the
neocortex, human subjects do better on learning and memory tasks.
b. Protection: Meninges, Blood- Brain
Barrier and CSF

1. Blood-brain Barrier

The main function of the blood-brain

barrier (BBB) is to protect the brain
from changes in the levels in
the blood of ions, amino acids,
peptides, and other
substances. The barrier is located at
the brain blood capillaries,
which are unusual in two ways.
Firstly, the cells which make up
the walls of these vessels (the
endothelium) are sealed together at
their edges by tight junctions
that form a key component
of the barrier. These junctions
prevent water-soluble substances in the blood from passing between the cells and therefore from freely
entering the fluid environment of the brain cells. Secondly, these capillaries are enclosed by the flattened
‘end-feet’ of astrocytic cells (one type of glia), which also act as a partial, active, barrier. Thus the only
way for water-soluble substances to cross the BBB is by passing directly through the walls of the cerebral
capillaries, and because their cell membranes are made up of a lipid/protein bilayer, they also act as a
major part of the BBB.

In contrast, fat-soluble molecules,

including those of oxygen and carbon Diagram of a cerebral capillary enclosed in astrocyte end-feet. Characteristics of
the blood-brain barrier are indicated: (1) tight junctions that seal the pathway
between the capillary (endothelial) cells; (2) the lipid nature of the cell
membranes of the capillary wall which makes it a barrier towater-soluble
molecules; (3), (4), and (5) represent some of the carriers and ion channels; (6)
the 'enzymatic barrier'that removes molecules from the blood; (7) the efflux
pumps which extrude fat-soluble molecules that have crossed into the cells.
dioxide, anaesthetics, and alcohol can pass straight through the lipids in the capillary walls and so gain
access to all parts of the brain.

Apart from these passive elements of the BBB there are also enzymes on the lining of the cerebral
capillaries that destroy unwanted peptides and other small molecules in the blood as it flows through the
brain.

Finally, there is another barrier process that acts against lipid-soluble molecules, which may be toxic and
can diffuse straight through capillary walls into the brain. In the capillary wall there are three classes of
specialized ‘efflux pumps’ which bind to three broad classes of molecules and transport them back into
the blood out of the brain.

However, in order for nourishment to reach the brain, water-soluble compounds must cross the BBB,
including the vital glucose for energy production and amino acids for protein synthesis. To achieve this
transfer, brain vessels have evolved special carriers on both sides of the cells forming the capillary walls,
which transport these substances from blood to brain, and also move waste products and other
unwanted molecules in the opposite direction.

The successful evolution of a complex brain depends on the development of the BBB. It exists in all
vertebrates, and also in insects and the highly intelligent squid and octopus. In man the BBB is fully
formed by the third month of gestation, and errors in this process can lead to defects such as spina
bifida.

Although the BBB is an obvious advantage in protecting the brain, it also restricts the entry from the
blood of water-soluble drugs which are used to treat brain tumours or infections, such as the AIDS virus,
which uses the brain as a sanctuary and ‘hides’ behind the BBB from body defence mechanisms. To
overcome these problems drugs are designed to cross the BBB, by making them more fat soluble. But
this also means that they might enter most cells in the body and be too toxic. Alternative approaches are
to make drug molecules that can ‘ride on’ the natural transporter proteins in the cerebral capillaries, and
so be more focused on the brain, or to use drugs that open the BBB.

Since the brain is contained in a rigid, bony skull, its volume has to be kept constant. The BBB plays a key
role in this process, by limiting the freedom of movement of water and salts from the blood into the
extracellular fluid of the brain. Whereas in other body tissues extracellular fluid is formed by leakage from
capillaries, the BBB in fact secretes brain extracellular fluid at a controlled rate and is thus critical in the
maintenance of normal brain volume. If the barrier is made leaky by trauma or infection, water and salts
cross into the brain, causing it to swell (cerebral oedema), which leads to raised intracranial pressure;
this can be fatal.