LANDSCAPES OF MOVEMENT IN AMAZONIA: NEW DATA FROM ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS IN THE MIDDLE AND LOWER AMAZON Morgan J.

Schmidt (morgan.j.schmidt@gmail.com) Museu Paraense Emlio Goeldi Coordenao de Cincias Humanas Av. Magalhes Barata, no 376, So Braz Belm Par, CEP:66040-170, Brazil 1. INTRODUCTION The human impact on the environment and landscape transformations are themes in geography and related disciplines that have become critical in recent times with the realization of the profound changes brought about by human activities to ecosystems at both local and global scales and over short and long timescales. Particular attention has been paid to current rates and extents of deforestation in the tropics and prospects for conservation but less attention has been given to indigenous impacts and management in tropical forest environments and even less to pre-colonial impacts (Bale and Erickson, 2006). This research examines human impacts on rainforest environments where anthropic features caused by the movement of humans through the landscape can still be detected under thick forest centuries after settlements were abandoned. More specifically, this article describes recent research on ancient transportation networks in archaeological sites in the Central Amazon and Lower Trombetas River (Figure 1).

FIGURE 1 MAP OF THE AMAZON BASIN WITH STUDY AREA LOCATIONS Geomorphology, a sub-discipline of geography, is concerned with landforms, landscapes, and the processes that create them while geoarchaeology takes an earth science approach to understanding the contexts of archaeological sites by incorporating information on geology, geomorphology, topography, and paleoecology (Ghilardi and Desruelles, 2009). Thornbush (2012) called for the development of archaeogeomorphology as a subfield within geomorphology. Using GPS, topographic mapping, and archaeological excavations, this
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research takes an archaeogeomorphological approach to studying pre-colonial transformations in rainforest ecosystems. Research in the South American Lowlands has uncovered ancient human built landscapes that are much more constructed and extensive than once thought. In Amazonia, these human landscapes include anthropogenic forests, patches of fertile anthrosols (known as terra preta), earthworks, and roads, often representing landscape capital that is utilized by succeeding generations (Heckenberger et al., 2003; Erickson, 2001). Pre-colonial land use in Amazonia is often ignored in biological research with serious implications for understanding the ecology and implementing sustainable management and conservation strategies (Heckenberger et al., 2007, 2008). What is often considered pristine rainforest hides traces of human lives that can still be seen as modified vegetation, topography, and soil. The earliest Europeans to explore the Amazon reported that there were many roads here that entered into the interior of the land, very fine highways (Medina, 1934, p. 200). Substantial roadways that led up the steep riverbanks into large, densely populated settlements were mentioned and wide, well-kept roads connecting many settlements were utilized by early expeditions to penetrate into the interior (Medina, 1934). Archaeological roadways documented in the Middle and Lower Amazon take the form of incised linear depressions. Curt Nimuendaj (1952) identified them early on in the Belterra uplands near the city of Santarm where he found straight, shallow (~30 cm) depressions running between sites, but since then nothing more has been reported on these significant archaeological remains either for these or any other sites along the lower tributaries or the Amazon itself. Research in the Upper Xingu has revealed a complex ancient built landscape of diverse earthworks, modified wetlands (ponds and reservoirs), and extensive transportation networks (Heckenberger, 2005). Earthworks mapped in prehistoric sites included ditches surrounding settlements and linear mound curbs around plazas and along road edges. These features provided evidence of basic site configurations including circulation patterns, domestic areas, and principal transportation networks. Distinctive mounds of terra preta formed from construction and maintenance activities and from refuse disposal in middens in locations that were dictated by the use of domestic and public space (Schmidt, 2010). The linear mounds define plazas and roads, dividing public space from residential areas. Curvilinear or ring mounds formed from middens surrounding houses and yards. Figure 2 shows the ancient settlements Nokugu (upper left) and Hialugiht (lower right) connected by a wide curbed road (Heckenberger et al., 2003).

FIGURE 2 LANDSAT IMAGE OF THE UPPER XINGU STUDY AREA WITH MAPS OF TWO PREHISTORIC SITES
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Four main types of roads were identified in the Upper Xingu: 1) flat roads with linear mounds or curbs along their edges, 2) raised causeways, 3) incised depressions on upland slopes, and 4) incised depressions on the floodplain (Figure 3). There are also cases of earthen levees and dams that served as roads. Incised depressions on the floodplain were formed by repeated movement along trails where peat soil was likely compacted or removed by wind erosion when dry or dislodged by walking through shallow water when flooded. On the uplands, incised depressions were encountered wherever a road or trail went up and down a slope. Roads often transform into different types along their routes. In one case, a flat curbed road transformed into an incised depression on a slope, changed again to an elevated causeway leading into wetlands, and changed yet again into an incised linear depression on the floodplains. The juxtapositions show that the incised depressions on slopes were once trails.
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C 0 10 m

FIGURE 3 PROFILES OF ROAD FORMS IN THE UPPER XINGU: A) FLAT ROAD WITH LINEAR MOUND CURBS, B) RAISED CAUSEWAY, C) INCISED DEPRESSION Studies of past landscapes of movement inform us about the layout of settlements, the use of space, connections between settlements, and relationships with natural resources (Snead et al., 2009). Trails, paths, and roads are part of the human built landscape and, once constructed, they can structure the use of space for centuries or millennia. This research focuses on lasting transformations caused by humans within and around ancient settlements in the Middle and Lower Amazon where repeated movement has left indelible marks on the landscape in the form of incised features that formed particularly where roads or trails followed sloping terrain. Specifically, it addresses the questions: 1) How did trails and roads transform the landscape? 2) How did they reflect the use of space and resources? 3) How did they structure the formation of anthrosols? 2. THE STUDY AREAS Investigations were carried out in two study areas: 1) the Central Amazon near the city of Manaus, and 2) the Lower Trombetas River near its confluence with the Amazon River. In the Central Amazon study area, research was carried out at three archaeological sites on the north bank of the Amazon River near the town of Iranduba. All three sites are located on the river bluff overlooking the floodplain or vrzea. Bluffs are elevated up to about 40 m above the level of the floodplain. The vrzea refers to floodplains of the so-called white water rivers that have their headwaters in the Andes Mountains and carry larger sediment loads than rivers emanating from the Guiana or Brazilian Shields. The greater amount of sediment allows for a relatively greater abundance of aquatic resources and its deposition on flats and natural levees provides rich soils that can be cultivated during the low water period. The river level near the city of Manaus, 1400 km upstream from the Amazon mouth, is about 23 m above msl. Rainfall at Manaus averaged 2587 mm for the period 1971-2000 with a season of markedly lowered rainfall from June through October. Temperature averaged about 26.1C over the same period. The Lower Trombetas River study area is located in the Saraca-Taquera National Forest between the Trombetas and Amazon Rivers. Research was carried out at four sites: one
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on a Trombetas floodplain lake and three in an area of plateaus that reach a maximum height of 210 m above msl. Rainfall averaged 2140 mm per year for the period 1970-2002 with the wettest months occurring from December to May and the driest months from August to October. The average annual temperature for the same period was 26.6 C. Upland soils in both study areas are typically Oxisols and Ultisols. 3. MATERIAL AND METHODS Landscapes in and around archaeological sites were examined for anthropic landscape features indicated by topographical anomalies, soil surface coloration, and artifact densities. The anthropic features included excavated ditches, mounds (often rectilinear or curvilinear) and linear incised depressions. Most often, thick forest and recent second-growth vegetation needed to be cleared with machetes before features could be identified. In a few cases, some areas were burned to reveal subtle relief. High-resolution and handheld GPS were used to map features. In some cases features were mapped by hand using a reference grid of survey stakes laid out for subsurface testing. Surveying equipment (total station) was used to create contour maps and digital elevation models of sites by mapping the micro-relief with data points collected at sub-meter to several meter intervals. The sizes of incised depressions were estimated by measuring their width and depth at several points along their length. Subsurface testing included archaeological test pits in transects and grids and larger excavations in selected areas. The excavations followed typical archaeological procedures using either 5 or 10 cm artificial depth intervals and 50 x 50 cm or 1 x 1 m units. All excavated fill was screened for artifact recovery. Features were drawn, described, photographed and sampled. Soil samples were collected from each depth interval to obtain complete profiles, often in transects at 1 m intervals. Soil analyses included pH, organic carbon, and a range of soil nutrients. 4. RESULTS 4.1 THE CENTRAL AMAZON The Central Amazon Project, coordinated by Eduardo Neves of the University of So Paulo, has located more than 100 archaeological sites in a study area approximately 900 km2 near the confluence of the Amazon and Negro Rivers (Neves, 2008). The first indications of substantial earthworks in the region were found at the Autuba archaeological site on the south shore of the Negro River. A ditch possibly for defensive purposes was located along with mounds of terra preta anthrosols surrounding a possible rectangular plaza of large dimensions (approximately 450 x 100 m) (Heckenberger et al., 1999). Later studies have identified mounds in almost all of the sites that have been studied with some that show evidence of deliberate construction (Donatti, 2003; Machado, 2005; Moraes, 2006). Fieldwork initiated in 2006 at three sites (Laguinho, Hatahara, and Caldeiro) has identified and mapped several different types of anthropic landscape features including a pattern of ring-shaped mounds of terra preta, incised roads, and possible ponds and canals (Figure 4) (Castro, 2009; Schmidt, 2010; Schmidt et al., 2007). The three sites are located near one another on the northern bluff overlooking the Amazon River floodplain. Wetland modifications were observed at the three sites that share similarities with the built wetland environment in the Upper Xingu and could likewise have been constructed and utilized to manage water and aquatic resources. Ethnohistoric reports mention the common practice of storing river turtles in artificial ponds (Medina, 1934). The results indicate that the areas in the vicinity of the three sites are built environments with virtually no parts left unmodified. A recurring pattern of terra preta was discerned across the three sites consisting of mounds in the form of a ring or broken ring surrounding circular or semi-circular flat depressions or terraces approximately 10-20 meters diameter.

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FIGURE 4 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATIONS OF FEATURES A) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOUNDS, TERRACES, ROADWAYS, AND MODIFIED WETLAND, B) MOUNDS, TERRACES, AND CIRCULATION PATTERNS The mounds separate and delineate the flat terraces that lie, one next to another, along the crest of the bluff (for about two kilometers at Laguinho and Caldeiro) and cover an extensive area of the site further back from the bluff edge, behind this first row of terraces (Figure 5). When the terraces are on the bluff edge they are truncated by the edge and take on the aspect of terraces at different levels on the upper slope of the bluff with either an open or almost closed horseshoe-shaped mound that defines the terraces (Figure 6). The open end of the horseshoe faces the bluff edge with the highest part of the mound to the inland side. The terraces are arranged side by side with the mounds in between them along the entire length of the bluffs upper edge.

FIGURE 5 PARTIAL MAP OF FEATURES AT LAGUINHO ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE The mounds regularly have depressions or level areas (absence or lowering of the mound) at the back of the terraces and between adjacent terraces. These depressions in the mounds are interpreted to be passage ways or trails where people walked from one terrace to another. Immediately behind or staggered behind the terraces on the bluff edge are additional rows of terraces defined by ring-shaped mounds. The terraces vary significantly in size with the ones along the bluff edge tending to be larger.
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FIGURE 6 CONTOUR MAP OF TWO TERRACES WITH A ROADWAY LEADING DOWN SLOPE (THICK BLACK LINES INDICATE MOUNDS AND ARROWS INDICATE DEPRESSIONS (SCALE IN METERS)) In addition to the ground elevation defining the ring-shaped mounds and terraces, differences were observed in the soil surface. The mounds have a rounded crest, darker color, more surface ceramics, visible surface erosion, an uneven or bumpy surface, more bioturbation, and less compacted soil. The soil surface in the terraces, to the contrary, has a lighter color, less surface ceramics, less bioturbation, and is level and more compact. Incised roadways that provided access to the floodplain for the terraces were measured and mapped. Incised depressions at Caldeiro ranged from 60 to 80 m in length. Some of the depressions were so large that it was difficult to measure their widths and depths, therefore the estimates given here are conservative. Measured widths ranged from 12 to 20 m and depths ranged from 1 m to over 3 m. The angle of the slope in the steepest sections was greater than 30 degrees. The roadways led in straight lines from the terraces down to what appear to be landscaped and excavated circular ponds connected to one another and to the lake beyond by canals that have likely been constructed. The canals and ponds extend along the base of the bluff back to the inland areas of the site on both sides, giving canoe access from the floodplain lake to locations in the settlement further from the river and to other settlements. Roadways were found to be either located in concave curves of the bluff edge, thereby taking advantage of the naturally gentler slope, or simply going straight up and down the bluff from the terraces to the waters edge. Two classes of roadways were identified, smaller ones that exit the center of terraces on the bluff edge, and larger ones that exit the site between terraces, indicating that the larger roads may have been more public thoroughfares while the smaller ones served individual houses, family compounds, or small groups of houses. Sometimes roads exit from the center of two or three terraces and join with one another a short distance down the bluff. Roads were also partially mapped at the Lago de Iranduba site on the opposite side of the lake from Laguinho. Especially large depressions are at nearly opposite sides of the lake at the two sites and may indicate more formal or public ports and entrances between the two communities. Hypotheses were generated for the possible use of space including living and activity areas, traffic areas, and refuse disposal areas based on the pattern of the mounds and roadways. It is proposed that the flat terraces were the locations of domestic activities in houses or yards and the mounds formed from refuse deposited in middens surrounding and between the terraces. The circulation areas are observed as depressions or flat passageways formed by foot paths connecting one terrace to another. The bluff edge is located at the open side of the horseshoe mounds with roadways in the form of linear depressions formed by erosion in trails leading down the bluff to water accesses, bathing areas, and ports on the floodplain below.
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4.2 THE LOWER TROMBETAS RIVER Research has been carried out in the lower Trombetas River region since 2001 by the Trombetas Archaeological Project, coordinated by Vera Guapindaia of the Emlio Goeldi Museum in Belm (Guapindaia, 2008). Research initiated in 2006 aimed to verify the presence of anthropic landscape features in and around sites in the study area (Schmidt 2010, 2012; Schmidt et al., 2008). At a site called Terra Preta on a floodplain lake of the lower Trombetas River, a detailed topographic survey was carried out with a total station to examine the micro-relief in two portions of the site. The mapping detected a series of wide (10-15 m) flat terraces located (like steps) on the slope leading down to the lakes edge. Low mounds, less than 1 m high, were observed in several places around the site and the topographic mapping showed flat areas several 10s of meters in diameter surrounding each of the mounds. In the steepest portion of the bank leading down to the lakes edge, a wide, shallow incised depression was located where there had once been a roadway down to the beach. Further research was carried out at three sites (Greig I, Greig II, and Cipoal do Araticum) in an area of high plateaus between the Trombetas and Amazon Rivers. Just as in the Upper Xingu and Central Amazon, mounds of terra preta and flat areas or terraces were found along with incised depressions going up and down slopes (Figure 7). There were also indications that circular ponds had been excavated in the stream beds at these sites that could have been used for bathing and stocking fish and water turtles. Evidence that the depressions were formed from roadways includes their orientation leading from the mounds and terraces in the flat central area of the site down the slope to the streams surrounding the site on three sides. A total of 30 incised depressions were mapped at Cipoal do Araticum. Depressions begin shallow on the upper slope and increase in depth on the steepest slopes before reaching the stream floodplains. Depths range from 25 to 40 cm on the upper slope where they begin to be visible in the undergrowth and forest litter while the deepest parts generally range from 60 cm to 2 m. Lengths range from less than 20 m to more than 100 m. The angle of the slope was greater than 30 degrees on the steepest banks.

FIGURE 7 MAPS OF CIPOAL DO ARATICUM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE A) TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES IN THE CENTRAL AREA (ARROWS INDICATE MOVEMENT ALONG A PATH OR ROAD) B) SITE OVERVIEW (WITH STREAMS ON THREE SIDES) SHOWING MOUNDS AND INCISED DEPRESSIONS. The anthropic nature of the depressions is indicated by their U-shaped profile, pairs on opposite sides of streams (crossings), depressions that traverse slopes diagonally, shallower parallel depressions following ridge lines, depressions over longer distances on relatively flat ground that articulate with larger depressions on steep slopes, and depressions up and down plateaus on the straight line between two ancient settlement sites. Furthermore, surveys indicated that similar features are not found further away from ancient settlements except in cases where they connected settlements with one another.

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5. DISCUSSION The incised depressions on slopes often resemble natural ravines and, indeed, they should since they were formed mainly by rain water erosion on the bare surface of a trail or road in sloping areas. A large body of research has documented the formation of incised depressions in trails or roads in both temperate (Bayfield, 1973; Coleman, 1981) and tropical regions (Odemerho and Sada, 1984; Rijsdijk et al., 2007; Wallin and Harden, 1996). Their formation is not limited to human movement. They have also been documented as resulting from movements of other large mammals such as elephants (Haynes 2012). Ancient incised roads that had been subsequently covered by volcanic deposits were studied in Costa Rica by Payson Sheets (2009). Sheets posited that, as the depressions from trails formed and grew, they took on sacred or monumental significance. Indeed, some of the roads in the Upper Xingu appear to be monumental such as the wide, formal road entrances to settlements that are built even in the smaller Xinguano villages of today. The ditches surrounding sites such as Nokugu (probably associated with palisade walls) were likely built for defensive or symbolic purposes (Heckenberger, 2005) but it is also likely that they functioned as roads as indicated by ramps leading down into them (sometimes only on one side) and their termination at the rivers edge, thus providing access to the water (Schmidt, 2010). Incised depressions form almost universally wherever trails and roads pass up and down slopes and bare soil is the major condition initiating erosion. Soil erosion is a three step process consisting of: 1) detachment of soil particles, 2) transportation of detached particles, and 3) deposition of transported particles. The impact of raindrops causes most of the detachment on bare, smooth surfaces while the cutting action of flowing water detaches soil particles where flow is concentrated into channels (Brady and Weil, 2002, p. 750). Foot traffic on trails compacts the soil surface, increasing bulk density and reducing infiltration (Wallin and Harden, 1996). Ratios of runoff to rainfall were up to 40 times greater on trails than off trails at rainforest sites in Costa Rica and Ecuador and on-trail runoff transported soil particles while off-trail runoff was completely clear (Wallin and Harden, 1996). Rainwater is channeled in roads and trails where the ground surface is sloping, creating gullies. Gullies form where human activities: (a) increase the amount and/or velocity of runoff, or (b) increase soil detachability and/or transportability (DeGraff, 1980). Erosion in roads and trails is principally a function of the steepness and length of the slope, rainfall intensity, traffic, and soil type (Bayfield, 1973; Coleman 1981). Erosion removes, transports, and deposits significant quantities of sediment (Rijsdijk et al., 2007; Wallin and Harden, 1996) particularly in areas with high rainfall and where soils have high contents of clay, silt, and fine sand (Odemerho and Sada, 1984). Incised depressions in the Central Amazon and Trombetas study areas typically had U-shaped profiles. Depressions documented in the Central Amazon study area were generally larger than those in the Trombetas study area presumably because of a longer time in use and/or more intensive use. The U-shaped form may have evolved from a trail (or several trails) shifting positions over time in the same general area. This could have happened as erosion in trails formed gullies that became difficult to walk in, causing the trail to expand laterally (Bayfield, 1973). As gullies formed, maintenance activities may also have been undertaken to fill the gullies to control erosion or smooth the road surface. This was apparently carried out in the Trombetas sites where several excavations revealed infilling of gullies with refuse (terra preta and ceramic sherds) over 1 m deep. In the Central Amazon, artifacts and dark soil extend from the top to the base of the bluff in the roadways indicating that, here too, gullies may have been infilled with domestic refuse. It was observed that, today, the slopes are very steep and the soil is loose so that a significant amount of material is transported downward by mechanical forces from footsteps. In some cases, steps may have been dug into the slope to make walking easier as was observed in some incised roadways that are currently in use in the Central Amazon. The locations of incised roads, along with excavations, support the interpretation of the terraces as former domestic areas and show their relationship to water resources. The
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positioning and large number of roadways indicates that water resources were utilized in many locations around the settlements rather than being concentrated in just a few locations. This was observed ethnographically in the Upper Xingu where many families have their own designated bathing areas with trails leading to them (that also form incised depressions on slopes). At Cipoal do Araticum, several roadways were located on the slope on the side of the stream opposite from the site (Figure7b) indicating routes of travel or areas that may have been used for other activities such as cultivation. At all of the sites, erosion in roads and trails may have caused environmental problems for inhabitants by affecting water quality and depositing sediment in excavated ponds, possibly interfering with aquatic resource management by harming fish or turtle stocks. 6. CONCLUSION Movement of people on roads and trails, in tandem with water erosion, created incised roadways, particularly in sloping areas in and around ancient settlements in the Middle and Lower Amazon. The documentation and understanding of these anthropic landscape features offer a new level of detail on human use of space, movement, utilization of resources, and the formation of anthrosols in ancient settlements and landscapes. These features have transformed the landscape, altered erosion and sedimentation patterns, and created a more heterogeneous environment. The depressions foster variation in the retention of soil moisture, thus likely altering vegetation patterns. Refuse that was deposited in gullies provides highnutrient micro-environments that may be favorable for certain plants and organisms. In short, the historical ecology of landscapes should be taken into account when studying the biodiversity, biogeography, and geomorphology of Amazonian rainforests. 7. REFERENCES Bayfield, N.G. 1973. Use and deterioration of some Scottish hill paths. Journal of Applied Ecology 10(2):635-644. Bale, W., and C.L. Erickson, eds. 2006. Time and complexity in historical ecology: Studies in the Neotropical Lowlands. The Historical Ecology Series. New York, Columbia University Press. Castro, M.W. 2009. A Cronologia dos Stios Lago do Iranduba e Laguinho Luz das Hipteses da Ocupao Humana para a Amaznia Central. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of So Paulo, So Paulo. Coleman, R. 1981. Footpath erosion in the English Lake District. Applied Geography 1:121131. DeGraff, J.V. 1980. Reducing man-caused gully erosion. Rangelands 2(5):193-194. Donatti, P. 2003. A Arqueologia da Margem Norte do Lago Grande, Iranduba, Amazonas. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of So Paulo, So Paulo. Erickson, C. 2001. Pre-Columbian Roads of the Amazon. Expedition 43(2):21-30. Ghilardi, M., and S. Desruelles. 2009. Geoarchaeology: Where human, social and earth sciences meet with technology. SAPIENS 2(2):1-9. Guapindaia, V.L.C. 2008. Alm da Margem do Rio - A Ocupao Konduri e Poc na Regio de Porto Trombetas, PA. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of So Paulo, So Paulo. Haynes, G. 2012. Elephants (and Extinct Relatives) as Earth-movers and Ecosystem Engineers. Geomorphology 157-158:99-107. Heckenberger, M.J. 2005. The Ecology of Power: Culture, Place, and Personhood in the Southern Amazon, A.D. 1000-2000. New York: Routledge. Heckenberger, M.J., J.B. Petersen, and E.G. Neves. 1999. Village Size and Permanence in Amazonia: Two Archaeological Examples From Brazil. Latin American Antiquity 10(4):353-376.
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Heckenberger, M.J., A. Kuikuro, U.T. Kuikuro, J.C. Russell, M. Schmidt, C. Fausto, and B. Franchetto. 2003. Amazonia 1492: Pristine Forest or Cultural Parkland? Science 301:1710-1714. Heckenberger, M.J., J.C. Russell, J.R. Toney, and M.J. Schmidt. 2007. The Legacy of Cultural Landscapes in the Brazilian Amazon: Implications for Biodiversity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 362(B):197-208. Heckenberger, M.J., J.C. Russell, C. Fausto, J.R. Toney, M.J. Schmidt, E. Pereira, B. Franchetto, and A. Kuikuro. 2008. Pre-Columbian Urbanism, Anthropogenic Landscapes, and the Future of the Amazon. Science 321:1214-1217. Machado, J.S. 2005. A Formao de Montculos Artificiais: Um Estudo de Caso no Sitio Hatahara, Amazonas. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of So Paulo, So Paulo. Medina, J.T. 1934. The discovery of the Amazon according to the account of Friar Gaspar de Carvajal [1541]. New York: Dover Publications. Moraes, C.P. 2006. Arqueologia na Amaznia Central Vista de Uma Perspectiva da Regio do Lago do Limo. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, University of So Paulo, So Paulo. Neves, E.G. 2008. Ecology, Ceramic Chronology and Distribution, Long-term History, and Political Change in the Amazonian Floodplain. In: Handbook of South American Archaeology, pp. 359-379. H. Silverman, and W. Isbell, eds. New York: Springer. Nimuendaj, C. 1952. The Tapaj. Kroeber Anthropological Society Papers 6:1-25. Odemerho, F.O., and P.O. Sada. 1984. The role of urban surface characteristics on the extent of gullying in Auchi, Bendel State, Nigeria. Applied Geography 4:333-344. Rijsdijk, A., L.A.S. Bruijnzeel, and C.K. Sutoto. 2007. Runoff and sediment yield from rural roads, trails, and settlements in the Upper Konto Catchment, East Java, Indonesia. Geomorphology 87:28-37. Schmidt, M.J. 2010. Resconstructing Tropical Nature: Prehistoric and Modern Anthrosols (Terra Preta) in the Amazon Rainforest, Upper Xingu River, Brazil. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville. Schmidt, M.J. 2012. Formao de Stios Arqueolgicos na Amaznia: Estudos Pedoarqueolgicos e Topogrficos. Belm: Museu Paraense Emlio Goeldi. Schmidt, M. J., M. Castro, M. Brito, and E.G. Neves. 2007. Report of Activities, Sitio Laguinho, Projeto Amazonia Central Field School, July 15th to August 15th 2007 . So Paulo: Projeto Amaznia Central, Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia, University of So Paulo. Schmidt, M.J., J. Aires, C.A. Barbosa, V. Martins, and V. Guapindaia. 2008. Landscape Archaeology in the Region of the Confluence of the Trombetas and Amazon Rivers: Report of Activities 2006-2007. Belem: Projeto Trombetas, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi. Sheets, P. 2009. When the Construction of Meaning Preceded the Meaning of Construction: From Footpaths to Monumental Entrances in Ancient Costa Rica. In: Landscapes of Movement: Trails, Paths, and Roads in Anthropological Perspective, pp. 158-179. J. Snead, C. Erickson, and A. Darling, eds. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Snead, J., C. Erickson, and A. Darling, eds. 2009. Landscapes of Movement: Trails, Paths, and Roads in Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Thornbush, M.J. 2012. Archaeogeomorphology as an Application in Physical Geography. Applied Geography 34:325-330. Wallin, T.R., and C.P. Harden. 1996. Estimating Trail-related Soil Erosion in the Humid Tropics: Jatun Sacha, Ecuador, and La Selva, Costa Rica. Ambio 25(8):517-522.

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