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341: Discrete-Time Signal Processing OpenCourseWare 2006 Lecture 7 IIR, FIR Filter Structures
If we draw the signal ow graph of this N th-order system by cascading a feedforward section and a feedback section, we obtain its Direct Form I structure shown in OSB Figure 6.14. Note that the feedforward section determines the zeros of the transfer function, while the feedback section gives the poles. Interchanging the order of the feedforward and feedback sections and combining the delay elements give the Direct Form II structure shown in OSB Figure 6.15. Since delay elements correspond to physical memories in actual implementation, direct form II structures require less state memory than the direct form I implementation. However, the total memory requirement for both forms are similar, because direct form II structures need more cache memory during computations.
Transposed Forms
Using signal ow graphs, we can transform a given system into a dierent network structure while maintaining the same system function. One such transformation is transposition. Transposition Theorem 1. Reverse direction of all branches 2. Interchange input and output For single-input single-out systems, interchanging the input and output nodes after reversing the ow graph gives the same transfer function as the original system. OSB Examples 6.7 and 6.8, and OSB Figures 6.24-6.30 illustrate transposition of basic systems. Although the transfer functions remain the same, dierent network structures represent dierent algorithms, which are equivalent under ideal innite precision arithmetic. With nite precision arithmetic, the implementation structure determines internally generated noise which aects the overall system behavior.
Cascade Form
Rather than deriving the signal ow graph directly from the system function as in the direct form cases, we could also factor the denominator and numerator of the system transfer function into rst-order and second-order subsystems: H (z ) =
Ns b0k + b1k z 1 + b2k z 2 . 1 a1k z 1 a2k z 2
k=1
OSB Figure 6.18 is an example of the resulting cascade structure. This is a sixth-order system with direct form II realization for each of its second-order subsystems.
Parallel Form
Equivalently, expressing the transfer function as a sum using partial fraction expansion gives a parallel structure: Np Ns e0k + e1k z 1 H (z ) = Ck z k + . 1 a1k z 1 a2k z 2
k=0 k=1
OSB Figure 6.20 shows a parallel form structure for a sixth-order system. See Section 6.3 for a more detailed explanation.
Direct Form
A causal FIR system described by the following dierence equation has all of its poles at the the origin: M y [n] = bk x[n k ] .
k=0
As such, its direct form I & II implementations reduce to the ow graph shown in OSB Figure 6.31. Such a structure is usually called a tap-delay line lter structure or a transversal lter structure. Furthermore, applying the transposition theorem gives the equivalent system in OSB Figure 6.32. Note that these are non-recursive, ie. there is no feedback. The implementation of FIR systems, nonetheless, is not necessarily always nonrecursive, since pole-zero cancellation may exist.
n=0
This equation suggests the realization shown in OSB Figure 6.34. Similarly, structures can be derived for type II, III and IV systems. See OSB Figure 6.35 for an example of a type III system where the order M is odd.
Lattice Filters
We have previously shown that a single-input single-output (SISO) system can be implemented by cascading SISO direct-form structured subsystems. In this section, we show another pos sible implementation, called lattice lters, where the subsystems are two-port LTI systems of particular forms. The overall cascade is converted to the required SISO form by terminating both ends according to lter type specic rules. All-zero (FIR) Lattice Filters the basic two-port section in an FIR lattice lter has the following non-recursive buttery signal ow graph structure:
For the overall system, the input is fed into the two input ports of the rst stage, while the output is taken as that of the top branch of the last stage:
The coecients k1 , k2 , . . . , kp+1 are called the k -parameters of the lattice structure. If the input s[n] is a unit impulse, it can be shown that the intermediate transfer functions in this FIR lattice lter satisfy the following recursive equations:
A0 (z ) = 1 B0 (z ) = z 1
Algorithms exist for analyzing an FIR lattice lter to obtain its transfer function, or con structing an FIR lattice structure (ie. calculating the k-parameters) from a given rational system function. These will be studied later in this course. All-pole Lattice Filters Given the structure of an all-zero lattice lter as discussed in the previous section, by successively reversing each lattice section, we can obtain an all-pole lattice lter. The signal ow graph for a reversed lattice section is
We have scaled all signals by AM (z ) because assuming the input is at the p + 1 = M -th stage and the output is at p = 0, setting Ap+1 (z ) = AM (z ), and A0 (z ) = 1 gives the desired A0 (z ) . The following gure shows the overall structure of an all-pole lattice lter. all-pole lter: A M (z ) Note since B0 (z ) = z 1 , the bottom branch of the nal lattice section should be connected to the top branch.
An important property of all-pole lattice lters is that the systems are stable if and only if all of the k-parameters have magnitudes less than 1, ie. |ki | < 1 for all i.
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