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OF TIIK
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
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Accessions No. ??-
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Shelf No.
A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION
TO
GREEK AND
LATIN.
By WILLIAM
By WILLIAM
Crown
8vo.
Cloth, price
4.?.
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology Yale College, New Haven. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 55. Copyright Edition. Volume XVI. of the International
Life
Crown
8vo.
ENGLISH
GRAMMAR FOR
BEGINNERS.
in English," etc.
LONDON:
CO.
FOR STUDENTS.
FERDINAND BAUR,
Professor in Maulbronn.
DR.
PH.,
C.
KEGAN PAUL,
AND
E.
M.A., OXON,
M.A.,
D.
STONE,
Assistant-Master at Eton
LONDON:
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, & CO., PATERNOSTER SQUARE
I
AND
VINEY, PRINTERS.
reserved.)
PREFACE.
THE
translators
of the following
little
treatise
The only
liberty
they have
taken
is
that
of
breaking up the
in
German
sentences,
and
thus
some degree
less difficult
now
of easiness.
English equivalents
German
renderings.
The
translators'
best thanks
Rev. A.
for
H. SAYCE
valuable
W. Cox
many
CONTENTS.
I.
Origin of Language
II.
of Language
.
4
6
7
III.
Divisions of Philology
IV.
Classes
V.
VI.
.....
.
VOWELS.
in
.
VII.
VIII.
Analysis of
Sounds
'
J?
.
II
Changes of Vowels
.-
.12
.
*
IX.
14
CONSONANTS.
. .
.
.
X.
XI.
XII.
17
18
,
20
viii
Content*.
PAGS
'
SECTION
'
XIII.
Etymolu-y
.*
V>
21
XIV.
Consonantal Change in the Indo-Germanic Languages Consonantal Relation between Greek and Latin
23
XV.
25
MUTES.
K. T.
II.
I.
TENUES.
XVI.
The
c, q,
and H. G. and E. h
/,
27
XVII.
Gothic
..
th, II.
'
G. d,
.
tmdE.t
XVIII.
tti,t.
II,
30
The
Labial Tenuis
Latin/
for this
H. G. and
.
.
31
XIX.
Change
K,
II,
....
g
t
.
34
2.
MEDIALS.
T. A. B.
XX.
The
Gothic kt English k
'
...
t
37
XXI.
German z English t
.
38
41
XXII.
3.
ASPIRATES X. 9. $.
Aspirate
9 ,
XXIII.
The
Guttural
X, corresponding to the
Latin k,
in the beginning of a
word
.
g,
.
Gothic g
42
Contents.
SECTION
ix
PAGE
account of the want
XXIV.
The Dental
Aspirate 6.
On
d and
b in
the body of
Gothic
<!?,
d,
German
/,
English
to
45
XXV. The
Labial
Aspirate
corresponding
the
b,
Latin/
= M, at
the beginning of a
b
.
.
word
v
in
.
46
LIQUIDS.
49
50
51
XXVII.
Labial Liquid
/
XX VIII.
XXIX. The
Lingual Liquid P. r
53
2.
ORIGINAL SPIRANTS.
Sibilant
(SPIRITUS ASPER).
its
f.
JOD.
XXX. The
XXXI. The
and
Substitute the
Rough
.
Breathing
Labial, Semi- Vowel Spirant
z>,
56
f,
correspond-
sporadically represented
by
of a word
.60
Semi- Vowel Spirant Jod has
dis-
XXXII.
The
Palatal,
appeared in Greek,
Latin/, English
y,
and
is
retained as the
.
.61
,
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
Laws
of Sound
'
....
'
*'
63 63
the Ending
.;
,'.'
.
[
68
Contents.
PART
SECTION
II.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
Roots and
their
Formation
70
Reduplication
Marks and
Peculiarities of the
.
Root
.'
',
v. .
"'
.
74 76
78
Stems of Words
(i)
(2)
XXXIX.
XL.
Verbal Stems
v ."..',
.
.
Participle
..
and
.
*
Infinitive
81
XLI.
XLII.
83 85
The Word
".
,.
87
I.
..'...
. .
.
....
.
88 89
Signs of Gender
Declensions
..
90
.
XLVII.
Case-endings
>
91
XLV 1 1 1.
XLIX.
.97
.
'
..
99
II.
Elements
ioi
Contents.
I.
xi
PERSONAL ENDINGS.
PAGE
SECTION
LI.
Primary
and
Secondary
,
Personal
'
Endings.
Augment.
LIT.
Imperative
v
...
,
.
.
IO3
105
LIII.
Greek Middle-Passive
Latin Middle- Passive
LIV.
,112
2.
MODAL ELEMENTS.
.
LV.
LVI.
113
.115
3.
TENSE-STEMS.
.
LVII.
117
(i)
SIMPLE TENSE-STEMS.
Perfect
LVIIL
LIX.
and Pluperfect
.
-
.119
122
125 127
LX.
LXI.
LXII.
V
.
'
Greek Imperfect
134
(2)
COMPOUND TENSE-STEMS.
GREEK COMPOUND TENSES.
Aorist.
A.
LXIII.
Compound
'
Weak
.
or Sigmatic (so-called
. .
First
')
Aorist
..
135
LXIV.
..
137
LXV.~The Compound
Weak Greek
Perfect
and Plu.
perfect, together
140
141
LXVL
The Greek
xii
B.
Contents.
SECTION
LXVIL Summary
LXVIIL Weak
LXIX.
*,."
.
'-*
.
H3
Latin Perfect
/ *
.
.144
,
146
LXX.
LXXI.
LXXII.
v
.
Imperfect Indicative
./..
.
:
..
148
149
Imperfect Conjunctive
150
The
E.
English.
H. G.
O. E.
High German.
Old English.
Old
Old
Latin.
O. L. G.
Skr.
Low German.
O. G.
Old German.
Sanskrit
A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION
i.
T ANGUAGE
J
It is
^
thought
thought vocalized.
art,
no work of human
but a product
it
has originated
<vo-ei,
not
decree,.
origin of lan-
rataplan,
it
to
(ft)
arising
cries
Reason and language are inseparable. Without language, there is no reason; without reason, there is no
I
An
and
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
no
language.
definite
no
articulate
sounds except such as are intimately connected with definite conceptions and ideas. Thought which can be
grasped
ceptions
is
Words and
con-
each other,
2.
true whether
we
The phonetic
A number of phonetic
sions
pression,
becomes a
all.
From an
selection
is
unlimited
number of such
possible concep-
made
becomes the
sign of
some
one conception or object essential to human life. The process by which these are selected is instinctive and
rational,
of language ; and to discover them is the goal and result of philology. They form, for us, the irreducible residuum
of linguistic analysis, or, in other words, that which cannot be further explained.
3.
originally impressions
These elementary phonetic types or roots represent on the senses, and convey concrete
of ideas, which, though wide and general, and may extremely
signs
material meanings.
are
The same
objects
some
idea being connected with a variety of all such concrete, others abstract objects
a general category.
IKKOS,
example, equus, LOTTOS, anciently from the root ac, sharp or quick, a$vas, pared with, acus, a needle.
Sanskrit
may
be com-
had
originally material
concrete meanings,
and
are borrowed
of sense.
Thus compare avc/xos, animus ; spiritus, spirare; 0v/xo<, 0i'o), / boil; cutov, aevum, time, which last originally came
from the root
/,
to go.
Metaphor
is
the
it
transference of a
name from
the
object to which
properly belongs to
other objects
This
is
is
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
II.
1.
elements of language.
;
meaning they contain no intelligible principle. Lingual sound only can be analysed in them, not language
itself.
The
full
of significance, or complex sounds, the so-called roots, or " exponents of conceptions/' Through the union of
these,
whether
Complete lingual sound, however, as exhibited in one any language, expresses two things (a) Meaning, that is to say, perceptions, ideas, and
2.
conceptions.
(/?)
lies
beyond,
radical,
Complete lingual sound then contains a material, or and a formal element, a predicative and a
;
demonstrative root
and
work
only,
and
principle of relation
is
abstracted
from a given word-form, are roots, in the narrow sense of the word. Roots are tne indivisible atoms of Ian-
Formation of Words.
which cannot further be analysed. But the word, the complete form of language, is composed of meaning and relation, predicative and demonstrative
t>.e
The
root
and
analysis
of language moves.
The
If
on
we
a pure abstraction
It
is,
therefore, not
used by
itself in
On
considered synthetically,
origin through all its phases and an It existed for itself in original word. changes, the creative period of language it is a real living germ,
is
;
new
shoots.
But when words are formed, whatever is added to the root as an affix, was itself, originally, an independent,
self-existent word.
It has<\coalesced with the root as its
suffix, in virtue of the innate
and
letters.
3.
The word
is
complete and independent perception. It allows this perception to appear either as an existing entity or as
an incident of time, as a noun or as a verb. The noun and the verb are both, for
original forms of lingual expression.
us,
equally
In
itself,
however,
An
Introduction
to
The
root,
considered abstractedly,
is
not concerned
of
elements of language, and thus out of the universality its meanings it gradually assumes nominal and verbal
;
expression
noun and
verb.
verb
that
is
to say
all
inflexions,
4.
lies
which remains
verb
it
has in
itself,
more rela-
and
is
more definite
conceptions.
Thus
then
The word
may be
and stem
Sec.
38,
2,
three elements
the Root,
Stem,
the
Inflexion.
III.
THE
DIVISIONS OF PHILOLOGY.
is
The
as
its
originally phy-
elements.
Divisions of Philology.
It is
are
its
guage and the laws of sound. The science of sound treats these laws as
ary part,
the
its
element-
and thus
science of sound
Glottology,
form
Grammar.
latter,
considered generally, in the widest sense of the science of lingual form, is in part the science of
root
The
word
formation or inflexion.
IV.
1.
Isolating
These consist of
mere
roots.
There
is
in
them no
difference
between root and word, or between noun and verb; Such is every word is a root ; there are no inflexions.
Old Chinese.
2.
Agglutinative languages.
roots
grow
independence, and remains unaltered by phonetic decay. The others constitute a dependent
affix,
is
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
thus a conglomerate
The word
Such
is
is
without
guages.
strict unity.
3.
Inflexional languages,
the steps.
The
is
root
by
2, 2, ft.
The
root
The
(a)
A regular change
The
strictly limited
sively at the
in the
form of
suffixes.
To
reduplications, of which
(y)
more
hereafter.
That
all their
V.
here used in
its
widest sense.]
The
original
is
of which
inferred from
languages
divides into,
Aryan
1.
The
Asiatic or
its
Aryan group,
here used in
(a)
was afterwards the written language Sanskrit. This was the elder sister and not the parent of
the other languages of the family.
(/3)
The
Eran
Iranian languages.
is
The word
Iran
or
old Bactrian or
Zend (East
the
and old
The
Greek, Italian
Keltic.
including Latin,
3.
The
Slavo-Lithuanian
and German, this last including Gothic, Low German and English, High German and Scandinavian.
VI.
i.
The
a link in
Western Europe. It is further removed from the original Indo-Germanic language than is the old Indian, but is
nearer to
it
than
is
Sanskrit, Greek,
sisters,
mood
forms.
io
2.
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
The Greek
forms, as
we
find
them
in classical authors,
have arisen through phonetic decay, through degradation and mutilation of an older and fuller form. They have
gone through a series of processes of paring and decomposition, by which the meaning of the language is refined
same proportion as are its forms. Its historical development, at the same time, lies under the physical law of vis inertia. The original simple and fundamental
in the
3.
The sounds
so far as the
in
much
Greek.
Compare,
fcoT/u/u,
Sanskrit vas ;
CTTTOI,
Skr. katvaras ;
vc'os,
novus,
Skr. navas ;
ITTTTOS,
nearly
virus etc.
)
On
is monotonous and weak, in comparison with the manifold development and subtle divisions of the Greek vowel It is poor in diphthongs, and original old Latin system.
PART L
THE SCIENCE OF SOUND. GLOTTO LOGY.
I.
VOWELS.
VII.
1.
The
first
The Indo-Germanic fundamental vowels are a, i, u of these, made by opening the lips as widely
is
as possible,
clear
The last two, made by conmore and more the tracting opening of the lips, are weak and fluid, nearly related to the semi-vowels /, or
transition into consonants.
jod,
and/ or vau. [N.B. The letter/ is retained throughout the following pages because of necessity so printed in Latin words. It answers, however, to the sound of the
English yJ\ These fundamental vowels are originally short, and
The diphthongs ai and au are made by the combination of the hard a with the weak / and u.
elements.
2.
A
ot,
was
first
0,
ferentiated into a,
Then
<u
;
and
connected with
cv
av.
12
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
to
a,
77,
From
a,
c, o,
w, there
arose
other spurious diphthongs from the combination of these hard vowels with i. These had a/ sound, which is now
wholly
lost,
iota subscript a,
7;,
a>.
Others
;
dv,
rp, cm;
dv
3.
ci ;
The old Latin diphthongs were au, ou, en ; ai, which were modified into the single sounds o, u;
Compare Claudius
:
oi,
ae,
oe, e, 1.
Clodius ; jous
-jus ;
Lucius
Aermos
aquai
;
poena
punio
foedus ; hoi
hi;
vinum ;
OIKOS
vicus ;
am em
VIII.
i.
CHANGES OF VOWELS.
original
A-Series.
The
from
a vanishes
in the
TrtTTTco
TrtTTCTco
7TCT = pat /
altogether, as in
from ycv
It is
= gan.
into
/,
:
weakened or thinned
to-^t,
consonants
the root
cs
connected with
Icrrtr]
asdhi from
cori'a,
as ;
Vesta
from vas
us in uro
uso ;
j
LTTTTOS,
Sec.
7TtTV77/Xt
- 7TTaVW/X.l
rtKTw
6,3;
TTtAl/a^ttt, TTtXl/aO)
Ktpny/xt
TTcXa^O)
\
((TKCLTr)
tr/Ct/XTTTO),
l/<TKt/X7TT(0, II.
XVII. 437
tak.
TTccrcti/
-/^/,
/^z//
TCK,
and
compounds:
facto 9 conficio,
compare Juppiter.
Changes of Vowels.
It
is
13
= admi,
from
apx*
o/x,ai
from
c8
sed= sad ;
FLKO.TL
into o
;
: TroSo's
pad ;
ayKwv
cucoo-i
=
;
^Eol.
6/jtov.
aKpts
o/cpis
op^a/xos
oy*os
a/A
The
original
A.a/2
;
is
retained in
OKCOKT;
(*w)
ayo>
(ag)
Aa//,j9av<0
TrarT/p,
Stem
:
Trarcp,
patar.
crepes
;
a and
ITC/AOV
;
are interchanged
Tpe<<o erpa<t>ov
;
in arcpos Dor.
era/xov
icrciva) (KTCV/'CO)
:
eKravov, Kravoi.
o,
Gradual changes.
First stage
:
to
especially in the
</>opos
^
lon.-Att.
form gradually
;
descended from a) ; XtXrjOa, \y6rj from Xa^ from fay ctA^a from Xa^ ctA.r/<a from Xay5.
; ;
laya,
oyya
Compare
Second
TTTWO-OTCO,
d,
r;
to
Ippwya,
prjywfju.,
fpay
Trra/c
;
TTTW,
dpwyos,
TTTaxTKa^cD
rpaiyo),
II.
IV. 372
j
TTTT/cra-a)
dpr/yco
erpayov
dfCWKTy,
WKVS from
d/<
in
a/c?y,
aKpos.
Com=fall
pare a^V^,
J^r /
I-Series.
is
in
imasi,
go ;
is
eXiTrov
,
from
ITTI^OV
from
The
ortx o?
t ;
first
-
stage
into
J / el/ is
orct^o),
ot/u,os
o-rt^ in
c7/xt,
The second
XIV.
stage
>
into ot
from
otSa
is
ciSai.
ctScw
connected with
235, as tSma
*
con-
= wr/xev
tS/x,ei/,
5t8
a[Wi/3r}
d/At)8(o.
Compare
infzdus, foeincus,
vlnum,
otvos
Fotvos.
14
3.
An
Introduction
to
U-Series.
////
in
o-v,
///,
originally
.//<gv
:
fvyoV, yV/g<cvyo>,
in
The
first
stage
is
into cu
TTW.
cvywp,i,
pu, 7rvcu/xa
The second
;
stage
is
;
\vO
cAcvcro/xat
c 1X77X0 v#a
<rirov&rj
o-TrcuSa)
<o
:
connected with o-cvopu, root o-u ; or into == faxrr?7p, from the root ^v ^vy in ^vyw^L
;
<oi/-
from
^eto
= x*Fa> = x c^ w
>
ot
u<
Compare /$,
,
7^<f, bond=.jous,
jus,
fromju =jug= v vy, to bind, \njungo ; soup =jous, from ju = fu, to mix, in
<?^^,
uro
from
us,
compare
evw, cvco,
singe.
IX.
i.
affected
by the
original
Indo-
Germanic spirants j,
v, s,
Sec.
n.
and hence,
/into
t
:
nominaltoi/,
comparative-suffix
;
origi-
stem T^IQV
O-stems
optative-
element
it]
from ja
ctrjv
cor/V/v
cq/'^/x,
= asjam ;
Z/
<no>
:
from
&x>,
cr/w,
Trpa^to)
8fa>,
7rpayor/a>.
to v
vowel
^w^
=
=
^/W / x 6^'
wveiJai
II.
-^ol.,
from X*^,
dftfax
;
x1
^?
7n/r
d.
;
>
XIII. 41
tavw from
ravafTro
cr/bfiai
raXavptvo?.
to
SO
also
<^>evfotJ/xat ;
compare
(b) /,
KCV/'O?,
o-rcpcos, fjvoptrj.
t,
v before con-
Changes of Vowels.
sonants
Xatva
:
t,
15
in KTiVo>=KTi//a>
J
; //,c-
= av/a
SO again
(jiuLKaipa,
,
SCCTTTOT-
abdomen
Soretpa,
Tcpewi
Kpcicnrtov
icpcr/cov
t is epena doubled power of // it affects the consonant, which becomes a mixed sound, Sec. 34, 3, and at
y/,
o-o-
thetic, or is
t into the preceding syllable ; from <ovos, connected with </>otvos II. compare <otVios XVI. 159- V F yowds = yovFos from ydi/v, yowa,
'
the
ovXos, Ion.
= oXfos,
0X09, salvus^
= cXavfw;
whence
it
compare nervus,
vcvpov.
j disappear,
<f>tprj
fjLV<ros j
CTCTT,
ctryv from
CCT/T/V
CITTO/XT/V
from
from
epTro)
CTT
=
FCTT.
o-cpTra).
CITTOI/,
=
co),
efcpy;
cfefcTroi/,
redupl. aor.
from the
ao>
root
y, in so-called
a/o),
/o>, q/(o.
contracted verbs in
cw
from
2.
syllable
the
loss
of
/^oo-tX^os, To/djos,
= ySao-tXefos, vafos,
= TroXc/bs, Attic TrdXews of v in Ionic from ^Eolic fcwos = Doric Attic eVos of ^etvos, = = = v before rovs TOV? c^cpovcri <^>epovTt <j>ipov<n
Homeric
7rdX?;os
;
^ei/fos,
^
<r
TTCI?
rt/x^?, II.
is
of
cr
ct/xt
from
eV/u,
connected
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
compound
cvc/xcra
;
c/x/xi,
t/xat=eo-/Aat
X,
/A,
i/,
in the
o/ci/^a
aor.
when
(r
disappears after
c^i/a
in
eoretXa
crreX<ra, crreX
orcXXco
= orcX/co,
assimilation of the
cKaOapa
in the
;
nomin.
singul.
Trareps
;
when
disappears
TTOI/X^V
= TTOI^CVS
Trarrjp
Compare
cadtum
/<^f
/#&
; abies, abietis ;
compare
agio ;
hand, stimulus,
connected with
instlgare,
from J//g/
syllable
rots
The sound of t was introduced into when the word ended in en in the
:
the preceding
dat. plur. rats,
tost,
from
rato-i, roto-t,
o-i ;
lon.-Ep.
Trjo-i,
=tast,
pronoun-
stem
ta, suff.
in 2 pers. sing.
<epee,s
</>epco-t,
4.
after p
and X:
6peyo>
con-
nected with opy in opywa; dpT/yw from dp/c apa/c in dp/<eo) ; Tapacroro) from the root Tpa^, Tcrpr^a rpa^vs ; ^Xv^ov or
^A0ov;
5.
dXefco,
dX in
dXaX/ceti/;
compare
/xoXvySo? plumbum
vowel was prefixed occasionally before one, oftener before more than one, consonant: a<rraxvs
s>
do-TT^p
)
Stella,
root
II.
o-rop, ^/^r,
d<Xoi07/,09
>
XV.
607,
weak ;
lyvvri,
poples,
XIII. 212,
;
liquid,
H. G. braue; E. brow; i^Qis, \6^ before simple and nasal letters: d/xwo) /XWT;, d/^aXo? ^^taXa/co?,
ea,
ci/vcfa,
i?^w,
j/
Greek Consonants.
prefixed
;
17
oyu
unguis,
H. G.
ructare ;
dpao-cra), pr)(rcrw
tpwij, pcoo/xat
opeyw, rcgo ;
before f:
/oy<o,
cpcn;,
fepoTy,
cepoT;
fpa^,
or
before
8vpo/xat
;
II.
XXIII. 598;
;
Sec.
2o
LKO<ri,
cfeucoo-i,
etKocri, {[KCLTI
ceSvov,
connected with
6Saf,
ISvov,
;
FcSvov;
gutturals
080^9,
:
SoKva)
oSvpo/xat,
before
labials
II.
CONSONANTS.
X. THE GREEK CONSONANTAL
The consonants
fall
by
that
is
to say,
is
momentary or
These
These
classes are,
K,y,,\; Dentals, T,
their harder or
8,
Labials,
TT,
<.
(b)
According to
weaker pronun-
ciation or degree of sound, into Tenues, i/aAa=" without a breathing," *, T, IT ; Medials, or weak, y, 8, (3 ; Aspirates,
or mutes with a breathing added, x 6, <. These last do not exist in Latin, and are designated as foreign sounds
by
ck,
th,ph (on
</>
= /j
%
Sec.
u,
4).
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
(a) Liquids,
These are
and are
dental,
/x,
partly
nasal,
also a labial
(b) Spirants
'
and
<r s.
Sibilants, breathing
and
hissing sounds,
(h\ p
(v),
To
7T<r,
(ss),
= ks) (x
=
\l/
ps,
80-.
XI.
1.
J,
Germanic languages,
and
now
effects.
i
;
It is
9,
sometimes
assimilated,
Sec.
34,
some-
ic
disappears altogether in
and
2.
V is
retained as
f,
that
to say, in the
Doric and
find
it
^Eolic dialects.
the
In the
later language, as
we
in
Homeric
text, the
digamma becomes an
is
it
aspirate
at the beginning of
t/>ta,
a word, or
altogether absorbed,
is
ayw/xt.
019
sometimes
absorbed,
ovis,
vcos
novus,
1/1709
=
J,
i/??fos ;
somej/avs,
\_y
9,
-as
;
in
/3ovs,
Zcv9,
compare
Jov, Sec.
sometimes
Spirants
and Aspirates.
i,
19
or
it is
oSAos
6Xfos,
yowa; compare
syllabic
Sec. 9,
i,
b.
its
= v,
survives in
effects,
eayiy,
the
eon/ov/^v,
influence
syllable,
Homeric poems. In these both in the quantity of the preceding and in the elision. In this latter case, howis felt
ever,
some wavering may be noticed between the older for example, in avaf and dialects
Digammated words originally made the preceding syllable long by position II. I. 108; IV. 18, 214; V. 7, 836; XIII. 495; XVI. 502; Od. IX. 196; XIV. 479; long vowels at the end of a word
remained long before
it
II.
III.
392
VI. 91
VIII.
Od. X. 510;
XL
108; XVIII.
II.
XXI. 405
161,
I.
757; IX. 40; XV. 288; XVI. 178, XXI. 424; 309, and there was instead only an apparent 462; V.
elision.
3.
The
original s remains
mutes.
into h,
9, i, c,
At
the beginning of a
it
word
is
it is
usually
changed
The
original spirants
their
alteration, assimilation,
cause
remarkable
2O
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
peculiarity of
<r s.
original sounds,
So also does
v,
preceding vowel, Sees. 9, 2 ; 34, 7. In Latin, s, between vowels and at the end of a word,
Lases, eram from simply changed into r : Lares arbor esam 9 erit '-estt, quaero arbos ; it disquaeso, in of a word the middle before m, ;z, /, d, appears
is
compare cano, Camena (Casmena), connected with car?nen, at the end idem^ and between vowels, diet, spei, Sec. 47
;
47,
and
after
#, r, sol, vigil)
puer,
leo
Icons.
4.
Greek
;
is
Sec. 34, 5
9;
their place
is
taken by the
corresponding breath-sounds.
aspirate
0,
we have
25.
word
used
simply f, Sec.
This
is
ph
bh* and
often
for
dh and gh.
<,
Only
25.
Sees.
<j>
22
between
XII.
i.
29.
as
it
Consonants are the stable element, the skeleton, were, of language, which remains generally the
all
same through
This
is
true
Consonants in relation
to Philology.
21
changes
2.
These occur
in the tran-
word formation.
These laws
in
to laws.
3.
to the consonantal
change of
sound
Jndo-Germanic language
The
first
is
the last
is
the
scientific
etymology.
XIII
i.
ETYMOLOGY.
is
Etymology
is
knowledge of the
22
true
An
and
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
a word in conformity with its derivation, and the tracing it down from its stem-word and root-word.
original signification of
does not merely show by analysis that a word is generally derived from one which is more original and
It
simple,
that
is
to say
from a root
but, starting
from
word
its
synthetically
and
genetically,
through
all
several languages,
another of those
has been
which are
related.
into another
It
the regular
law
of
phonetic
change.
laws or analogies which regulate and direct the consonantal changes of sound in the history of language.
2.
as well as of the
Therefore the identity or resemblance of the sound, meaning of two words, are only of sub-
Words
be
scientific analysis to
ventus,
vestis.
Sec.
31;
as,
and
for
of wholly
TrwrrcD
different
peto, Sec.
meaning,
1 8,
example,
esculent
Trero/Aeu
37,
<?7yos,
the
oakfagus,
the beech.
The
last is
an example
of the
which a word may alter its meaning by change of language, time, and country. In the development of language the successive changes
way
in
Grimnfs Law.
3.
23
But through
all
remains unaltered in
stantly
its
These con-
language with words and conceptions, but can be arbitrarily added to them. whatever nothing The observation of these changes of form and meaning
enrich the
is
is
able
XIV.
Almost the
Germanic languages
common
roots
made
in
and
labial
language.
1.
2.
Gothic, with
English.
3.
These
24
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
:
the middle
and
at the
end of words
pressed
i.
Where
there
is
a tenuis,
/,/, in the
first
stage of
development
stage
second
in the
is
by
and
third stage
The medial
in
O. H. G.
b.
2.
Where
b
&
occur in the
first
stage,
their place
g,
d,
and
0?/p,
in the third
Ovydrrjp
;
by tenues,
/,
/.
Compare
But instead
b often
Sec. 24,
-frag.
g and
;
remain in H. G.
compare
<v
Sec. 23,
^;
/.
becomes changeable
occur in the
into
3.
When
medials, g, d,
b,
first stage,
the
compare
Sa/cpv,
Sec.
21
duco,
ts,
n,
4,
and Sec.
15, as well as
to
some extent
also in Gothic
The
2$
XV.
The
and
ditioned by
1.
By
/,
/,
With
this is closely
guttural tenuis k in Latin into the guttural tenuis with a labial secondary sound ; that is to say into qu kv,
which often
fact that c
= k.
This qu
is
from k to /,
in
the want of a proper aspirate in Latin, Sec. In the place of the Greek aspirates, x, 0, <, the corresponding breath-sounds are used in the beginning of
By
ii, 4.
middle of a word
a word, often/, or even the medial, for x and 0. In the d and b are found in the place of 0.
For examples,
Sees. 23
25.
3. By the tendency of the Greek language to dispense with spirants, and the entire absence of the spirant /,
26
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
n,
i.
effect,
Sec.
is,
on
the contrary, very prevalent in Latin, both in the beginning and in the body of a word, as in the root jug, and
in ajo, major.
It
often however
cojuncti ;
deicit
deficit;
obex,
= objex,
objicis ;
minor
minjor.
4.
By
may
3
;
rough breathing at the beginning of a word, though it also pass into the smooth breathing, Sees, n,
30.
On the other hand, s is changed into r between and at the end of a word in Latin, Sec. n, 3. vowels, H. G. war, waren = was, wasen; E. was, were; Compare
H. G.
kiiren
= kiusen ;
E. choose.
5.
By
This was a
was frequently weakened into vowels in the body of a word, as in the diphthongs au and ou, and disappeared altogether between vowels.
half-vowel,
and
as such
But
it
remained
it
at the beginnings of
words
in Latin,
n,
By
31.
6.
/.
lacrima ; lingua
=
;
Sa*pv
zunge,
odor,
H. G.
E. tongue ;
o8a>8a
;
'OSvo-crevs
levtr ; olor
silva
1877
for the
change of ft
compare conversely adeps dXei^xo ; and g, ft and v, ft and /, see Sec. 22.
Root Consonants.
7.
27
By
words in the two languages. Compare lact and yaXa yaAa/cr, Sec. 35.
example
lac
as the elements of
In the following chapters the consonants are arranged Greek and Latin roots and words,
which partly remain unchanged, and partly change in the passage from one realm of language to another, according
to
known
laws.
A survey
is
made
common
of Greek.
analysis.
to two or
cording to
more Indo- Germanic languages, acthe classes of consonants arranged on the basis
This
is
MUTES,
K. T.
II.
TENUES.
XVI.
Latin
corresponding to
q, g, Gothic,
H. G. and
E. h.
aK
OK?;,
Doric
veafoys,
dpK
dX/c
apKios,
dp^ya),
Sec.
9,
4\
aXicij,
dXoAKctv, dA.^a)
of hurdles or sheep-folds.
I 2.
K O CT
FlKOO-l
= SflKCKTl,
^Eolic FiKOTLj
viglflti,
K a T 6 v, centum ; Gothic
huna ; E. hundred.
28
F
An
K
Introduction to Greek
aCKCDV
and Latin.
CK^X
CKOn>,
(ZKWV, CKIJTl,
dc/O/Tl,
invltus *= invic(i)tus ?
K v p o s,
for
<rf,
ftta?r
as
flK
I,
fc
<rfc, JZtf,
iK
II.
COlKtt, flKnrjV,
(from a prCSCnt
;
CIKO)
?)
XVIII. 520,
cto-Ko)
causative, ctKa<o
tKcXos, ct/ccXos,
XXI I.
336,
dctK7ys, /xcvoct/o;?,
FlK
IKnjp, tKCT^CTtO?,
l/c
TrpotWo/xai
IK/XCVOS.
Ka^apd K a
K a
t
s, KaOaLpd)
i,
casttlS
^//^
= Cddtus.
re.
with locative
see below
;
Sec. 19, 3.
dassis, clamare.
K a
TT
KWTH;
capw^ capulum ;
KCKtt^WS,
/
H. G. and
E.
//d[/?,
^^/?.
tt 7T
KttTTVW,
77
/CttTTI/OS.
Kd
TT
X o s,
<rtf///0
shifting
word
is
/cap a,
cerebrum;
;
H. G. him.
(coni), cordajus,
KapS
vecors ;
<r^r
Kav
Kai^/xcvat,
II.
Kavo"a,
Kai'co,
Kavyuia,
K^Xov
XV. 744
II.
;
K^wSiy
XXI.
364.
KeX^s, KcX^rt^o)
II.
XV. 679
^/fr, Celeres ;
Sec. 19.
<
a X 17;
r^////, cctpillus;
Gothic haubith; H. G.
E. head.
Root Consonants.
K
i
29
;
KCI
Kt/x,ai, Kcarai,
Kearo,
//ir,
quiesco,
KtO),
avis ;
H. G. helm ;
j
E. ^0;#s.
#0,
/<?<?,
K K K K
KIWI/,
//.TKia#OV, K(,V0)
CltUS*
\a
/cXaco,
K\aSo5, /cX^pos.
/cXt/xa, KXlfjiat;,
Xt \v
fcXtW,
fcXvco,
K\LTVS
/cXvros,
^r/7^,
xXeos
/cXefos,
c^Xco
II.
XXIV. 202;
H. G.
K
PI.
inclutus,
cliens,
= gloria
dosia
(?)
hint, laut ; E.
/^^.
;
Xv
KXva>, KXvSwi/
lauter.
clueOy
G. hlutar,
Ko
KoXovco, KoXos
K07TTO), KO7TOS
;
incolumis.
KOTT
fatigUC
= Striking
doWH,
Gothic haunjan
KOCT
H. G.
;
KOO-/X05, KOO-/X(I)
como
Cosmo, comptus.
KpL
KV
7T
KpLvo)
KUTTTO),
most,
and
the
H. G. kufe;
KV p
E.
^
V,
curvus.
cants ; Gothic
e\a/cov, Xa<TKa>
Xa/cos, XaKe/309
;
hunds ; E. hound.
loquor, Locutius.
XaK XaK
o7K o
(T
5,
FOIAC,
fwc,
see above
vicus ; E. w/V/^
J
= a village.
SptClO,
7T
J^tf"
SpeCW
conindum
is
is
there
a metathesis between
the original
root-
form
3O
K
is
An
from
Introduction to Greek
into
and Latin.
<pacr<ra>
weakened
y ; typdyyv from
</>paK/a>,
7r\dyrjv
T, Latin
/,
/,
Gothic
th,
H. G.
OTTO,
crru
d,
and E.
th, d.
Zfrrqv, to-Tr//xt
oracris, wrros^
tion,
for
H. G.
ver-stan,
oTa0
ora^/Aos,
orafyw;,
etc.
j/^?,
^f/^>,
status,
static,
stamen, stabulum,
place, forecourt ;
stabilis,
vestibulum
/^
st
outstanding
in
/#<;#.$,
disappears in tabula,
j/0/, .r//#
stilts,
Sec. 37
= stlocus ; compare
strit,
cr
Its,
originally stlis
O. H. G.
Sec. 29, 3
e TT
H. G.
OTC'<O>,
(rTM-)iia,
oT(^avos
stipare,
stipator,
stipulari.
o-TL y
<ma>
orty/o),
;
(TTty/ia,
(mypfj
distinguo,
H. G. j/&#/ E.
CTTOpeWVjAl,
;
(TT
Op
J//'^,
;
i'/^/',
OTOpW/U,
o-rpco/Aa,
orparos
dcrr^p, Sec. 9, 5
stella
= sterula, H. G. stern;
E.
J/^r, strew, straw.
H. G.
5/r^ /
ra
rav
rev
-riy,
rao-t?, Taw//,cu,
ravvo), TtTatVo),
j
rctVa),
I, a, ravr;Xcyiys
CTri-r^Scs,
/<?^?,
/ifta?,
ray
taminare.
reraycut/
Homeric;
toflgv, contagio>
contdmen, con-
Root Consonants.
Ta
*c
31
Tiy/co) ;
TaX
rXa
tol
;
rX^vat,
tuli,
raXa?,
eraAacra, raXai/rov,
raXavpivos, roX/x-aoj
anciently
tetuli, latus,
from
tlatus
^a/x^8os, 0a/A/2ea>.
y y CD,
K
//flfgtf,
//^Z/^.
IrCKOV,
TCKVOV,
TV\TfJ
t
TOKOS, T^K?/
TVy^CtVa),
TVK
j
- TV^axilla,
TCTV/CCtV,
TTVKOVTO, CTU^OV,
teclum, texo, tela
TVp(<i)
HgHUm,
tclllM
/6#/<z
(compare
a/<^
mala
subtelis,
maxilla,
Sec.
1 6.
velum
//,
rap.
r/xa
simple form of
II.
XIII.
707; to
C,
this
& M,
meaning
r p
T c p cr
torreo ;
Tcpryv, Tctpo),
tercbra; E.
^jr/7/, //^r/7/.
Tcpo"o/x,at,
Tpo"atvo>, rapo-os
rapt^os,
Gothic thaurstei
= durst ;
O.
H. G. darru, H. G.
H. G.
a
dbrre ; E. /^/rrf.
/^/w^, Gothic thiuda, people, thiudisko ;
diutisk,
popular, thence
deutsch ;
E.
dfo/,
assembly.
XVIII.
THE LABIAL TENUIS H, Latin// for this H. G, and E. have /in the beginning of a word.
fX?r
eXTrofuu, loXTra
cAir
FeFoXTra,
cXirts
allied to
32
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin
IXSo/xcu,
archaic, voluptas.
p7ra>,
by metathesis
XiTrapr;?,
XITT
Xnra,
Xirrog,
;
X-nrapos,
XtTrapeco,
dXci<a>,
aXet<ap, aXct^a
0dfc^f,
an unusual
transition,
into
</,
8 is
weakened
nourish
TTOT
Trarco/xat,
cTracrajiL^v,
awao-j
TO9, TraojLtat
acquire^ 7r7ra/xat,
t?/"
CTraora/XTyv,
Tra/r^p
Trocrt?
/#
/<?r^/
M^
^^//J<?,
M^
husband,
Sco-TrorTy?,
TTorva; /fl&r,
H. G.fatar;
Tra/croa)
E. father.
Tray
Tra*
Od.
XIV. 476,
7ra#
?ra
TracrcraXos
=7raK/aXo5,
;
paciscor, pan^o,
= 7ra^or/cw,
TTO,
E. ^/.
or
= 7ra07c<o?
;
wa^
WSov,
TreStov,
^^/,
/X7rcSov
oppido,
oppidum
-Trevo/Aai,
7TV
Trevt^pos,
Trevta,
Trcvcarat,
(
TTCtva, Tretvaw
in cnrdvis,
Sec. 30.
Trcp
Trepaa),
;
to press
through,
?ropo9,
"Jmpa,
StaTrpro-tos
porta,
Gothic faran;
H. G.
;
erfahrung, gefahr,
/d7
wohlfahrt,
is
compare
cvTropta
;
Trcp
in Trcpaw,
^r/;?^ ^7'^r,
(Trpa),
cerTTi-
tainly identical
Trpa/xat (?)
/<?
7rcpv^/At,
TrtTrpaovco)
Trpta/xat
TTCT
Trra
CTTTO^V, eTrraro,
TTTT/V, etc.,
cvr
Root Consonants.
II.
33
XXI.
169, a later
CTTCTOl/,
j
7TWTT.
7T(TCtV,
DOT.
=
,
TreTTT^WS See
TTTttK
//<?, impetus,
praepespets, on the other hand bipennis pitna, a pinbipinnis from /zVz^fl nacle, compare TITTVS, Sec. 19, 3 ; H. G. fedara, feder,
penna
= petna,
fittig;
E. feather.
TTLTVrjfJLLf
TTCTttVVV/Al,
patitlus,
SeC. 8,
I,
7TTOCrO5, TTCTttXcV
pateO,
patina.
;
TTVKfi,pinus
7T t
- 7TO
H. G.fiuhta,fahte, Sec.
TTCTTtOKO,
7TO(rt9,
19, 3, TTIK
TTCO/Att ;
TTCT.
TTtVCO,
7TOTOS,
pdtUS,
potare, potio,
poculum
; bibo
t^w
TTtatW^ Opimus.
7T\a
7r\r)0v<5,
TrXeos,
TrXcto?,
TrAcws,
TrifJLirX'irjpJL.
TrX^w,
locuples, plebes,
7rX?7p?7s;
TrXaK
weakened
TrXay,
reduced to ?rXa
=f=
TrXiyo-o-w
7r\rjK/\i)j
the path,
Tc^co-tTrXTyr^s,
;
SacrrrX^Tts
Od.
con-
XV. 234
TreX is
nected with
Tr\7j(TLov,
TrcXayos
/^
TrXv
TrXoos,
TrXvvco
;
TrXea)
TrXoi)?,
=
=
TrXefca, TrXcva)
\
^EollC Sec. 9,
I, 7rXeu(ro//.at,
TrXotov
TrXoko
TrXofa),
eTrXwv,
CTrtTrXw?
pluit, pluvia ;
Tired)
a/uiTrvuc
O.
H. G. fliozan,
Tircv/xa,
fluot ;
*&.
float.
TTW
form,
a/ATTVuro, pres.
7rtrvo-<r(u
II.
XXII. 222,
TTIVVTOS,
34
to
An
Introduction to Greek
II.
and
Latin.
make prudent^
XIV. 249,
TrowiWo),
with diphthongal,
reduplication.
TT/DOtKCl,
,
TTpOlKTrjS,
1 6,
FlK
'
TTTttK
CTTTaKOV, TTT^CTOra)
TTT^/C/O),
KaTOLTmfrnjV
II.
VIII. 136,
TTCTTTT/WS, TroTtTTCTrnyvtat
Od. XIII.
98,
TraTrraivct),
Gothic fairzna ; H. G.ferse. TTTvo) ^^7, pituita, s has disappeared at the beginning of the word as in Greek ; H. G. spihan, speien ; E
TTTe'pva,
irvovpus;
7TVK
puteo, putidus ;
H. G.
pugio; O. H.
G.ftist; E./rf.
in
Greek
K in the middle of a
word
Latin/.-
O-KCTT
spec
by
a-KvXov,
0-KvA.ao),
spoliuM) spoliare,
on the
other hand
O-UK
sepelio.
O-KT>TOS
scutum.
sap
OT;KOS,
Doric
o-aKos
OK/,
ocrcro/xai
OAC/O/JUM,,
Tr/oortoo'orcTO
Od,
XIV. 219
Greek K
below
OTT.
/
at the beginning of a
);
/<?//<?,
word
Latin /
appello,
connected with
procella.
Root Consonants.
2.
35
for the original
The Greek
c,
TT is still
more common
k, Latin
C7T
FeTT
7TOS,
CITIW,
IctTTOV
== eFcFcTJW,
Ol/T
Stem 6V,
o,
=
oK/a;
invidto from
vec in zwc
FCTT,
convlcium by assimilation
from
(T/C
FCTT,
COmpare
n/7r
<reo'7rT,
<rtos
;
ertoTrcs,
evtcrTre,
?
evtcrTnyora)^ cvicTTrctv,
c^
<rex
n ^X00
^^^j ^"X
?r
^ ^^j
analogous to
O-CTT.
0-67T
7T(D,
7TO/Xai
(TeTTO/Aat,
6OTTOV,
COTTO/AT^/
XIII. 543 j XIV. 419, with syllabic augm. on account of the original cr at the beginning of a word, a instead of c as era/x/^v from T/>TTO/A(U,
II. o-co-cTro/xryv, ea</>^7/ (?)
Greek *
Homeric
0,00-0-77x77/0
do-oK/TTr^p,
compare
l/7rt7TT
as-sec-la.
tTTTO/Xat,
CVtWa), ^VtVaTTC,
kvilff]^
II.
;
XV. 55 2;
jacio,
*V0 /
c^to-o-w
cvt/c/w
ta7rr<o,
tTrTros, ticKos
<?^^, Sec.
6, 3,
//V
0)1^,
Unquo, reliquus
OTT/Att,
(lic\ licet.
O7T
OJJLfJLO.
OTTTTp, Ol^O/Xttt,
6^to), desiderative,
IL
XV.
320,
CISCOTTOS
IL
XIV. 37, 6<0aX/A05, CVCDTTT/, cva)7ra XV. 653, vTrawria, 6Vt7Tva> redupli;
cated, mip0a/o7rt7ra
K in
oo-o-c, oo-o-o/Attt
;
II.
XI. 385
#:#/*tf /
Latin
in opinor.
^Eolic
TTCjLtTre,
Tre/xTTTos, -TreftTTct^o) ;
36
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
,
TTeTTTO),
TTG/fO),
TTCTTWV
OTTTCMO,
O7TTOS
;
7TO7TTO5,
connected with
TTCK in Trcoro-w
TTCK/CD
coquo, cocus,
in popa, popina,
popanum,
TTO
TTOTTOLVOV,
pastry.
interrogative pronominal- stem
j
relative
and
whence
KOTC, KOOTO?,
KOTcpog
^
=
quod, quid
Oscan fid,
ubi=quobi,
quantus, uter
quoter, neuter
Oscan
stem po
rpcTT
K
is
TpcTTw
torqueo
by metathesis
if
from
rpa)ya>
3.
=
;
TT
and stands
k:
Trofca,
draXos
TTOTC, ore
=
TC
o*a,
Doric
^icwrra,
7TIT
- TTtK
Sec. 16,
compare ^TTWV,
TTlKpOS, 7TU-
TTITJOL
Or TTtK/tt,
icdXt/xos,
7reuK8avo9, C^CTTCVK^S
H. G.
fiuhta^fichte ; peek
4.
The change
:
/,
and from
TT,
to T takes
place in
quattuor,
lic,
Skr.
chatur
rriVupcs
Homeric,
quinque
^
/j-
TTC/ATTC
/,
stem
^)/>, Neuter//^,
rt9.
Root Consonants.
2.
37
MEDIALS.
P. A. B.
T, corresponding to the
,
English
k.
dy ay
Fay
cogito, coagito,
9, 2, exiguus.
ay
= dy/o/uu, cvayiys;
^ya,
cdyjyv,
dyiy,
Idya
a/en/, twy?; Od. XIV. 533 ftfcoyT/ with reduplication, = wofy from df, Sec. 31, Kv/Aarwyiy. compare wo?;
= =
Fcfaya,
Ion.
dpy
dpyds,
dpyiys,
argUO,
ya
yaf
yav
yatco, /Souydi'e
yrj^co),
vocative
yeyjy^a;
II.
XIII. 824,
ydvufuu,
yovdw, ydvos,
this
is
gaudeo, gaviSUS.
dydo/^at,
Related to
y ap
y^pvs,
y>7pv'a>
garrio, garrulus.
yei/os,
yv
vT/ydrcos,
yva
ya
kuni
originally
= father
^/.
;
O- H. G.
#&/,
H. G. kind =
H. G.
E. ^/w.
yews, yeWov,
/##/ E.
yydflos;
y v ycvojitat ^/5/^7, gustus ; Gothic kiusan, kustus O. H. G. Musu, chust ; H. G. kiese, kiise, koste.
yvo
yi/ajcrts,
Originally gna,
yvwfji.-rjy
==
oy/o//,a,
yj/ai/Ltcov
gnosco,
gnarus,
ignorOy
archaic
38
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
ing of the vowel, ndtus, ignotus, gndrus with strengthening of the vowel; Gothic kannjan^ "kunths^kunthi ; E. hen.
y 6 v v, yvv
genu ;
7rpo^yv9
yowo
cpyov,
O/MU,
yowos,
i-yvvy,
Sec. 9, 5
Gothic kniu ; E.
Fpcy
ctopyei
TZ^.
copya
;
=
;
FcFopya,
ewpyci
for
Od.
p<*>,
from
eFeF.
IpSw
Fepy/a),
Fpcy/a),
dpyos
from dcpyos
Gothic vaurkjan
H. G. werk ;
E. m>r/.
pyo>,
^o^arat,
vyjugsee
Xvy
pay
Fpay
;
Sec. 32,
i.
X v y p o s,
AcvyaAco?, Xotyos
/gft?, luctus.
;
p7yyKU/*t, pr/y/AtV,
pcoyaXcos
pax
in
p^(rcra>,
pcy
CTT
&,
opeyw, opyuta
/fo direction ;
H. G.
recken> richten.
j
ey
rcy
areya), rcyos
fegO ;
O. H. G.
dfo
H. G.
XXI. THE DENTAL MEDIAL A, corresponding to the Latin */, Gothic and Low German ^, German 2, English
/.
FaS
SVad
eaSov
FcFaSov, euaSoi/
II.
cFaSov, IdSa,
avSavw, eeSvov
(rFcSvov,
cSavos
XIV.
172, ^Sos
from
which the rough breathing has disappeared, compare below tSos oo-fievos, a participle become an adjective, like
Sorty, ^So/Aat, ^Svs,
iS)
yvp,o$
= vr^Sv/ios (?)
suavis
=
8,
suadeo.
apS
paS
apSco,
Homeric
Root Consonants.
compare
the
ep^pe'Sarai, veapSifc, patVw
39
Instead of
= pa8i//a).
pa0a/xiyf, pa0<uva>,
8a
SeSac,
Sa?Jvai, Saigon/,
prudent, Odyss.
8i8ax-o-Ka>,
St*.
SiSax>7,
compare
dfor
in
dfofttf, dfom?,
see below
8a
Saia>,
I divide,
fios, Satrpos.
3 a /L_Sata)>
8a^9,
I kindle,
see
SCOTCH
II.
XX.
316,
ScSrya, 0<T7ri1 8,
Sao-TrX-^ris
above
TrXcuc
?rXa
Sec.
Safe,
apocop. warlike ;
&u<p<oj/ II.
SaKp v, lacruma
zahar ; E.
Sa/x,
/tor.
Sa//,7}r<u,
Gothic fogr; O. H. G.
Sa/^aco,
Sa^tafa),
Sa/xny/ti,
8a/wip,
dS/A^?,
8/Aak;
domare,
dominus,
dominari ;
H. G. zahm ;
E.
tame.
8 e K a, dfeim / Gothic taihun ; O. 8
//,
H. G. 0^^7
/ jS. /^.
Sc/AtD,
Se/xa?,
SO/AOS,
8w/xa
domus / Gothic
timr-
jan; H. G. zimmer;
817
E. timber.
= jam = dja-m,
stem
See in
584,
SeSta,
StVu II. XXIII. 475, /StWv XVIII. SiWai XVII. no, SIOITO Od. XVII. 317; perf.
SaSia
;
pres. SctSo)
o^o/jtat.
81F
^//V,
dju
;
=
Zcvs
light,
STos,
= A/Vus,
kindred
Zfy
II.
XIV.
Searo
265,
dja, as in
Janus ;
877X09, SecXos,
Od.
40
VI. 242,
fidius,
An Introduction
Soaoro-aro,
to
Dialis, Juppiter
in
Djuppiter, the
vowel being
weakened
second word in composition, Jovis Djovis, Diana divana, the heavenly one ; Janus, Janus-pater ; dies, diu,
by day in noctu diuque,
diutius, diutinus,
a day long, long time, interdiu, stem diuto, dum = dium ; O. H. G. Zio,
Tuesday.
dido, condicio, diets in diets causa,
Dienstag
81K
indtco,
= Ziestag ; E.
Sctfcw/u
;
81*17,
jusdecs ; disco
;
H. G.
So
dadami ;
Sonjp,
800-15, 8cupov;
stem da
in do, dos,
for the
;
Moods
15, 2
donum ; duim, duam ; see below under relation between 80 and 0e = dha, see Sec.
A.
compounded of the
ce-dite
demonstrative
8 vo, 8ts
fas
;
and do
da ;
cette
= Sfis;
18/Acvat,
duo, bis as
= date. = dvis,
= =
/ E. twain, two.
e8
est,
80)877,
nJo-Tt?, w/AryonJs
^<?, est
edt, esurio
edsurio, esca
e8o?,
cto-a
= edsca.
re8o-a,
co-o-at,
c8
o-cS
co-at,
ceo-o-aro
te8/o>,
= sisedo,
=
a8ov,
Gothic
1
sitan, sitls ;
fc.8
O. H. G.
sizan, sezal;
E.
sit, settle.
tSctv,
cT8oi/
cftSov
08175, 1^15
vitrum.
Root Consonants.
5,
,
41
tfyck,
iMu, j&ov
S
o9,
KocaSov,
/oJSos,
active
68
= careful, oSwSd, ow =
/,
=
;
of value, dear.
68/0),
odor, oleo,
d being weak9, 5
;
ened into
68ov?, stem
dens ;
Gothic
crKcS
tunthus ; II.
cr/ccSavi/v/xt,
G. zand, zahn
(r/aSv^/u,
; E. tooth.
(T/ctSvajitat
for
the
weak
8, i
scandula.
scindo, sddi,
anciently
j-
perfect, scida ;
root cid
caedO)
caementum, caespes ; O.
H. G.
sceidan, sceit,
H. G.
schdt; E.
^/.
z;^
water.
8<op;
v8
O. H. G.
wazar ; E.
seldom
original,
often
j8a
tion,
= an
^vat,
original g.
)8t^as with pres. -reduplica/&J/xa,
fidSrjv,
fiato
/Jao-Ke,
pay/t*,
/Sifidfa,
/3i/3d(r6<i)v,
)8c/?at05,
ySe^Xos;
qiman ;
original
^/^^, arbiter ; instead of ^, z; in zwwb/ Gothic O. H. G. koman, kommen y points back to the
Sanskrit, root gd, to go.
g in
stem bov ; /?ovs, Doric )8o)9, /frwyai'e, Sec. 20, ya; O. H. G. chuo, which points back to the original g in
Sanskrit,
)8
gaus ; E.
<r^e/.
b in /?Xr;x^
balare ;
Ppaxvs,
brevis
bregvis,
42
compare
balbus.
ft ft
An
Introduction to Greek
levis
and Latin.
23
\
IXaxys,
legyis
Sec.
ftapftapos,
=
i
Latin
g in
/?
;
ftaXavos, glans ;
fta.pv<s,
gram's.
is
in
ftios, ftiow
= yh, =
hardened into
tense-letter
/?e'o//,at,
vivam,
ftey II.
XVI. 852;
with the
quick
vita, victus ;
//fo
H. G. $w&r,
in erquicken, quecksilber ; E.
^^/V^
^^ ^^,
quickset-
original
and Latin v :
II.
fto\,
ft6Xofj.oLL
XL
;
319, Od.
I.
234,
XVI. 387,
ftovXofjiai,
ftovXy etc.
volOj nolo
= ne-volo,
malo
;
= magi-
O. H. G.
apoifty
<^>
=f:
ftao-Kawto, ftdcrKavos
fascinare, fascinum^
<t>a,fa, Sec. 25
= fascination.
X.
.
3.
ASPIRATES
<. to
g,
XXIII. THE GUTTURAL ASPIRATE X, corresponding the Latin h, f, g, in the beginning of a word
Gothic
O,K
-.
dyx
09(09,
**'X
olJLaL y
with change of
ayOop.a.i y
d/ca^t^oj,
d^i^/iai,
;
ayx/ov, cTracrcn/rcpos
^^v, angor,
angustus, anocius ;
H. G. ^^f/.
Root Consonants.
X a % v 5,
eXacrcrajv,
43
hgvis. via (vea\ vexo,
XJ^V
>
^^s ~
j
x
velum
Fex
OXQS, o^o/>uxt,
o\rjfjLd
veho,
= veglum,
X<*>,
vexillum, vectis ;
H. G. wagen, weg ; E.
X
torxto
-<TX =
(TXOV
present reduplication
(T\0(D tCT^avao),
9
= o-re;(a>
do^aXaa)
;
further formation
in <r\c6<a *=
Xt^
claigon
//Vj^?,
ligurio ;
Gothic
^/*
H. G. /;&ia / E.
o"1"^ 09*
crretxa),
//V^.
O-TLX
see (rra
steg ;
orot^os;
vestigium,
vestibulum
steig
,
and H. G.
E.
^a
\av
X*&**9
x ^ (TK(t)
<
xa-frp-O'
/ca^a^w reduplicated,
Kayxofw,
KayxaXaw
reduplicated
O. H. G.
gin
G. gahnen
^avSavo),
;
; E.
yawn.
II.
X<x8
e^aSov,
K^avSoTa
XXIII. 268, *-
XavSct XXIV.
192
= prat
hida,
praedium
= praehendium,
de-hibere.
hibere, debere
\aB
necesse,
X**!* *'
KCKaSovro
II.
XV. 574
c^ao-arro
cedo,
successus from
ne-ced-tis, suc-ced-tus.
X a ft at, feminine
locative, ^a/ia8i9
X^wv ; humus; humt, humilis ; homo, anciently ^1 ne-hemo ; Gothic ^/w^ / O. H. G. ^w<?, H. G.
#w
in
brdutigam
E. groom.
Xap
tct?
;
9(a^, x^paTO IL XIV. 270, X^P^J X gratus, gratia ; O. H. G. ^r, giri, gerdn.
hirundo ; compare x<iXafa> grando.
aiv,
44 X P
An
introduction to Greek
and Latin.
ircro
yv'}
Bohemian hus;
desire,
fames
fatigo, fessus ;
X^9,
ex#s; ^^r/
for te/,
gestern ; E.
yester.
^l
JLa i
L JL{*)V >
= hel; O. H. G.
X
o p 8 77,
H. G. galle ; E. gall.
in
chorda,
^w/,
a foreign
haruspexj
word
hariolus
Latin
stem
^#ra,
/^
in
connected with
fanolus.
Xopros;
hosti s,
Xp i
gold.
hortus, cohors,
close
army
;
corps ; Gothic
E. garden.
=
7<J7
hostipes ;
Gothic gasts
XpV
01
x/
"7"/*
Xpvo-ds; Gothic
Xv
x&a
^/M/
H. G. and E.
=X
01
?
6 ^00 ?
^Eolic
>
\ev<D,
9(va, cxca
=
compare ^T
Xc
Va
XO17>
to
tox^atpa, x^o/>tat,
confundoT)
be
troubled ;
Latin stem
^^
in
Gothic
giutan ; O. H. G. kiuzu^
H. G.
giesse,
guss ; E.
Root
On
account of the
want of a dental aspirate the Latin equivalent for this is often /in the beginning of a word, d and b in
the body of
it
;
Gothic
d,
German
/,
English
d.
al0
flfl&r,
originally 20
ai$o>,
at#a>v,
aiOrjp,
aWoij/,
Al6Co\ff
originally
meaning a
c
fireplace,
aestus
aedtus,
aestas.
IpvOpos, with
robigo, ru-tilus ;
prefixed, Sec. 9, 5
red,
r#&r,
r#/^.r,
O. H. G. n?// E.
ruddy.
II.
aOipOai Homeric
OrjXrjy
= to suckle,
TiOrjvrj,
O^a-aro
XXIV.
58,
01/Xus,
1 06,
yaXaOrjvos,
nOacro^
rt^at/^ojcrcra)
,
Od.
XIII.
Ova
Oavtiv,
Odvaros,
Ovrj(TK^
Ovrjros,
reOvrjKa
Gothic dauthus
O. G. tod ; E. dead.
rt'&j/u,
Of
Skr.
dha
#ca>
So,
in
Trpotfcoucrtv
II.
I.
compare
Sec.
A?
21
in the Latin
= 0c,
^, have
coalesced
meaning
is
= f in famulus, familia,
root extended
by the addition of c, compare jacio, root O. H. G. tuom, a judge's sentence, tat ; E. doom.
B v
p
0ciVw
0po>,
;
fendo in
offendo, defendo.
;
^cpos, 0/3/*os
O. L. formus, formucapes,
,
thence forceps, fornus, furnus, fornax ; Gothic varmjan O. H. G. waram, H. G. and E. warm.
Orjp,
<f>Yip,
JEolic
H. G.
tior,
H. G.
;
tier; E. deer.
fingo, figulus, figura, fictile.
46
Op a
fortis.
An
Oap
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
;
E. dare ; fretus,
@v
fire,
0uo),
OveXXdy
OvjJLOSy
OvfJLa,
Ovos,
flv^zis,
Ovoeis
suf-
incense
for the
dead ; Gothic
Sec. 37.
Compare
Ovpa;
O. H. G.
French
Jiors ;
Gothic dauro
H. G.
;
ovOap;
vrvOprjv
E. bottom.
uber
;
O. H. G.
Mar;
E. udder.
/=
bh,
in
the
b.
middle of a
word
b,
in
XVIII.
arbeit.
593 ; a ft $ CD ambo ; H. G.
;
H. G.
arabeit,
d/A<^t,
H. G.
d:/^
^/^/
<?/
E. both.
am
an
a
v o
s,
d<^i/etos
stem
in ops,
</>
in the
middle of a
z/^7,
word =/,
Sec.
coepi
1
opulentus, vol-up-tas(f)
cATr,
= coepi
in apiscor, aptus,
v<^>os, vc^eXry; nebula, nebulo, nubes, nubo, but on the other hand, pronuba, nubilus, nubila, nimbus;
O. H. G.
**&i/,
H. G.
nebel.
o/A^aXo?;
E.
umbilicus; O.
H. G.
nabulo,
H. G.
nabel ;
Root Consonants.
47
<aF
<av
^>T//xt, <j5>aros,
<
ac
I flash,
^>atVa),
II.
II.
450,
<ai/pos,
Trc^TyorcTat II.
XVII.
from
sound,
by hardening the digamma, giving a nasal and changing the a into e, comes <eyy in <eyyos; <^>a is further formed into <a\ in <f>a\.rjp6s, Doric
<^>aF
</>aAapo5,
<t>aX.TrjpL6(tiVTa
II.
XIII. 799
fari,
fama, fanum,
a speaker
<ev
<^>aTos,
Trc^arat,
Tre^avrat,
Trc^cur^at,
TTC^-
cro/xat,
cTrec^voi/,
<ovos, <^>o/tos,
=
(?)
<#)oj//*
with epenthetic
on account of the
;
retention of
it
O. H. G<
/##<?,
murderer
E. &z/z.
<^>epw, <^>epT
</>aperpa,
</>opos,
y^r^, ferculum,
burde ; Gothic ; O. H. G. //># =fero, purdi H. <^nz H. G. G. &*A/v, ^r, in composigabaurths; O. tion ; E. ^r, iVrM.
bairan
,
<Hyos>
buche ; E.
fagus;
&?<?<r^,
Gothic
^^/
O. G. poucha, H. G.
Sec. 13, 2.
48
Sec. 9, 5
An
;
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
;
flare, flos,floreo,fluo ;
Gothic uf-btesan
O. H.
Xcy
<Ae'yo>,
<Xo
fulgur,fulmen.
<f>pa K
</>ptto-cro)
= <pox/a>,
</>pay/xa
farcio, farcimen,
berg,
frequens ;
<^>parpa,
Ionic
ffrpryrprj,
(frparpiOL
H. G.pruodar, H. G. bruder ;
E. brother.
/>v
c<w,
<^>i;(o,
^>v>y,
Averts, <^>ws
fufuam,
</>vto), ^/Kff/,
fui, fore; fi
in /f^?
^ITIXO;
^Eolic
;
fe
fevo; fecundus, femina, filius, felix,fenum,fenus see above Sec. 24, 0a; Gothic bauan, to dwell ; O. H. G. /zw, H. G. and E. bin.
fev
fetus,
feo,
from
II.
XXI.
6,
^Ca/civo's
II.
XIII.
102;
j^,
fugio;
Gothic biugan ; H. G.
blatt; E.
biege.
flto/,
<l>ijX\ov; folium ; O. L. G.
O. H. G. flat, H. G.
Root Consonants.
B.
49
SEMI-VOWELS.
LIQUIDS.
N.
radical, answering to the Latin n, and in the following roots, stems, and words corresponds to the n of the other Indo-Germanic languages : dv avcftos ; animus, anima.
and
countenance of man.
vjyvs,
vrjios,
vaF
vdtos
;
vav
vavs,
Doric
vry0a>,
\pvfjri<s
II.
XII.
433;
neo ;
O. H. G. naan.
Vf
vctoiTOS,
VC'OS,
VOT7;9, VfOLfJ
veoo-cros,
;
II.
XXIII. 604,
vc^pos
VCttpOS, VtdTOS,
vctatpa,
veavta?,
vcfp.
with
hardened digamma
V
VCKV5,
VKp09,
IICCO,
nCX.
vcft
v/Aw, vo/A05,
voftt^w
"
>
vp,<Tt<s
imputatio
Numa,
numerus, nummus.
V<T
vi
vc
/z/
NeWwp.
vt<^ci9,
;//^
vt</>a),
vt<#)a
acc.,
VK^CTOS
/:r
= w ^>
vv
nasalized
schneey E.
= nigvit ;
j^'.
compare
;
Gothic snaivs, O. H. G.
vcvcu, vev/xa
;
H. G.
ovo/^a
oyi/o/ia
yi/o,
Sec. 20,
Gothic
50
ovv
An
,
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
unguis ;
wcofiat,
H. G.
wvos,
augment
Greek root
;
in OWOU/MTV
venum
v,
liquid, is affected
belong;
it
is
labial
and
nasal liquid
Aa/x/Sai/a),
p.
KC^TI-TO),
a/xca>,
original
and fundamental
in
d//,ao>,
a/x^ros;
H.
G. mat,
E. math.
ap,
sam
ajua,
similis, simultas ;
d//,t/2a>,
^olic a//,vSis, O/AOV, O/AOS, O/AOIOS simul^ H. G. ^w, sammt ; E. same : Sec. 30.
;
p.
d/xvvw, /xvn; Homeric; munio, moenia, murus. a /xao/x,at, /x,w/xat, /xe/x-aymev, /xat/xaco, /xareua),
II.
w<3r
aTT/oort-
/x,a(TTOS
jx,
XIX.
/JL^I/
263.
ft?;vs,
Ionic
^cts,
pjn?,
/xcrptn/, /u/Ao//,ai,
manot,
fji
W^
/XT}KO?,
d/x,atftaKTos
Root Consonants.
6v
51
/x,
fiav
;
fiva
/xeo), fiefos
/xatyofuu, /mvia
p,vrjp,r)
/xp
/A
o-
/Aap
memor, memoria.
;
5,
/Aeoxros,
/AeWaTos,
/xo-(TcxTtos, /Ae(To^yvs
mcdius,
dimidius,
meridies,
euphonic substitution
of r for *//
H. G.
mi//;,
E. mid(dle).
H. G. muotar, H. G.
e/uyr/v,
/uyS^v,
/x,tyw/xt,
/xto^yca
/uycrK(o, /xtfis
H. G.
mischen^
E. w/^.
/xtv
fjLivvw,
/xtiAu^a),
/uVuv#a,
/xctW;
minuo,
minor
/xoX
^/xoXciv,
jSAojor/co)
= =
minimus, E. w//.
/x^AaxTKco,
compare
and
/A
compare a^poros.
a^
/Sporos
TOS
=
v
d/xp.
/xapaiVw
morior, marcesco.
p.
/xvw, /xvorrys
mutus, musso*
A.
/.
avaXros
Homeric ;
#/<?,
alumnus,
coalesce, also
compare
olus,
^? from
^^?,
^/z/^^ / so
too 0/
olesco,
abolitus*
adultus
adolitus,
exolesco, proles
from pro-olo, suboles. The root d\ is extended to dXS dX^ in dXSatvw, 7 nourish, aX0o/xcu r dX^atVco, / 7/^//
H. G.
*#, E.
dXr;,
d^r.
dXoy,
aXeo/xat,
dX
dXcwp^,
dXaor^at y
aXvaprjv r dXcctVctv
dXtr^/xci/09,
dXcm/s, dXtTiy/xwv r
52
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
II.
y a X a, Stem yaXa/cr
XIII.
toe,
stem
/#<:/.
fcX
tX>7,
FaX
;
dXet's,
ccX/mi, cTXap,
o/uXos
doXXia>.
fcX
156,
eXvw
revolve, etXvw
II.
tXvcaa), tXXas
stone, ib.
I grind?);
II.
IXtWw,
;
IXtf
eXtKojTres
for the
digamma compare
XVI. 569
volvo ; O.
H. G.
wellan.
Xa
X^a,
Xapo?^
iasrivus ; Xaf
Xacov,
XT/I'S
Xa
;
= Xaf.
;
uTroXavo/xat, Xcta,
lucrum
Xaos,
Xcy
II.
compare dXeyw
(?).
;
Xctorrys, XetatVw
levis, levigare.
II.
Xexptos,
Latin
bus,
Xe)(pt9
Xt/cp/>t9
</ and
obliquus,
stem
/^^^, disjointed;
H. G. and
Xix
E. link.
7TL\iySr)v
;
lingo,
ligurio ;
Sec. 23.
luo,
expiate ;
Xv
/^?
r/^,
X{5/xa,
Xv/xatVo/xat,
XOVGJ
Xocoxrai,
Xoerat or XoveTai
hi
in
pollno,
diluo,
lav
in
lavere,
lavare,
lautus ; lustrum.
Root Consonants.
53
KJ,
XVK
lumen
licht,
oxr
from
Xv/ca/3a9, light-path
= lucmen,
luceo, lucidus,
diluculum,
O. H. G.
lioht,
H. G.
E. />&/.
compare
a
= ^/^<?,
ouXiJ
wound ;
H. G.
oA.od<p<ov
mind ;
o-
= entire,
safe, sellers,
solidus ;
E.
silly,
O. E.
seely.
aX
o-oXos, o-oXcvw
salum.
;
<r<f>a\
fail, fall.
o-^aXijvat,
o-<^aXXa)
fallo;
H. G.
fallen^
E.
P.
r.
a p dpoa), a/ooros, aporpov, apovpa ; cpa, Ipa Jc (?) #r0, aratrum, armentum, arvum ; Gothic arjan, O. G. ^mr# (arare) ; Gothic ^/>//w5, O. H. G. erda, H. G. erde (?),
;
E.
<?0r,* ^r//5,
year.
pa,
ap,
;
dp
apa,
Homeric
r
7
apiypa,
dpapetv,
dpaptcrKO),
cpiiJpT/s j
aprt, dpTto
dprva)
dp//x>s,
dpctW,
dp/x6a>,
apxo-ro?, dpcr>/,
apfJLovirjy
apt
e.g.
in apiSstKcros
Homeric, ^
^pt^os
Fcp
ctp^vr/,
pa>,
tpa),
;
tlprjKa
=
;
efp.,
Ipp-^Orjv
cfp.,
prjrpa
oapi'a> (?)
verbum
Gothic vaurd, H. G.
E. 2WY/.
*
that
A"
the ground.
Isaiah, ch. v.
54
An
Introduction
to
and have
thence
Taipei/ II.
X.
rj
compensate
6p
for
;
the
absence
of
the
consonantal
beginning, cep/zo/os
sero, sera,
sertum,
series, servus.
optVa>, opovto,
ovpov
<?
stretch,
oYcncovpa
II.
variation ep in cpxo/xat
op
fop
/<?
opovrat
Od.
XIV.
104,
ovpo?,
)pOVpOS
TTpOOpO?,
Tl/XttOpOS,
Tt/XO)pO5,
TrvXdopo?
with
varying
quantity, TnAwpos,
ovSevo<ro>pa
II.
VIII. 178,
/^r^/.
Suoxopryo-axni/
X. 183
H. G.
7/dr/, warten, E.
pcTr
FpcTr
pew,
poTH/, poTraXov,
by position Od. IX. 319, piWw, KaXavpo^, a shepherd's crook, II. XXIII. 845 ; repens.
syllable long
piy
of the
Fpty
ptyos, ptycw,
Ipptya,
is
ptytoi/,
Karapty^Xo? in
syllable
226,
is
universally long
<pi/c
i',
<piWo> ; frlgus, frigeo, frlgidus ; on the other hand r/^<?, rigidus ; H. G. friusan, frieren (?), E. freeze,
frore.
pv
pv^/utos;
<rpv,
pcto, pevcro),
cppv^v,
pvftTy,
cpco?;,
?w; O. H.
H. G.
strom, E. stream.
The
Root Consonants.
Greek a vowel often prefixed
which begin with p have
for the
55
to the p,
5.
compare
e.g.
The Greek
roots
at
prrywpi,
franco,
ptyco),
peTrco,
or a
o*,
as
po,
pwo/xat,
stream.
cppvryv,
stlis,
Hence
cppr/fa.
$//>,
the p
is
doubled
in the
augment,
the
eppec,
Old Latin
1.
to
This change, which is caused by the weakening of r /, is not confined to Greek, but takes place also partly
Within the
limits of
Greek: apK
dX*c
in opKcw,
;
dAjoy etc.,
see Sec.
a//,pya>, d/xeXya),
mulgeo,
bubble out,
compare
Sec. 25
Kvp
KV\ in
curvus and
II.
^cvXiw, Kv/cAos,
compare
circus ;
X. 360,
/cap^aAcos, rough^
sharp ;
/otoXww
/
;
defile ;
^pap.o's
;
a
cp
cleft,
^Xa/xos* name of a
mountain
2.
Seiptos, o-eXas
eX in Ip
Between
Greek
and
Latin
/2ap/2apos,
balbus,
above ;
o-cXas, serenus;
yth&w,
hirundo.
3.
marmor,
a corrupt form,
56
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
H. G. marmel, E. marble; p.op/j.vpa>, H. G. murmeln, E. murmur ; TrAarv's, H. G. brdt, E. broad ; x/wo-os, Gothic
gulth,
O. H. G.
j/w,
stlis,
kold,
H. G. and E.
j////,
/w
E.
from
strife.
stem
dX<
O.
H. G.
H. G.
tfra*/,
Compare
2.
ORIGINAL SPIRANTS. S
(SPIRITUS ASPER).
f.
JOD.
XXX. THE
The
SIBILANT
i.
original s is retained in
end of
At the end, so
compare
far as the
:
permit,
Sec. 35
suffix
e.g.,
stem
/ACVCS,
Skr.
fern.
manas, yo/os ; as
= TTOTIS,
ft.
patisy
6\l/
foTrs,
and of the
genit.
sing.
mutes
Root
x.o',
com Homeric ;
3 sing, com';
i pi.
2 pi. core
V,
imp. foOi
ccrtfi,
dual
2 pi. ^crre
etc.
;
esum,
cs
estj estis,
H. G.
ist,
E.
is.
Fes
vestis,
Icrcro,
= ci^v/it
fcor.
with
assimilated
also in
cr is
retained in
IOTO pluperfect, as
o-0?fc>
assimilation of
there
is
a compensatory lengthening
.
in
or -ctwov
II.
XXIII. 135.
Root Consonants.
<rra
LcrrrjfjLi,
57
the
eo-c-
where the
or
has disappeared at
ewmjKv
1
=
;
in (rropfvwfu Sec.
<rria,
sanus ; O. H. G. gasunt,
H. G. gesund, E. sound.
<r
<
77 5,
o-<xos
^^/?,
j-a//<?,
H. G.
j0/f
.ra/5
H. G.
OTTO?,
E. opium.
W,
or
serenus, root
ty a o),
'
o-tyry, o-iya,
or
the Greek
here
= the
breathing
was used
in Greek,
compare
topws, Sec. 2 1
and
below.
o-vs,
connected with
s; sus,
Gothic, svein, O.
H. G. su
H. G.
2.
Instead of the original and Latin s in the beginning before a vowel, Greek for the most part used the rough
breathing
aSrjv,
',
smooth breathing.
X. 98, also
aftcvat,
aom,
satio ;
acrao-tfai II.
XIX.
307, from
satt.
da>
Gothic saths, H. G.
aXfta,
aXXo/Aai,
salto.
Homeric
eoXro,
aorist with
the smooth
H, G.
a X s, aX/M/, dXjuvpds ; ^/, ^//<?, sa/sus, insulsus, compare sulza, sulze; H. G. salz^ E. salt.
58
a /w,a,
An Introduction
a/xuSis, oftov, etc.;
to
simul ; H. G.
root a
set,
IS
c
j#/
s,
Kvpd
JWZT, Sec.
1 6.
j#2#,
etc.,
compare O. H. G.
sinis-
IKTOS
O,
5<f^c
Gothic
saihs,
H. G.
^^,
E. six.
sieben,
^8o/>tos; septem ;
Gothic j/^w, H. G.
before a mute
2. 1 8.
E.
CTT
rctv,
ciro/u,at,
sequor ;
IO-TTCTC,
o-
is
retained in
compare
suavis,
IpTTw, serpo /
etpTTov
'
^
8,
L'
s,
= = sv ; not
(
see Sec.
aspirated ^8os,
OLCT/ACVOS,
see
Sec. 21.
17
A t o g,
^cXtos, auselius
s,
Aurelius)
as vA^,
,$w;//
7^,
.
J//^.
semi
semis ; O.
H. G.
not aspirated
6
TSos, ffiwo,
X K d s,
wX/ca,
lost the
rough breathing
sulcus.
;
salvus, anciently
o v,
ot,
I,
originally svey
pronoun stem I, cos, os, ^^wj / ^^/, into o-^c, suus ; crFe, hardened
E.
sibi,
se,
tStos
vIo
s,
Gothic sunus, H. G.
VTTttTOS
J
.ft?^,
.w
mus, summus.
VTTVOS, somnus
differs
sopnus, sopor;
the Gothic
from
this,
O. H. G. sla/an, E.
Root Consonants.
6,
59
a form with the rough breathing from the original pronominal stem sa, see Pronouns.
77,
article,
has disappeared In the beginning of words before vowels, besides the cases of change from the smooth to the rough breathing
3.
<r
:
a.
= d in aTras,
6,
also
ex
/:?.
= sa, sam, Sec. 27, instead of this compare O/AOV, a/*a, in OTrarpos = o/xoTrarpos, oyacrrwp; erraA/ca = ear. = (rear. Sec. 23 <rx in
a7Ta|, a/*a
e^co,
;
:
At the beginning before liquids /u*pos, ayujcpos, vea> = orcFw, / swim, thence the Ionic and Old Attic Homeric impf. eWeov II. XXI. n vevpa, O. H. G. snuor,
;
;
vuos, nurus,
O. H. G. snur ;
o-pv in pew,
vi<j>a,
nix,
O. H. G.
sneo, E.
j^^e/ / pv
thence
cppi/^v,
H. G.
strom, E.
dis-
spit,
TrcVo/xai, TTOVOS,
orfctSv.;
compare
S.,
KtSva/xcu
K^dwv^i H. G.
j/0.
ecr/u,
//,
ct/xt
for
2,
compare
el/xat
assimilation of the
ayx is
the preceding
9,
i,
between
Towels into
Sec.
n,
3.
o-
The repugnance
of Greek to
is
especially
shown
60
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
There
is
found also a
partial and cautious abandonment, even in the Old ^Eolic and Ionic dialects, of the /-sound, which frequently took
the place of
<r,
by weakening
it
into the
smooth breathing.
XXXI. THE
LABIAL,
f,
cor-
sporadically represented
The Greek
v,
has disappeared, or
is
vowel
it
and
is
only
now
to
has
left,
Sec.
n,
2.
arjro,
dF
xuXr}
;
arjfjiL,
OL^TOS,
d^rr/s, Sucrcnys,
avcu
/ call,
diWs,
di5r^,
dvrea>,
xvcws
= dVaFos,
10017
with reduplication
dcom
to sleep, wuxo
1 breathe
out ; dvr/^, H.
atum, athem
; ventus,
dt(D
aT
au
dFtw, alorOdvofjiaiy
cTnyn/?.
eTnyrvs
XXI. 306
ovs,
<OTOS,
ovara
H. G.
at
ohr, E. ear.
L
=
=
aifet,
locative
form,
atoii/,
dtStos,
aevum, aetas
aevitas ; Gothic
^ztfr,
/z/j,
/m<?,
O. H. G.
E.
law, wedlock, E.
c
H. G.je,
nie
= ni-aiv,
ap
Fea/s,
^p
Fep
etc.
;
Homeric
Root Consonants.
ft
Oi
vi
irea,
willow
vitis,
vinum = voinum,
Sec.
21.
H. G. wein, E.
Fi8
wine.
in
i8//,v, oTSa,
Compare
E. work ;
z//>fcs
vid
rra>p, ft&ft&,
FOIJC.,
vicus ;
(pyoi/
= Fcpy., H. G. ze/r,
tov,
in
en-os,
Z'^Jcy
t<^)t,
/xca>,
vomo ;
viola;
F in
109,
ts,
thence adj.
wdv
t^tos,
wV ;
the
middle of a word
6ts
= oFis, ovis ;
#, is
Latin
represented by
ct//,a,
sp. asp.
l/x/ta
ves
cwvfjii
Fcorvu/u,
^Eolic
is
Fctr/xa,
Od.
III.
348.
'
The digamma
rcraTO
;
traceable in
Trtct/xei'o?,
lavos,
pliant ;
vestis, vestio ;
has disappeared in
Compare IcrTrepos, vesper ; Icrrta, Ion. tort??, cortao), Attic r^7, imperfect clomW = cFeor., ^/d:, root 7^^, #j in
Sec.
33
tbrwp,
connected with
to-ra>p
Fi&rop,
urro^ta
from
Ft8, z>/.
3.
g.
n.
has
See Sees.
vowel, for
its
9.
n.
of/ becoming
The
in
original
:
is
represented
Greek
62
i.
An
By
Introduction
to
vy -jug^vyov, fcvywjui, foWv/u jugum, jungo, jumentum, jugis, united together, therefore lasting, juxta a superlative form = jugista ; Gothic juk, H. G. jock, E.
;
= bond.
in
Perhaps iden-
with this
ju,
to
is
mix
= to
bind
together,
fup? leaven,
tppv^jus, soup.
f cor
=jas
in few
I seethe,
gischt,
efco/Aai,
fcW;
O. H. G.
yeast.
gerjan, zlsojesan,
H. G.
compare jast, E.
Zcvs
Sec. 21.
S/'cvs,
Juppiter = ^/.
too 8:'w
77
II.
XVI.
d^'0
root fa,
seek, C^rcw.
fa ^Eolic
in composition
S/'a
=
:
Sta
fa^o?
2.
By
8 alone instead of 8j in f
8a
Sacr/ctos,
3.
By
in
^Tra/s,
os,
17,
= ^^
relative
and demon-
kja
to go, see
above impf.
2,
3 sing,
tcis, tct
according to
cry/cei/
with
augment
instead of
the/
e/x,ev,
root
el//,ev
with augment,
Consonantal
II.
Laws of
;
Sound.
^LUDV II.
63
XIX. 402
Iaytcv
= W/ACV
thence
^//,a,
XXIII.
886, 891.
4.
By
it
disappears in
la??
an extension of the
/
^P
l
>
burn,
I
;
dry, aa>
avos,
avaXcos,
avcm/pos,
?AT
av^/Aos
e<os,
^<os,
avcos
vptov,
^cptos
in an? == ^?w<?,
w/, ustus,
aridus, aurora
= ausosa ;
sing,
rjri
us in Vesta,
^
r) ;
^in
^t, 3
i
ajo
I
= agjo,
adagium, nego.
ifiev,
et/xt,
pi.
3 pi.
tcuri,
-gctv,
^/Av
t^a,
with
to
e,
fw^
//WW
?,
Z^/,
^w/
and
indutiae
= induitiae,
aevum,
= imperator ;
tainly also
instance cer-
atet,
OF SOUND.
They
i.
to that
which follows
er
to the following
v,
/A,
in
64
An
Introduction to Greek
Doric
F to
and
Latin.
from FOT.,
C/A/U
e<r/u, ct/u'
isting spirants
o-,
pin eppvTjv,
Treptppvros
/A,
;
from
pv,
<rpv,
of the labials to
ypd/A//,a
rerpijuju-ai
from
Tpt/?a>,
KOTT/X,.,
= ypa</*,a
rcrt,
;
of the dentals to a or
:
TTOO-OT, Trocrt
71-080-1,
=
()
f,y in
1780-., Sioju,curt
awo-ts
T<rt5, /copvcrt
=
:
= Sat/xocrt
ei/vos
overt
rerf.,
tTrfos, iKfo?,
KTW(n from
KCV/'OS,
= /xaA/ov
a\j.
from
/x,aA,a,
compare
melius,
crreX/'co
TT
;
pare
rJKLo-Ta
= dX/. a//^, (rrcAAo = ^r/W, originally T7/c/W, com^TTO)]/ eXaTrojv = r/W, originally cXa^/W, compare
compare W/b, aXXos
:
= T/
of the
<r
of the
first
</)avcra,
==
^yycXcra,
cyctvaro,
2.
The approximation
:
(0)
o-
following
before T arid
A efts
change into the spirant o- before /x. Tjwoyxat (avvr), on the other hand tS/xci/ Ionic, conTrcVctcr/xat (TTI^)
;
nected with
tcr/Aei/,
oS/xiy,
KCAcopvfyxeVos
the gutturals
like
K,
8o/c,
tK)u,ei/os,
t
Ionic
T before
in the
Consonantal
into
sing,
^qo-i,
o-,
is
retained in eort
TiOevTi, <ao-i,
Doric
<ai/ri, ctKocrt,
Doric
Ft/cart,
= = yepovo-ia
TrXovros,
ycpovTta, avaurOrjo'ia
OT;,
from dvatcr^ros,
TrXovcrtos
from
Doric
TV.
to the prece-
ding,
tenuis,
irdoyo)
07(6^0),
under the influence of the preceding spirant from TTOO-KO), TraO&Ku, cp^o^ou = cpcr/c. after the
o-.
dis-
appearance of the
3.
The blending
:
hissing sound
vs,
fy\
yj
^a
(T^o)
o^(t8;o>,
Tpa?rc^a
= TTpa7re8/a,
oria>,
=
Sec. 17, /Act^wv
/cpay/'a),
/xey/W, /xeya?,
Sec. 20.
T/, #/,
/c/,
Aicrcrofwu
^/, into
(assibilation)
AIT/.,
<r,
T/CO,
#/o>, y8dcro-a>v
epcT/xos
Kpcticrcroiv
J
-Treororw
K
/Jr
(^) connected
y
oo-o-e = oK/e
Sec.
?rtWa ==
;
TrtK/a,
oo-o-a
oK/a
;
rjKJwv, yXiJcro-wv
from
?rpafc,
yXv/cvs
from
7rXa/c,
Trp^o-o-co, Trpdo-o-co
from
<^>pdo-o-a>
from <pa,K (K weakened to y in 7rX^y^v, 7T7rpaya, = dvaK/a ; cXdo-o-wv <picro-a> from <^>ptK, avao-Q-a
*
c<^>pcty>;v),
from Ta^vs.
=
5
/'
occurs
66
An
Introduction
to
in 7rpo</>pocro-a
4. Dissimilation to
dentals before T
and
= dvVT-TOS,
the
TTIOTIS,
"TTtOTTOS
== 7T10T.,
7TMT^Vai
for
7T100.
<r
same
also
happens when
KCVT,
7rc7rooT
for
5.
at
Other: mOrjv, eruOrjv, from the roots Oe, Ov, auOrjTL for o-o)^#i,
compare
d//,7rxo>, e/ccxetpta
<f>dQi.
When
aspirate at the
end of a root
it is
Op,
rpexw
0peo/*at,
TO^?
if
= rax/., on the
other hand
when san
0,
still
aspirate
retained at the
stands at
6.
Insertion of a sound
between
avSpos
=*
dvpos,
first
XVI.
857.
XXIV.
is
6,
which
takes
inserted,
short/xpo
ya/x/?pos
= ya/xpos,
;
/AGO7//,/2pta
II.
=
78,
ftpta, a/x/?poro5,
ened
into a/Spores
XIV.
d/xporos
from
(morior)
v,
= ^/xporov, ^/x^porov
by metathesis from
KOV
Consonantal
Laws of Sound.
67
In
Homeric
the beginning
/?X<ikrKa>
v, II.
/x,e/*A.
p,cp.eX.r)Tai, lp.cp.eX.rjTO.
/>tp,
/3p, fiX,
instead of
//A;
= ^ipor., /?poros
with epenthetic
= //AoxTKO),
/xoXcii/.
vTTfjiv^vK
is
XXII. 491,
as in I/WU//.VGS,
an exception.
7.
The
;
loss
of consonants
cr
above
in Kcpws
= Kcparos,
stem
Kepar,
<^>ep6t
of v between vowels in /*i'ovs from /mfoveg, before o- in with compensatory lengthening of sound, KCOTOS </>cporcrt,
from KCVOT
of
;
IT, v8 in ycpovcrt
1 1, 3.
rrcrt, (TTrctcra)
Sec. 9, 2
8.
nants
Qav
;
Ova in
^apo-os
Se'SopKa,
Opa
37.4-
9.
Law
of reduplication
Of two consonants
at the
beginning of a word the first only is reduplicated ; of the the coraspirates the first only of their component parts
responding tenuis
KcxupriKa
OTO-T.,
;
K,
T,
TT,
yeypa^a,
-rrc^uKa,
7re<i/ov
=
t,
r#fy/u, KLxwtu-
For further
;
details see
the metathesis of
that in stems
= ftc/xope,
is like
p.
68
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
OF THE ENDING.
No word
from
the word.
into
S
v,
=
cr ;
ends in a mute, except OVK from /cs, but semi-vowels only v, p, <r
and
)
IK
close
<jf)pov(T),
8o0i,
ai/a
yaXa
= yaXa/cTj
ycpov
TI =
TTCU
vocative
;
= 7rai8,
= = yvvai
yuvai/c,
di/a/cr,
= ycpovr
T disappears in the
TIT, compare quid ; T at the end of changed into s in the neuter participle, ci8o, from etSor, and in adverbs in us, originally COT. So o- dis-
neuter pronoun
a word
is
appears before consonants at the end of a word ; in oimos in <t as suffix of the plural, on the other arpe/xa, ax/ot
',
hand compare
2.
Xi/cpi^fe, nobis.
of the
TroSg,
o-
TTOVS
oi/s,
from
Ol/TS,
COTS,
CtSwS ==
FOTS, /U-T/T^p
rcpars, Sat^cov
/3S,
TTOl/X^V
rt^cts
= Tt^evrs,
a compensatory lengthening
on
oi/^,
3.
The
original
is
and
ace.
sing,
/*,.
becomes
v or
discarded
v in person-endings
from
^v,
connected with
^a?
c>
?>
cfyv
compare
;
8oi
from
8o/x,,
ycyova(/At),
oT8a,
^olic
Trare/oa, original
Laws
4.
of Endings.
v,
69
is
The
so-called
ephelkystic
or v suffixed,
not
original, but a supplementary extension of a word ending with a vowel by taking v to avoid the elision and strengthen
is
discarded.
/ACV,
This v becomes
disappearance of the s;
from
original
and Doric
5.
Latin
is
It allows
other consonants,
lac,
hunc, sunt,
d,
I.
est,
and
differs
from
It
of fact;
d is discarded in
and adverb,
paired, fadllumed, but retained in the neuter pronoun quid) id; with regard to the disappearance of s see Sec.
n, 3; and
PART
II.
REDUPLICATION
ROOTS.
i
.
A root is
grammatical relation.
sort of close
It expresses
and concrete
definition or application.
this first appears in forming It has no pronominal suffix stems and words to express the noun and verb ; it is therefore in itself neither nominal nor verbal, but ex-
naming or of affirming
purely abstract.
it is
For example, the primitive root da is the common source of the verbs 6Y8o>/u, do, of the nouns Sor^p, SOTO'S,
800-19,
donum.
its
general signification,
it
can
and
the gift.
it
71
"he gives"
etc.
The bare
root can
no more
denoting a judgment, than it can imply the distinction between the thing done and the doer of it, or the definitions of sex
and
case.
2.
crete definition,
as a
mere
it
root, into
is
developed language.
discovered and
analysis,
artificially
By made
all
linguistic
clear, so
that
(a)
elements
root, as conditioned
The
fundamental vowel.
(y) Lastly,
a sound which has been in any way lost at body of a word can be supplied through
Compare
;
for
example,
con',
riOrip.1
Of.
umy/u ora
vywp,i
o/x,<u
t
;
vy,
jungo jug ,
fy/u
cl-rjv,
sed;
ct/u,
c,
ja\
cs,
Trams
iriO
cl/u,
otros
la
/x,ao-(ro)v,
/A->7/co9,
;
magnus, major
tSta>,
JU^XK,
mag ;
laSa,
suavi sva
T,
o^,
vox
voc ; pew,
o-pv, etc.
eppvryi/,
J2
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
3. Closely
of the root-vowel
connected with the lengthening and increase is a further amplification of the root in
This also must be removed
may be
reached, and
is
called
REDUPLICATION.
It consists of
full
or partial itera-
more
intensive
.
meaning, and is found both in the noun and in the verb In the noun, for example in d/cw/o; root ok, dycoy^ root ay,
St8a^ root 8aK, oy>7 root fay, 10)77 root <*F, tov0os, not Homeric, from the root avO partly with increase of the vowel in the root-syllable, as in T?/TV/X,OS, partly with the
;
reduplicate vowel
weakened
to
i,
compare
ciconia, cicatrix^
analogous to the verbal present reduplication, partly with both; without this in //.ap/xapos root //,a/>, Kayjcavos root
Kaf, Kapxapos root
xap
x01 ^
/
"
furfur ; lastly in
Aoeis, d/jiaiju,aKTos
nouns such as
The
speak
verbal reduplication
partly variable,
and so
to
In
simply intensifies
in
is
stable,
and
7riVo>,
po
root
coc,
compare
TTCK,
Sec. 19,
2,
vivo reduplicated
example in toAAw,
to
almost peculiar to certain tense-stems, as compared with IOT^I/, root ora; Kixprjju, as
Roots.
root
73
7T6T
;
^pa ;
TTITTTW, Trcorctv,
4.
Other extendental,
sions
exist
in
guttural,
and
which
so-called
root-determinatives, which
Comfrom
TITO,
Sec.
8, Sax in SiSaovca)
theoriginal
//,a0,
iraO in /xa0eti/,
?ra,
/W
in ///^^?, tutudi
and
TVTT in TT/TTTO),
lead back
TV,
The
is
:
also of the
eat, da,
most general meaning compare /, to go, ed, to to give, ju in jus, law and jus, brcth = to bind and
bind
together.
mix,
vy, jug, to
in dXct^xo
and Awr
and
leg in levis
legvis. present stem is very frea has root which been extended quently by reduplication accompanied by a nasal sound and a verbal suffix, for
from
The
example
ytyvo/>tat
from
yev, Aa/AySava)
from
Aa/x/2
from Aa/J
74
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
Generality of meaning.
root
is
The
2, 2,
of vague and
The
and
distinct objects
TTCT,
and modes of
is
action.
Examples root
:
that
Trero/uu,
Penna
1 strive,
<ai/,
(3) 7rwrra>,
Ifall.
etc.
<af) ;
^i?/u,
fan,
(2)
<aiVo), <cos,
fax, etc.
ep, to
Root
d/o,
plough,
to
is
of
general idea
is
of stirring up.
to roar,
to bluster, to
Root
Ov<*),
6v, fu,
smoke, to
is
sacrifice,
in
0v/Aos, Ovos,
fumus
that of violent
movement.
Root Root
ter,
in
TCI'/OW, re/oew,
tero, terebra, to
rub and
to bore;
is
that of friction.
H. G.
brunnen,
to
7rop<t>vp<i>
wave, (4)
in
= <pfap, Gothic brunna, O. H. G. brinnan, to burn, (3) Trop^vpa purple ; the fundamental
the general idea of to well, to wave,
meaning comprises
to burn, to
it
shimmer.
Root
b,
i>,
ju
in
vyoV, jungo,
jus ; root
TV, tu in
see above.
Classification of Roots.
2.
7$
The
root
is
syllable,
short, Sec. 7
/,
to
go ;
es,
to be,
po, to
drink;
vi, fit,
to live;
us
(ev),
to
burn; pet,
become;
Of.
show ;
stor,
ster,
stra, to
strew ;
to to
fop, ver,
war,
to
wait;
spec, CTKCTT, to
turn;
stream;
scand, to
climb;
er, to
TVTT, to
plough;
etc.
3.
(a) verbal
Roots may be classed according to their function as and (ft) pronominal, or roots which express
ideas
and
relations, also
root sometimes
do not
differ in
as in
/,
to go,
which
is
rogative
and
= KIS,
ta,
to stretch,
also demonstrative
= he.
root,
4. Varieties of
form in a
also
by
change in the position of the sounds, va in ventus ; dA.<, lab, dA<ava>, labor ; dpS, paS
/3aA,
(i) Metathesis or
af in
Sec.
arip,
21
ft\a
in
/SaXctv,
/Se^X^at ;
cp
ra in
raffs ; cpeo-ora),
gna
76
An Introduction
cer, ere
]
',
to
n Kptw,
mor,
cerno, crevi ;
mens.
fio\, pXo'j
/xpo,
OTT, Tre,
j
redupli-
cated
TTCTT,
in O7TTO5,
TTeTTTCD, TTCTTCDV,
1 9, 2
7TCT, TTTtt 1R
TTero/x-at, lirrfiv\
Spec, CTKCTT,
Sec.
;
16
orop,
J/^*, J/ra,
Sec'
rep,
y^
to
in ^Xcyw, fulgeo.
(2)
<pv,
</>vp,
see above.
By
,
hardening of vowels
df,
^, div
to go,
thence/^ in
to
21;
us,
Sec. 33.
(j)
By change of consonants
fll",
dX/c, dp/c,
ep,
Sec. 29
TVTT
)Si,
Sec. 36, 3;
eX
ill
epxo/xat,
;
eX^etv
ra</>, ^a?r,
^a/x^, Sec. 1 7
in
7rXa/c,
Trpa*, pax,
By
icra,
ra, TCV,
/^ /
;
/^, compare
(5)
Sec. 36, 4;
<^>a,
<ev, Sec. 25
<^>a,
<aX, Sec.
By
ning, in
x= <TX,
O-CTT,
epTr
= serp,
compare
a-pv, pv,
Sec. 29.
The
a middle stage.
By
Stems of Roots.
root,
fixes,
77
in part verbal suf-
which are
in part nominal,
and
a noun or a verb.
distinction
not as yet a
complete word.
which remains
Considered analytically, the stem of a word is that after the removal of the nominal and verbal
and conjugations.
not the simple root, but has the stamp on it of either noun or verb e.g., opwfu root op, inflexional
Yet
it is
ending
ju,
opw
TrooT?, drink,
s suffix
of the nominative,
;
noun
suffix
<ri
rt,
nominal stem
TTOOT
<a-ri-s.
2.
in the case of
nouns
differ
a stem, or at least
of the noun.
suffix,
Such primitive nominal stems, which have no nominal are entirely independent of the difference between
fern, duc-s
masc.
3.
When
is shown by the funcwhich find their place between These are partly pronominal the root and the inflexion.
78
An Introduction
to
even mere
whose meaning
cannot be
tion of
fixed.
They
take part, however, in the formaalike, as, for instance, the pro-
nominal stem ta serves both to stamp the nominal stem, OITOS, Soros, and, in a weaker form, makes the third person
singular of the verb.
The
appear
aytos,
both
in
verbal
and nominal
stems.
Compare
Si/catos, Ti//,aa>
Besides these pure roots, many nominal stems are In these the present stem also direct verbal stems.
4.
suffix.
This
is
ja
in
its
of sound.
The
many changes
nominal stem.
2.
XXXIX.
i.
(i)
VERBAL STEMS.
and tense-stem.
This last includes the present stem, and, generally, the extension of the root by means of the reduplication which for the most part takes place in the
present stem.
The end
of the root
is is
strengthened by the
strengthened.
cfyu,
eT/u,
with present
0c/*v, IO-T^I
compare
compare
I8o/x,i/,
8ctjcw/u, ^cv'yyv/u
compare
Root verbs
a<o
in
<o
o,
satiate*
8t<o,
Ov<a
sacrifice^
rtco,
Verbal Stems.
forms,
e&o,
<epu>,
79
Xeytt>,
etc.
<vyo>,
forming
;
in
Sato/xat
/3aXXa>
(X X
= A/),
J
*p7Vw,
CTOT
= T/
For
S/,
fo//,at,
aa>,
/cpaa),
peco.
Compare
nominal stem,
Nominal verbal stems, with unaltered and unformed which is not a mere root. In these the
all
stems are pure nominal stems verbs in fo>, o-<ru> ; eA Sera, stem cAmS as in cATri's, so also 8/co, ^A-Trio-a
Stem Stem
epiS,
erraicra,
ju,ao"Tt^o)
'X/Wj
Stem
apTra^o),
stem
crcr
apTray,
Homeric
future
(raA7ri'a>,
Stem
= K/ in = T/ in (f>vXa.K = ^y in t/xai/Tos
; ;
craATrty J
= ^/ in Kopvcrtra), KKopv6KT/PVK,
/o/pvo-o-a),
t/x,a(r<ra)
stem
^vAao-o-w,
t/xavr in
stem
t/xa?,
avr/<o,
Stem
jLtctAto-o-o)
x/00
in
es,
;
'
stem /ActAt^
in av
;
in fteiXt^os.
eor/o>,
rcActw from
;
stem
ai//w,
^eAatVco
Stem fji\av in
a
/CD,
VII. 64
in ap
^
Ka$atpa>
rc/c^iap
in
Xj
ayyeXXa)
nominal stems ending with a vowel. These retain the vowel stem-ending of the noun in the inflexions of the
verb, as a verbal extension of a complete nominal stem.
8o
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
nominal derivation.
The
/o>,
o/<o,
o/o)
come
= rtjua/w,
6pOo.
statujo,
<op<o,
o^eoo,
<opo, 6^0,
/2ioa>,
6p$oa>,
moneo
monejo,
o
statuo
t
verbs in
with
18
iSuo
= crfiS
/x-^j/ta),
KOVO
I/CD (Z
= i/),
conjugation
To
this
(so far as
is
a mere extension of
ova)
a,ya7raeo, ap/x-o^co,
8a/cpvco,
t#v'a>,
Stem
ve/jccrt^a),
tcr^va),
dpwrTcva),
KoXovco
= KoXor/co.
/0r, ///r^j'
Lastly, verbs in
aivco,
wa>
Latin desideratives in
;
/^w
from
esurio
= edturio^ parturio
from partor.
Manifold interchanges in flexion between forms
of
4.
primitive
/cvpew existing
;
by the
;
side
of Kvpw,
atSeo/xat
;
y^^eco,
yeyrjOa
;
So/cew,
ISofa
atSo/xat,
;
l/xa^oi/,
/xa^^oro/xat
cycvo/xryv,
ycv>}cro/>iat
yoaw
connected with
cyoov,
/xr;/ccxo/xat
connected with
/Ac/x^/ca,
connected with
/XC/AVKCI.
Compare
the Latin
///0, video,
XL.
(2)
NOMINAL STEMS,
including Participle
and
Infinitive.
= the root
there
is
then no nominal
but there
of vowel in
Zevs
on the contrary, a change or increase many possible ways cty FCTT, <Ao <A.cy,
is,
:
A/u
voc
(dju,
CTT,
div\
xep~vt.il/
vi/?,
airopp^ root
Fpay,
vox
=f
nex
nee, lex
leg,
dux
due,
pax
pac, rex
reg.
Suffix a, o in A-
and O- stems,
to denote
Fcpy,
an agent as
<jf>opo?,
A.ITT,
well as a thing
<*p, faff)
^^7? fuyov
^iry,
AOITTOS
reduplicated,
aK
^/z; /
toga
advena,
v, #.-
collega.
Suffix
^r^5/ in Latin
levis
sy-
^Svs.
Suffix/^ : aytos,
= pop/a,
is
<xA/^0cia
= 6/c/a
suffix
ja
a secondary
StWios,
=
?;
or/a,
(j>epovcra
=
Fov
:
ovr/a,
XcXotTrvta
=
aevum,
=s
vor/a, //.cXatva,
8ortpa.
z/0,
Suffix
z/^
= =
Fo,
atwv
= atFw^
aetas = aevitas,
cuus.
FcT/'a.
root / to go ;
arvum
?
Suffix Fcvr:
Suffix For
:
xaP t/ts
x aP t/a/TOS x aP t/crcra
Fors,
ctSais
82
An =
Introduction to Greek
and
TI\MI,
Latin.
meno:
;
0v/*ds,
o/x/Aa
(oTT/xar)
Middle
(sc.
participles, StSo/xcvos
Inf.
IS/^evot,
Xa/x/7rpds,
<//>).
with locative
/cuSpds,
Suffix
ra
la
Xapds,
on^X^
ruber,
tf##
na:
rip-rjv
(evs),
ci/ttt,
pecten ;
o/oyavov,
crr^vat,
^Sovr;.
Infinitive
t,
vat,
XcXotTrei/at,
with locative
<friptw
= <^pcvt
cvai
donum,
somnus (sopnus).
Suffix ta,
to,
noxa (eta);
etc., in
and nomina
piyrpa
;
agentis
TraTTyp,
/^/^r,
z//^<?r.
Part. fut.
stem
Denomina-
tive verbs in
sepultura, usura.
Suffix
<^>aTt5,
//,
si,
tu,
etc., in
nomina
;
actionis:
//^ns
(/A<X),
Averts,
^pwrvs,
ftviy/Aocrwiy
^^f^r (met-tis\
supine in u
vectts,
extension in
casus
um ;
= cadtus ;
tua, mortuus,
= = = = ccroi/T/a, ta-ras to-ravr, 0a's co-ovr, covo-a ^J/T, Xvo-wv = OVT, Xvo-acra = avrja praesens from ^y^/ from the
Suffix ant, ent, ont, in part. act. pres., fut., aor.
:
<5i/
root
/ ient,
eunt
(tens, euntis),
^;
#77*07
(#c),
secondary
^ixrt/cos,
compare
Nominal Stems.
under
from
perf. in
stla,
83
*a
cloaca,
stal, further
extension from
secondary
Suffix
es,
civicus, etc.
us, os
y/os
genus,
vetus
veteris ;
masculine in or
s to
= os:
sopor, etc.,
aurora
;
= ausosa,
The
change from
r between vowels
in Latin
Latin infinitive active in ere was originally haps the shortened dative of a noun in es; vehere
fieri anciently fiere,
per-
= vehesei,
=
not a passive form, =fiesei, esse, root ed=* edse, ferre =ferse, velle velse,
root
/,
else,
present stem
I,
ei.
Inf.
perf.
esse is
added
to the perfect
stem in
-/,
peperi-sse,
dixisse
= dicsi-esse,
esse
apocopated
dixim.
attached
the bare
root,
compare
Inf. pass,
did from
dicier,
by metathesis
die, se
= dicise,
inf.
perhaps a
act.
pronoun
amari, amarier
e, ei,
= amasise,
The Greek
original suffix
infinitive
middle in
o-0<u
= Ojau, dhjai
whence
<r0<u
assimilation
and
dissimilation.
The
was jans.
The
disappears in Greek,
84
<r<r
An
(TT),
,
Introduction to Greek
Sec. 34, 3
KOLKLOV,
and
Latin.
and
= /ca/aovs,
dS,
compare
svad ;
TroifjLyv,
^StW from
<r
rj$vs
which
Xe/37/9,
; dpciW, x^pw, Epic ^cpctW, from has disappeared, from the stems apes, x P cs ^ n
Sec. 23 j the comparative formation in from 8;' is with wanting ; on the other hand //.eifov epenptyjov
thetic
t,
Sec. 9,
o-o-coi/,
i,
b,
6\%w=6\iyj,
/xao-o-coj/
II.
XVIII. 519;
Doric,
Sec.
K/OCO--
fipdo-o-uv,
;
TroVcron/, /3dcr<rQ)V
Jonic
Kp&j
Qdcrarwv,
(fta/c,
27),
34, 3.
connected with yXv/ctW, acrcrov ayx./ol/> Sec. In Latin without nasal strengthening ios tor,
pejor,
minus ; to
majus
in
= magius neuter,
w^w- = magius^
ening takes place by the paring down to iu to / in the comparative suffix is of satis mmis, tantisper ; plus
= somehow qui
The
abl. of the
',
a generalizing signification.
eWpoi,
superus,
in-
" ferus; repo in yXv/ci^rcpos, x aP L ^ r P ^) />tcXavTcpos> </>tXrpos by the side of ^tXatrcpos ; in adjective-stems in cs,
uter
= quoteros.
sinister,
is
Compare dexter,
magister,
pedestris ;
minister,
ter.
85
tata,
doubled
quartus,
//.cor,
TO,
raro
TO in ordinal numbers
-Trpwro?,
quotus ;
ra.ro in /xecro-aros,
by
assimilation from
/^o-o-oraros,
Epic
by the
added
compare Latin is, in superlatives of which the comparatives end in tov KCIKIOTOS, TyStoros, <iXeoTos, Soph.
tovs
:
oAiyioros, /2apSt<rro9
II.
XXIII.
con-
310, fjKurra of
^o-o-a>v,
Compare juxta
= jugista,
= exista
= praeis-to.
(ft)
The
s,
;
original suffix
ma, mata
/AO, /ACITO
c/?8o/*o5,
septimus,
summits
plus-imus* (supm.\ dextimus, plurimus (y) Suffix /^^dJ, Latin tumo, time, simo : maximus
magt., optimus, veterrimus, from
simillimus, facillimus
ersimus, pulcherrimus,
from
Isimus.
Compare
is
the ad-
ending simus
ius.
added
to the
comparative stem
is
from
XLIL STEMS
Cardinal numbers,
i.
OF THE NUMERALS.
els
= cvs, Doric ^s, stem and = neuter w (ovSei/) in the original sam in j<?w^/, = sa), Sees. 27. simplex, simul, singuli, compare airat; (a = = Feminine samja, ja being the 30, 2. o-/wa /was =
c/x,
a//,a
/xta,
86
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
dative
feminine
suffix
to>,
fa,
masculine
2.
Stem
4.
Gothic
5.
H. G.
drei, E. three.
Te'oxrapcs,
quatuor.
7.
CTTTOI,
TTO/TC,
quinqne,
2,
Sec. 19,
2.
4.
6.
3.
e,
wx
8.
compare
Sec. 35,
o/crw, ^/^?,
= oySoFos, octavus.
decent. Sees. 21.
g.
10. 6V/ca,
=
x
2x5
10.
?)
etitocri,
dvtginti, dvidecenti.
cKarov,
Sec.
6.
The same
it
syllable
ko
ha,
shortened from
Se/ca,
from
eKon-oV,
it
There
is
word
for 1000; yi\wi and mille are both obscure. Ordinals have generally the superlative forms, Sec.
41.
The comparative
2/38o/>ios.
suffix rcpo is
kept
in
Sevrcpos;
medial as in
PART
III.
WORD-FORMATION OR INFLEXION.
XLIII.
THE WORD.
an abstract of indefinite
The stem is
meaning, neither is it a complete and finished assemblage of sounds which can express a concrete conception, or
a judgment including the synthesis of subject and preIt is made into a true word by the addition of dicate.
the elements of relation
the inflexional endings.
existing
real
Every
by
itself in
a state of
time.
It contains either
a conception or a judgment,
to the noun,
and
is
an action, and
is
These
88
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
and stems.
Adverbs, particles, and prepositions are also originally
case or verbal forms.
Interjections, (so far as they are not verbal forms,
em-
bodying an imperative), and vocatives the mere nounstem in form of an interjection are not real words.
They
and have
therefore
no
suffixes.
disin-
tinctly
definitely.
According to its sex as a person, or as a thing which be regarded according to the analogy of the differmay
1.
ence of sex
presents
itself to
mind
as female,
is
or expressly as
neuter.
3.
The
and
number.
vocative
is
The dual
a variety of the plural. The not a case, but a mere nominal stem, and in
is
= the
nominative.
No
alteration
Gender.
noun, except such as the laws of sound
the inflexional suffix
is
89
demand when
added
to the stem.
The
declensions
of the pronouns
show
essentially
TTttTT/p,
fj
prfrrjp,
rj
In
a,
is
the so-called
and A-stems,
0, d,
17,
Sec.
7,
compare di
Forms
also of the
dropped as
in the ancient
is
ITTTTOTT/S.
On
the other
is
used as
feminine without the stem (in o or u) being lengthened, as 6Sos, oXoxos ; humus, mdlus.
Certain case-suffixes are appropriated to the expression
The
genitive singular
mas-
and O-stems
the so-called
second declension
has the original ending ojo, Sec. 47, while the feminine has the simple genitive suffix s.
The
90
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
of which
it
damnum^
it
8o/8pov,
ju,e0u
though in
Latin
many
vulgus, virus,
and
In the
'== s, rt, quid kit; rts, quis stem forms are fixed also for the feminine ; Certain
y
thus Stems in ja
tfrepovcra
^epovr/a, Soreipa
cg/a
= SoT/o9,
T^Seta
feminine of
-^Svs
in tS in SCCTTTOTIS,
;
masculine
;
SCO-TTOT^S, avXrjrrjp
compare
in victrix
ic
victor.
XLVI. DECLENSIONS
Difference of declension
is
conditioned by the
final
This
is
either a
consonant
may be
and diph-
thongal, in av,
cv, ov.
Consonant stems:
i.
vox, root
OTT,
vocj *fjpv,
stem
TD/OUK, TTOVS
= 7ro8j,
stem
os. cs,
with
compensatory lengthening,/^
2.
eATrtS,
With
stem-suffix originally^,
Greek
Latin
Declension.
91
os, us,
is; /*eW,
Svo-/xei/^s;
= genesis,
the end
Greek the
s at
of a stem
thrown away before the case-suffix which a with vowel; s is original and belongs to the begins stem also in the fifth so-called Latin declension, dies, spes,
is
genitive diet
= diesis,
it
With
;
stem-suffix
in
;//
TTOL^V
ey,
TCKTWV
4.
ov,
8ai)u,a>v
nomen, sermo
(ri),
With
^epwv,
yc/xov,
= Fors,
<ra>//,a,
Xap.7rds
ferens.
5.
With
stem-suffix
in
Vowel-stems
sition into the
equ(o)s,
i.
tran-
^j
2.
Weak
vowel J and U-stems and diphthongal stems, passing into the consonantal declensions, in single case;
fructus ; vavs,
/S
XLVII. CASE-ENDINGS.
i.
The nominative,
accusative,
and
vocative, both
of the
and imme-
or motion.
Suffix s or
identical
neuter.
m, or none.
92
is
An
Introduction
to
Greek
6,
17.
When
this falls
9, 2,
away
the vowel
Trarep?.
is
TraT-rjp
from
It is lost in
X<upa
compare masculine
iTnrora
shortened after
consonants,
materie-s ;
yXoWa.
after
pes=peds, mors
r and
=
/,
morts, root
mor
suffix
ti;
s disappears
vigil(s\
acer
by
es, ori-
8vs/Ai/ts
e<res,
yXv/ccts
cfcs,
TroXtcs Ionic,
from 7roXe/s, lengthened in the Homeric The weaker form in O and A-stems, I^ vafeg.
ot,
X^/oat,
at,
the older
rot, rat,
compare
compare
TO>S,
where the
to
ot,
down
at.
hosties
TroAics,
hosteis^
according to the analogy of the J-stems, also consonant stems, voces from vocies ; fructus from fruc-
tues,
compare T/CKVC?. O and A-stems are analogous to the Greek ; equi from equei, equoi (oe\ equois ; equae, anciently
from equais ; anciently magistreis, filis from
filieis ;
eqttai,
dieses.
Dual
TroXee
nominative
and
accusative
c,
originally
a,
as ; SVS/ACV^ from
original
eo-c,
In
a of
d, ITTTTO),
The
duo, ambo,
compare
am,
or,
when
the stem
ends in a vowel,
m;
v occurs instead of
according to
Case Endings.
ends in a consonant
a tach- vowel,
<f>epov
;
93
v,
Trarcpa
by
for a is
= pataram.
Neuters have no
case-suffix,
stem
vav,
Homeric
rijfa
iroXiv
from
Ti-oXc/a,
;
compare
cvpw.
*S
v^os, 770X7705,
and
Sec. 9, 2
ev/oe'a
Homeric, stem
of
//fo
and feminine
have
is
affixed
N-tyfas,
to
the accusative
;
singular.
Neuters
a.
vavs (raws)
TroXcts
= 7roXe/as,
Homeric
7roX?ias,
compare from
TroXvs the
Homeric
TroXeas
= TroXefas,
TTTTTOVS,
by
^WJ/
Doric
>
fructus
= fructuns,
The
vocative, as distinguished
no
suffix,
cv/xcvcs, 8cu//.oi>,
cuorep,
TToXi,
vav
=
;
is
weakened
into
;
c,
tTnrc
x^P a
>
same
as the nominative
779,
vv^rj, vocative
TroXtra,
a Homeric; in masculines in
2.
The
one object and another, expressed by a noun, partly an attachment of one object to another by motion from the
one
to the other.
originally local in
their functions.
their signification,
The ending
94
Greek
o>s
in J-
and
in diphthong-stems, in
j and
Epic Ionic,
ao-Tecos
Attic, SO
Epic
/3o(r(Xrjos,
Attic /ScwriXews,
cFos
;
on the other
hand yAv/ceos =
TroXis is treated as
in
The
ended
Attic
originally in
ITTTTOV,
Homeric
ITTTTOLO,
from
compare
II.
II. 325,
Od.
I.
70, oo
ov
more
aoy'o),
Homeric
becomes
by the
ao,
along with
eo.
ca>,
where there
os,
The Latin
archaic in senatuos,
us, as generis
genesos, fructns
= fructuos,
The
side of the
to the
archaic
fiuituis, senatuis,
analogy
of the O-stems.
A-stems
the
compare
illius, istius ;
ancient
aquai, familial
modify ai into
ae,
s ; famllias, terras.
s,
in genidiet
forms in
ei
by
ies
(materics)
exists
by the
materiel
Case Endings.
95
The
Greek
original
o>v,
in
A-stems originally
Homeric
awv,
can/,
in consonant-stems,
generum
genes-urn,
from the
;
in
O-
asum, by the
locative singular.
The
dative proper,
the case of the more remote object, betokens a relation of interest, the entrance of a person or thing into the
sphere of operation of an action ; the locative betokens rest in a place. In Greek the two cases have for the most
part coalesced, since the dative relation was originally
The
dative
ending was
with short
is
The
tTnra)
true
Greek dative
x^P?
l7nra)t,
== ^ l >
t being locative, patrl dative. found only in O- and A-stems from aai. The former have
ot*ot, Trot, ot
the single
difference
is
x/^t.
The
of meaning between the pronominal locative "whither" and the nominal locative " where," is not original. True
Latin datives are senatui
diesei;
= quoi,
The
only
Latin locative in
genitive in
O- and A-stems,
Corinthi
ei
consequence of the
dis-
(i
ot,
compare
ot/cot)
Romae
locative
Romai^
as
x^a!,
96
An
Introduction
to
originally
heri,
Romais ;
mutation of e and
run, peregri, postri-die from did, temperi. By per i the Latin locative has been confused
its
original
d;
t.
rure
= rured,
The
Greek
an ablative
like peregre.
ended
in at,
In
adverbs in
originally
kat.
ra^ew?,
Travrcos, a>s,
TWS,
TTCOS,
The
Latin
is
archaic
in
hosteid, sententiad, but was cast away at a later period, and the ablative in consonant-stems thenceforward
ended
in
e.
The
ablatives,
in postidea, thence
enclitic
que in quis-
Greek
in
cro-t
(o-ft),
o-t: TroSeo-o-i,
Ionic,
TroXtecrcrt
Homeric.
O-
Sec. 9, 3
iTm-own, ^wpatcrt,
thence
tTTTrots,
;
^topat9,
Epic
and Ionic
this
t
^o-t,
#s
(77
originally d)
exist in Latin.
7/fc ablative singular
and plural
suffix <i(v)
= bhi,
fcXto-n/^t,
Ocofav
tibi.
Doric
and
Homeric
rcfv
= T^>/,
compare
Latin
pronoun
Pronouns.
dative singular
/,
97
demonstrative
tibi,
alibi)
utrobi;
mihi =
mibhi.
Sec.
disappears
(abios)
;
equis
from
mensis
rebus,
eis,
ais
compare deabus,
filiabus,
and
diebus.
The
suffix <n/,
with
<f>
from o<u/, a<u/, in O- and A-stems, passes into the other stems ; iroSoui/,
to
ou>, aiv
and contracted
of gender
cyw,
cycov
Skr.
aham ;
ego ;
Gothic
ik;
thoroughly independent of and different from ma, the ist personal verbal pronoun ; <, weakened from TV, Doric,
coexisting with TVVTJ
reds.
;
tu stem tva ;
The
I,
accusative forms
reflexive
Homeric
cc,
^Eolic
fc
(=
rfc),
= svt,
c/xot, o-ot
(= rfot),
ct^,
te,
compare
med,
ot/cot
Doric
e/xtV,
Homeric
rctv, -^Eolic
from
se
c/x<ti/, etc.,
ted,
me,
c/xcto,
from original
crco, orcv, crov
case-suffix
;
rcoto, o^cto,
eto, Io,
ci),
ov (for
o-feo),
hiatus, as in
I-
98
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
;
Plural nominative
like
v/x^es,
accusative
a//,/*
the singular;
^as,
and the
i/<o
The
dative
bi,
^lv has
tibi,
<iv.
Nobis with
as in
of the plural.
vo,
dative
o-<w, o-<u>i
;
vok according to the analogy of the from rfw o-<<oe ; genitive and dative
;
vwtv, vu>v
<r<^o)tv, o-<o>i/
o-<a>iV
is
The
possessive pronoun
:
= rfos, tuus, in
os, eos
2nd person Doric and Epic TCOS Ionic Attic weakened into o-os. 3rd person
o-fos,
Homeric =
syllable long
by position
'v/xds, o-<o?,
as
Plural 'a^os,
o, II. Homeric
^Eolic.
2.
6,
in later language,
as
an
= sa,
;
2, instead of
o-os
being dropped
yj~sd; neuter
TO
= TOT,
the r at the
rt,
in
compare
The rest
article der,
den ; besides
ot,
at
we
rat,
and
o8e,
also
roSe,
Homeric;
rotsSccro't
rovs
TOVS
from
both
forms
Homeric, with inorganic case-ending. The pronominal stem ta, or in its less common form sa, is the foundation
Pronouns.
of the
article,
99
basis of the
demon-
strative
forms.
The forms of
also
who
employed
os, ^, o
this
form as a
is
relative, to
avoid a hiatus.
the
Relative pronoun
i; this also
8* os,
was
*al os
os K<U os.
Compare
The
indefinite interrogative
;
is
-us
the
same d which
pronoun-stem
ta, is
declension of pronouns
id, illud,
quod, aliud
= aXXo(r)
j.
nequiquam.
stem i;
before a,
/,
compare
eunt,
Hie
and
ce;
ne follows
/,
haice,
hoc
= hodce;
pronoun
antehac.
for hue.
/,
thence without
it
aliqua, si qua,
compare
The
eis,
forms.
They are employed originally to designate relations of place, and afterwards those of manner and time. They
ioo
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
and and
They
for the most part declare themselves by their endings as definite cases of nouns or pronouns. E.g., pronominal
6, TO,
of the
o>8e,
Ionic
KOS,
;
are
w?,
forms
ot, Trot
locative
compare the
Homeric adverbs dvtSpom, drat//,am, etc., with locative ending n used in a modal or instrumental signification
ov,7ro9 genitive,
OL,
ending of the
temporal adverb ore, Tore, TTOTC, Doric o/ca, with re, que ; compare /cat, Sees. 16. 19.
etc., is identical
For adjectival
suffix
adverbs in
Sec. 47.
t,
see
rj
Modal
a//,a,
suffix a,
a in
/^aXa, raxa,
Many
and
adverbs are
identical
singular
2.
tain
In
Homer
they are
still
used in
were afterwards
came
;
to
Tro/xu
prae
prat are locatives ; pro =prod, ante(d), apud are ablais a genitive ; compare coelitus, antiqidtus ; ; Trapos
see above under Adverbs.
Inflexion of Verbs.
3.
101
of the infinitive,
petrified
The whole
actionis
of the
many forms
be considered as
forms of
Nomina
added.
II.
THE INFLEXION OF
The
VERBS. CONJUGATIONS.
L. ELEMENTS.
i
.
is
expressed only in
its
an abstract form by the verbal stem. It receives closer definition and formation into a word,
a.
motion
this is
expressed in the
mode
in
which some-
done or has happened, in its relation to fact thing what has really occurred, or as what is merely as either thought of and willed ; this is expressed in the mood-elements.
special
is
the objective
subjective
mood, without
The
moods
are the
Through the
its
time, as well as
finished
in
and
out
the last
;
thoroughly carried
Greek only
this is
IO2
2.
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
is
Genus Verbi.
The
action which
expressed by
is
may
desig-
more
distant object.
by bears a receptive passive relation to the action, is denoted by the middle forms of inflexion, whose reflex signification is shown by more extended and stronger
person-endings.
active,
They
differ
subject to an action.
But since
this
may be
also
medio-
passivum.
3.
The forms
formations.
of the passive
new
only the
compound
peculiar forms
are produced
by
Personal Endings.
103
i.
PERSONAL ENDINGS.
LI.
i.
The synthesis of a
is
essential to
predicative force, is
accomplished by the amalgamation of the pronominal stem, serving as a subject, with the predicate, a stem implying meaning in its simplest verbal form. Weakened forms
of the pronominal stems in the three persons of the singular without reference to gender, appear in the personal endings as enclitics at the end of the verbal stems. By means of
the accent of the
word they make up with the root or the They are ma, com;
pare
tu,
ft
tva,
compare
Doric TV,
Root
/,
as, to be,
compare TO, stem of the article. mi weakened from ma, I, as-mi, being
pronominal stem
ta, that,
I am.
Root
da, to give,
he;
Weakened form of the pronoun in the personal endings mi, si, ti. The endings of the plural consist of a combination of
i st
singular.
Personal endings
plural
masi=matvi,
tvatvi, thou
ye ; 3rd plural anti, nti, either a of or compounded with the proform //, strengthened he and he, they. E.g. asmasi, we are; nominal stem an
and thou
astasi,
ye are ;
asanti, they
see Sec. 53
1O4
An
...*,-
Introduction to Greek,
and Latin.
These
the tense-stems of the present, future, and perfect (in this last case the primary personal ending is smoothed away
in
all
forms
of the conjunctive.
2.
A further
so-called secondary
ist pers.
mi
to m, v according to the
s,
Greek phonetic
law,
2nd
pers. <n to
3rd pers. to
T,
which
nti*
,
disappears at the
pers. plural v
from
The augment
Greek
reference to distance.
It is pre-
and
word
into
one sound.
Thus
does not, like the reduplication, coalesce with the whole tense-stem, but only with the indicative, and, as in Homer,
The does not necessarily attach itself even to this. is as with the verb of form follows, augment original
root da, adam^ adadam, instead of adami, adadami. Greek
eStSwv instead of cSiSoyu.
On
syllabic
A syllabic
and temporal augment see the grammars. augment where there is a vowel at the begin-
Personal
ning of the root, and a temporal augment where this is lengthened to t instead of ^, point to a rejected consonant
at the beginning of the root
F,
^^u^^/>S
/, or:
examples, Sec.
cj(,
n,
o-c^;
2; Sec. 21
Sec. 30,
2,
tS
augment with
before
p,
doubling of the
points to a rejected
or
o-
Fpay
3.
The
to
be
considered as a vocative), is in the 2nd pers. singular of many primary verbs in -/a characterized by aspiration of
the personal termination, OL from dhva
tva,
compare
in
2nd
below
for the
remaining personal
LII.
Here we have
These
flexional forms, in
differences exist
between (a) the primitive verbs, the which have, with the exception of
exclusively a vowel root(to
= ecr/u
and
fjp.cu
= ^oyu,
ending and
which
^vyw/xt),
the
verbs
ending in the
ist sing, in
o>,
which
insert
originally a in the
io6
An
Introduction to Greek
and
with
Latin.
the
Greek, uniformly
interchangeable
see below).
vowels
and by
o (ist sing.
o>,
The
far
root-verbs in
TreVoftat, /xa/a>,
also
a considerable number of
called
'
verba pura
'
as
TIO>,
however the
most
though it only occurs sporadically, indicate the loss of a j which served to lengthen the present, and has
fallen out
from
its
and the person-endings <vw, JEolic <wo), so Ova = Ovio* compare Ai/ci Od. VII. 74. Other verbs in -w whose
roots
end
in vowels, as
o-;
eo>,
F,
i/co/uu, rpe'o),
or
Aae,
<ae, Sees.
o>
28,
and
appear as
jected.
of primitive
doubtful, the
mediaries
between
and
per-
Forms such
nantofan
as
est,
rem
The primary form of the \st person singular is /u, from The original form from the root as is asmt,
thence ci/At
= coyu,
^Eolic
t;
l/x/xt; ineT/At
/AI
the vowel
is
strength-
root
^Eolic
oprjfju.
The
at disappears after
Personal Endings.
107
which
is
added
w;
a from a/u, AcAoiTra from A.cAoi7ra/xi, compare the JEolic FotT^/u. In the conjunctive the original personal endings are retained in the
instead of legmi, Latin
Perfect
Homeric forms
cwrw/u.
?8o>/x,i
II.
XXII. 450
tSco/mi(?),
cO&wfju,
In the optative, which elsewhere shows a secondary personal ending, the ist singular primary form in fu has been introduced, as ^epot/xt, older forms with secondary
ending rpc^otv,
the
etc.
;
in
Ti0ei7/v
compare
tfriAoirjv.
is
v for
in the
ending of
with tach-
the
to-r^i/,
The
v for
p is dropped
in
a,
and a tach-vowel
In Latin the
is
found in the
first
aorist
as
.f/Vtfz,
m of the original mi is kept in sum = esum= tsm, esmi clp.t, in inquam, in the imperfect in bam (see below), eram, in the conjunctive-optative veham, sim = = coyV elsewhere the termift>#2, compare cirjv nation is o : fero = ferom. Derived verbs with stem-ending
;
a,
ama,
;
tion
VOCO
VOCOO) VOCOJO, as
from
Tt/>taa), TtyLta/w.
is
v,
0i
and
rjo-Oa
with radical
o- ;
through assibilation
we
get from
this,
swa, swi,
si,
s.
loS
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
=
In Greek we find the primary form CTL in eoW Ionic original form assi, from which comes the Homeric els,
the personal ending being entirely lost in the Attic form
ct,
<epc6<?,
<f>pys
i.
from
<t>cp<rL,
More-
over
we
Homeric conindicative
^arOa
compare
ist plural
sti, stis,
and
where
0-6
is
Depots, as also in
8i5o>s.
Perfect AeAoiTras.
In Latin
legis
= sies ;
es,
thou art
= ess
essi,
assi ;
conjunction
singular perfect
is sti,
:
compare above,
a-Oa.
Imperative
Oi
Wi, lo-Qi
eo-^t, la-Oi
= ftS^t, dissimilation
or^6,
ccrra^t
FtS, yvoi^t,
opwOi,
iX-qOi, ava>x0t,
t
instead of
at the
end of a word;
OL
Si'Sov,
tern?
Homeric
8t'So>0i.
:
disappears in verbs
Xeyc, rt/xa
= rt/xa/e,
compare
/^
ally
to,
^^<7.
an imperative.
memento,
is
in Latin in
esto,
reduplicated.
for the
Personal Endings.
109
ta
compare
tantus
is
and
talis,
si.
weakened
form
asti,
into ti
The
original
he
is,
eon', StoWt.
Tt is
retained in
;
ccrrt
and
in
the Doric
o-t is
in <^>^o
evywon, and in the Homeric conjunctive ay -t, 0\?7o-t, &3o-t, Swryo-t, with transposed or epenthetic
is
t
to
in the preceding syllable (and hence the be retained). The indicative of verbs in w
in
vja-i
c,
subscript
as
e^cto-t.
is
Forms
The
termination
is
from c^cpem, ^cpcrt, <epo-i with ellipsis of dropped the or between vowels (?), and in the perfect yeyove. In the
in <epet
secondary forms of the historic tenses and optative T must be dropped according to the law of final sounds !/fy, cStSoo,
:
<^p,
Imperative
TO>
from
T<OT, to-raYo),
/0.
per/
In Latin the
retained, as
TrcVryyc.
= est, legit
though
s,
And
2nd person
is
its
sound as a dental
tenuis.
The
see above,
thou) are.
in Ionic
originally
original
(1+
From
ma.
the Doric
/ACS in cfyo/xcs,
we
find /iev
and even
afterwards introduced
fyiev
co-fto/,
= imasi,
imatva;
short tach-vowel.
= esumus,
so
no
form
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
see above, original
In Greek a bare re remains, as in astasi, you core, ire dropping entirely the sound of the 2nd person pronominal stem, which is weakened first to <n, then to 9,
and
finally altogether
abandoned.
The
Latin
tis
shows a
trace of the
AyT(s).
emphatic
yop#e.
tasi)
The
tote,
te,
by the side of dvwycre, ey/oiyThe dual originally = 2nd person plural TOV from
see above.
In Greek
thence
curt
edo-t
original form asanti, they are, Ionic instead of ecravrt, Doric am, and finally
tdcri
= ecr-vrt, =
from
tavrt,
tfracrL
v being
Si&W
loraavrt
J
8iKi/va<rt
StSoavrt,
icrraort
the
Homeric
,
riflcto-t,
;
StSovrt
<t>epovo-L is
-ta
feronti,
tf/z/,
/,
from yepovna. The Latin sunt esonti,ferunt= tremunt archaic tremonti. The secondary form is
T being dropped in the Greek termination, ^o-av == ^o-avT, l^epov, the optative tev o/VT, ff>poiv. In Latin
/ is retained as
e'Soo-av, etc.,
equals
ment
a form
composed with vav asant; ciiyo-av, by the side of clcv, is a compound of the root as, c? with itself; to-o<rt
with the primary form in so ; asanti compare dederunt from dedisonti. Imperative OVTWV with the addition
= ct/ca-avrt ctfao-t
of
v,
compare
legunto ;
Middle Passive.
is
in
crai/
late
form from
T<O
shortened
from asant.
The primary form of the 3rd person dual is TOV, the secondary form in the historic tenses is rrjv rjo-rov, rjo-rrjv, compare r/ore with the <r of the root retained, connected
:
with
rjrov, y-nivy
compare
^re.
LIII.
GREEK MIDDLE-PASSIVE.
The
maty
active forms
saiy
y
which have a
reflexive force.
tvatvi, tati
Original forms
myself, or to
taiy
from mamiy
=I
myself
or to thou thyself y
thyself
he himself
the con-
combination of two personal pronouns acting as and object, which is either nearer or more remote, subject in distinction from the copulative combination, I andthoiiy
structive
thou
and thou, in the plural active. The primary form of the ist person
the secondary
singular
is />wu
from
mami;
^v
from
mam ;
T$e/x<u,
The primary
is o-at
is o-o
original
a.
/u
and
rifleo-cu,
To-rao-ai
SvVacrat,
oi/ocrat
Homeric; imperfect
enflco-o,
foraoro;
imperative
dropped without contraction of the vowels: AtAou'eat, S^ai Od. XI. 100, op^at XIV. 3431 secondary: e/iapvao, wSwao Od. I. 62 ; imperative
ft.
o- is
Forms where
112
An
Introduction to Greek
0eo, 0e'o, 0e9
3.
and
Latin.
TraptoTao; aorist
opo-o, Se'fo,
y.
tfco-o;
on
Forms without
*
the
tach-vowel
conjugation
<cpecrat,
o,
,
Epic Repeal ;
Attic imperfect
c/cpc/xw
;
of the
/xt
conjugation
CTTIO-TO)
;
cSww,
Homeric
imperative
aorist !0ov,
0eo-o,
ISov Attic;
Socro.
is
rat from
TTCD,
imperative
;
o-0<o
from
by
of the active
the
o- is
due
to dissimilation
and the
The
aspirate
i st
person plural
/A0a,
//,co-0a,
from
madhai=
plural
matvai, matasi
<r0e
=I
thou thyself.
from
.r/zvz/
three forms
= thou
plural,
he he him, with v dropped antai, ntai, from antati In Epic and Ionic ar<u, aro, a is an becomes atai.
original element of the personal ending; Kcarai, Kcaro,
/3cj3XJaTat, carat, old Attic
</>0a-
parai
elsewhere primary
i/rat,
secondary
VTO.
as
Conjunctive
to the 3rd, reduced to
lego- se.
leges-se.
s, r.
and
ist
Optative.
113
person singular legor from 2nd person singular legeris from legesi-s(e), legere = ist 3rd person singular legitur from legeti-s(e).
= legimus-se.
Imperative
legunt-(u)-se.
amare
ama-se,
legere = lege-se.
(3.
Periphrases
in the
ticipial
middle-stem in
plural
plural,
by the parestis
mood and
tense in lega-
mini
= legimini
sitis,
2.
MODAL ELEMENTS.
The
mood
Greek
or
insertion of the
modal
suffix,
ending.
In Latin the subjunctive is generally formed by compounding the verbal stem with a suitable conjunctive form of the auxiliary, Sec. 67. The mood of objective
reality,
i.e.,
the indicative,
is
a special modal element, and by the immediate junction of the verbal stem to the personal ending.
The
conjunctive
is
the
mood
of fact conceived
as
happening or
The
original suffix
was
#,
114
Introduction
a.
to
tach-vowel
So the
I may
be,
from
o>
or
77
for a.
is formed after the analogy of the verbs with a lengthened tach-vowel, which is amalgamated with the final vowel of the root, w, Ionic lo> from c<ro>
the indicative
a)
in
asdmz,
fieri
77$,
0-770-1
= asdsi
fieri,
$> Ionic
07, 070-1,
= asdti.
from
= asdnti. <o) = <ao>, <T}S = ^0177$ (with = instead of d), rt0co = Tt$--o>, torco = tcrrao) SO = the aorist Ow, Epic dcuo Sw, Sco/xat Sow^icu.
lo>rrt
77
to>
!eo>,
^eo>,
8o>(o,
The Homeric
dialect
still
ormations with short vowels of the conjunctive of primary verbs, which in the indicative were destitute of a tachvowel.
?(oju,ei/,
to/iei/
into
tftev,
later
after the
In the O-conjugation the ist person singular conjunctive does not differ from the indicative, </>epo> from bhardmi.
3rd person </>prj<ri, person plural <^epa)/xev from bhardmasi, 3rd person plural ^cpwo-t, Doric </3on/Ti
singular
<t>cpy
faprjTi,
ist
bhardnti.
The
optative
is
the
mood
by the verbal
suffix
ja, to go,
compare the verbal periphrases venum ire, amatum iri. Original form as-ja-m ; in the Greek the modal suffix is
irj
i,
ie.
efyv
coy'^/x,
cfys
lot?, lot
Conjunctive
after the
and
Optative.
115
below,
Ti0ci?7v>
cfy/iev,
or/r//x,s,
etev
ecr/evr;
SO
Tt0e,
Icfyv,
lorcuV* S&ofyv
^rom present
stem U,
tora,
cfyo-av, etc.,
0V
tracted
connected with
lastly,
TI^HI
in
the
O-conjugation ;
modal
ele-
ment only
Sec.
t,
which
ot.
is
the diphthong
ist singular
52
</>p<w/u
with
older
tofyi/, optative of secondary endings ; middle ^epot/^T/v. a and the suffix besides ki?? unites the tach-vowel ct/xt, 177,
XIX. 209 (tew/?), Tot as in the O-conjugation. The strong aorist of the O-conj. ends like the present, AtTToi/u, Aa/2oi/w for Aa/Soiv. The compound aorist retains
II.
a,
in
fjn
XiWtfu, Xvoraifjirjv ; the passive follows the conjugation which has no tach-vowel,
from
in Greek,
became
obliterated in Latin.
The forms
of the
n6
2
An
Introduction
to
The forms
mood
rj.
in
With the
ist singular forms of the 3rd, 2nd, and 4th conjugations, legam, differs from the indicative lego ; so also the archaic
legatis
= Xeyryrc.
3.
forms with
Remains of the optative forms in Latin. The mood from the original modal suffix ja, ia, by /,
<?,
contraction
te, J, e,
Forms
stemus
in i:
sim
= siem, esiem,
CIT/V;
so sis,
sit,
the
sitis,
sintfiGm
sies
= efys,
= efy/4v, sient=tv from eq/evT. So vclim, edim = ediem, besides edam, duim = SotV by variation of the root da to du = So, besides ducim, compare the archaic
perduam^ creduam ; dederim
2.
forms perduim, creduim, along with the conjunctive forms dedi-sicm, with a strange
Forms
in e
Greek
o tach -vowel,
later
modal element)
this e
was retained
dices,
by the
etc.,
dicemus
The
pare
amem from
ama-i-m, com.
^^
Tt/xo>/?7-i/,
is
Classes of Tense.
4.
117
a and in e are found, as in legamus, legemus, audiamus^ only the conjunctive form in a has the signification of the subjective mood, the optain
tive
form in
is for
The
optative ist
singular form legem, audiem was however displaced by the conjunctive form legam, audiam, which was then
changed
The
ist
person
person singular indicative future in conjugations 3 and 4 have consequently one and the same form which is used for the
singular conjunctive present,
and the
ist
and expressing
3.
TENSE-STEMS.
The
tense-stem of a verb
is
and the
characteristic
with the root present forms in the case of root-verbs which contain the simple root without any sort of
amplification or any intensification of vowels to express
the present,
e.g.,
ifiei/,
<a//,ej/,
Acyo/tev;
and
also in the
Aa/3o>, Aa/?oi/u,
is
marked
as a present
in the other case as an aorist by the ; want of the amplification of the present of the given verb
Ii8
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
In
(XctVu), Aa//,/?ai/o>).
is
root
and
intensification,
and additions
to the termination.
2.
a simple
non-amplified
root,
uncom-
root, that is to
The
the
The
Present
is
charac-
by
at the ending,
and
personal endings.
present by
The
Imperfect
is
sonal endings.
also the
(/3)
5,
The above
and
By compounding
be,
to
the ComFuture,
Compound or WeakAorist,
which also belong certain forms of the perfect resulting from other combinations, as well as
of the aorist passive.
3.
119
and
more
simple forms than Latin, and has preserved a more primitive character in the formation of tenses.
In Latin the
present
is
it
its
imperfect
is
On
the
4,
Tense-Stems.
(i)
SIMPLE TENSE-STEMS.
LVIII.
i.
The
root
word by means of
Reduplication was
originally the doubling of the root or the compounding it with itself, with the view of intensifying and enhancing
its
it is
finished
and completed
at the present
moment, while
momentary
is
The
original
stasta.
The
* This
first
is
root
is
shortened in the
first
final
sound, as in
omission of reduplication and vowel-intensification, it exhibits the pure verbal root, while the present stem in so many formations
departs further from it, and the simple aorist betrays a secondary character in the augment and secondary personal endings.
I2O
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
TrerrX/fya;
the
dropped, as
is
irc^ip/a;
the
;
first
sound of the
reduplication
dropped, as
IKI-OVO,
vowel
is
The
is
whole
root, as o8o>Sa,
oTTw^ra,
in simple
first
root-verbs;
and
partly the
doubling
of the
dp^po/xevos
II.
XVIII. 548,
;
ep^peSarcu
XXIII.
Grammars
and
Sec. 34, 9.
2. The root vowel is lengthened sometimes in the first, sometimes in the second stage, Sec. 8 as \\t]0a from the root Aa$ eclya, Ionic e?7ya = FeFaya, Fay ; c/crova, KTCV J
:
;
copya
Ippwya, Fpay
oT8a, Ft8
tcr/xcv
dropped
:
from
et/c, Ft/c,
iTreTnO^ev
from
TreTroLOa
plural forms of
cora/xcv,
3.
Stem termination a
yeyoi/a(/xt), oT8a,
^Eolic
aorist ; 3rd plural acrt middle 3rd plural Epic and Ionic the original ai/rat, Sec. 53, also in vowel root-
compound
endings.
in part aspirated,
(ctpyco),
121
stem,
unknown
from root
transitive,
as
yet to
Homer,
is
SeSi/xa
TreTrpd^a,
and
Homeric
from
KOTT.
The simple Greek pluperfect which expresses the idea of completeness in past time is formed from the
perfect stem with the
endings.
This formation
isolated instances,
and
is
differ
augment only, under the influence of which the lengthened vowel also disappears, as eTreVt^r*/ from the perfect
TreTroiflo, eSciSt/Aev, cSci'&c,
with ending
o-av in
augment /x^ao-af ;
partly
personal ending ov in analogy to the imperfect ; as from the perfect fji^Ka, from root /ia/c in
,
rjvwyov
from
ava>ya,
as
an imperfect from
di/coyw
which
on ^vwyca, rjvwyci, dvtayei, see Compound Pluperfect ; compare this form of the pluperfect from the compound perfect
TT<f>vKov
;
dual forms
et'K-n/v,
e/cyeyar^v.
The middle
always has, fect in the ist person singular pip from the perfect in /AGO, with secondary personal endings and augment, as
from
122
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
express completion
there
is
in
present time.
In Latin, since
office,
no
aorist,
the perfect
serves a double
time
formation
removed
adopted.
to the past.
The
reduplication
The stem-ending
(et) for
sti,
or tach-vowel
is
(<?/).
ist singular /
dm, zsfero fromferomi. 2nd singular and plural stis; compare the combination o-O in the Greek personal
tfrfjo-Oa,
endings
infinitive crOai.
ening of the
/,
TiOrjo-Oa, ist person plural middle pta-Bo., 3rd singular //from dt with original lengthwhich is shortened in the ist person plural
imus;
i is
dicsi-sti, scripsi-sti.
The long
/ in
Old Latin,
and
3rd plural erunt, ere, dederunt from dedi-sont, compounds with esonti, compare
To-curt,
in part
by the
later poets.
Sec. 52,
where the
i is
vowels.
Latin Perfect.
i
.
123
is
retained.
The
tutudi, root
= dic-sco,
and the
as
dak
in
8iSacrka>,
is
Reduplicated vowel e, especially when the root-vowel a or a vowel derived from a through intensification
:
or weakening
tetigi,
cecini, pepigi,
;
ceddi, fefelli,
peperi, peperd,
archaic
= at),
rX^vat
from root
tol in tollo
= tal,
rXa in
the
TroAAw.
Where
sp, sc,
and
mute
steti
stesti (dis-
= wm/fu,
;
sistami.
The
it
reduplication
it is
for the in
in
simple verbs
yet
is
dropped
compound
ones, as expuli ,
:
abdidi,
abstiti ;
syncope
rettuli,
re,
as reppuli
is
t=repepuli,
repperi^
where there
no
vowel of the
root-syllable.
/,
The vowel
of the pre-
sent a
becomes
<?,
or
r;
fefelli,
peperd, peperi,
/
The
but
present-vowel e
becomes u before
as pepuli,
compare
tetendi.
Roots ending in a lose the root-vowel in the rootafter monosyllabic da sta steti, dedi, syllable
:
prefixes
dbdidi,
the vowel of
condidi.
the
reduplication
becomes
of the
/;
Compare
the
change
root-
124
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
The
back.
influence of the
reduplication
as well
as
is
of the
thrown
The
is
dropped
in the
pario being dropped, which belongs stem present only, Sec. 39, momordi by the side of the denominative present form mordeo, pepuli,
i in
the
in
which
the
second 4 which
originated in
/,
/,
is
dropped.
Perfect forms in which the reduplication
scidi,
tuff,
is dropped: from fidi fid, findo ; in as as see above well as in those ; compounds comperi, whose stem coincides with the perfects present, as /#/,
2.
from
tetult,
scicidi ;
plui, pandi,
cudi (cudo\
verity
scandi,
prehendi,
these
3. Perfect
is
lengthened to compensate for the dropping of the reduplication ; a from a: lavi, cavi, favi, pavi ; e instead of
pegi ; e from
sederc^
venere,
compare sido ;
stem forms,
with denominative
edi,
emi ;
The
length of the
Strong Aorist.
125
vowel of the root-syllable is occasioned by the dropping of the first consonant jed=jejici, egi^egigi, legi=leligi.
:
from reduplicated ones. The reduplication was either retained with a shortened root-vowel or dropped and
the root-vowel lengthened instead.
The stem
unmodified
expresses
is,
This in
its
action.
Further forma-
through
its
An
root
/?a,
coincides, as in tyrjv,
with the imperfect of a verb, which in the present also shows only the bare root; but this is, like /?, fiairjv, etc.,
in distinction from
<,
</>airjv,
to be recognised as
fla
an aorist
from the
fact,
that
no present form
;
/fy/u, is in
use
Zfirjv
therefore,
aorist,
is
used as an
is
used as
an imperfect.
The Homeric
dialect frequently
employs
letTTOV
cfefcTTOV,
C7T</>VOV
126
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin*
Epic and Attic
o-7ro/o?v=
;
O-CO-CTT.,
FcFcTT., ^yayov uyaycu/ fjviTraTrov, fjpvKaKOV reduplicated Epic aorist with repetition of the final consonant instead of the first root consonant.
i.
Forms from
erX^i/,
cyixov,
eaXtoi/
stem
aXu>, c^StW,
c6W,
2/cro,
ovra, ist
;
person plural
c0e/xev, eSo/xo',
Z0t<rav in
composi0o>
tion,
Sec.
52.
^etr;s
Conjunctive-optative,
Sec.
55,
0eo>(/u),
077*>
,
^cT/o-t,
^ctr/v? etc.
Imperative
reduplicated
Middle
v,
TrX^ro, A.VTO,
a^7n/vTo.
yeVro,
SeWo,
0X0-0
2nd
irfJKTO.
.
Infinitive TrepOai
aXfto/os,
= TTpO-(r6aL,
from
8.
Xe^at, opOai,
acr/^vo9,
Participle
ap/xevos,
or
6Vy/x,evo5,
Imperative Xe^o,
oVo,
0/30-0,
Sec. 63, 3.
2.
IXtzror,
!<vyoi/,
Middle
the
to those of
present.
To
<#>vy),
the ear
itself
attaches
the
whereas the lengthened present-imperfect form by its sound and length expresses the idea of duration, compare
eXtzre,
3.
of vowel
in order
CKTCII/OI/,
root
imperfect
The
been
lost in
= ot TCKOVTCS,
the
Homeric reduplicated
pagunt with the present pango, root pag, compare Tn/yw/xi, passive aorist lirdyyv. An aorist form distinct from the present cannot exist in Latin except
where the present stem
is
strengthened by
/,
/, or
by
aorist possible.
The
forms.
Each of
its peculiar meaning, denoted by the suffix or the infix, which need not here be more fully specified intensive,
128
An
Introduction
to
durative,
inchoative,
passive.
iterative,
causative,
intransitive,
The
present
distinguished
by
even where
strong
this
latter
aorist,
and
especially
from
the latter
by
its
lengthened
root.
i. is
Vowel-root
</>a//.ei/,
plural
<are,
<a(ri
= </>avri
etc.
Doric,
lengthening
lengthened,
<a#i.
eT/u,
There
is
change
of
the stem
is
is
the termination
lighter,
but
Comthence
2.
Consonantal root
cs,
CO-/AI,
JEolic
/,
e/A/u,
From the
est
root
to go,
2nd
= edt,
dissim.
= edti,
so
ist plural
damns,
joined immediately
ferre =ferse,
wise, Sec. 40.
velle
(ft)
with progressive
TI'W, rto/x.ci/,
compare
t/tei/,
^cpw, A.yo>.
to go,
in
ist
singular to
to,
= iunt,
tens,
conjunctive earn
= iam,
(/ is
changed
to
e,
except in
Present Stems.
I2C
hand compare
a vowel)
2.
;
euntis,
before
all
veho, lego.
The vowel
is
is
strengthened
(a)
where there
Sporadic strengthening occurs in the indicative singular thence ct/xt, of primitive verbs root i, present stem
:
ct9,
eto-t,
to>,
eto-0a,
tots,
3rd singular
eto-t.
Conjunctive and
;
optative
loit]v,
<t>rj<ri.
to^ev,
<]fs,
Sec. 55.
<f>rj,
<f>rjfj,i,
Latin root
strengthened to
=d
is,
it,
imus,
itis,
t//,ev,)
perative
lie,
infinitive ire.
Compare
rj
of verbs in
vy/xt,
(/?)
Where
inflexion
universal
}
<pvy<D,
</>vy
XetTrw, XLTT
\rj0<i)j
XaO y
with
v,
T^KO),
t,
TttK
TCV^O),
TV%
rporyo),
rpay
7rA.eo>,
',
Tt
o),
also
Tt.
Verbs
TrXv,
in cw, as pew,
x^
from a root in
pv,
xv
had
in the present
cv,
an
original
vowel -strengthening
F
from v to
afterwards dis-
TrXctw,
Latin
//^^?
from due in
dfo#,
fid
m fides,
with pronuba.
3.
of the
130
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
a vowel
is
Stem
StSo,
singular
'
Si'Soyu
crra,
0, Ti0c, TiOrj^i
Sec. 32, with
I, t
=
;
jijdmi.
Compare 8t^/x.at,
SiSo//,ev,
fora//,o>, ri0e/xv,
te/xev.
Root
Sc, /0
/#//, StSiy
imperfect
/fySas;
II.
XI. 105,
StSen-an>
/?a,
root
Xpa, KLXprjpi.
Nasalised reduplication
Trt/xTrX^/xt, 7rt/Mrp77/u
from
yiyvop.au
j
TrtTrro)
TriTrero),
/At/xi/o)
/u//,i/o>
t^co
compare jf^
==
(by
reason of the
suffix
with suffix
<TK.
The
stems
present reduplication maybe retained in other tensetavo) root df Sec. 3 1 ta7rra>, ia^w Ftfc% tcxAAw,
: ,
,
Ttratvw,
StSacrica);
compare future
StSwcrco
8etS(o,
SetStWo/^at
is
More
uncertain
root
Sec.
and
reduplication
in
TraTrraiW
from
II.
</>Xa,
Sec. 25,
root
OTT,
Sec. 19, 2,
IX.
vcov
Od.
I.
147.
ytyvo/xai, j/db,
j/^//
Latin gigno=gigeno, as
the perfect reduplication
mA?, compare
i,
Sec. 59,
jm?,
j^zf/,
Present Stems.
*= seso, siso,
131
= dedisont,
Verbs with
;
root sa,
original
sdtum,
compound
TTI
perfect se-vi.
and
bibo
compare
Greek root
fii
Sec. 22
4.
w with
in-
cvyn;/u, SCI'ICW/M,
p^yw/At,
mjyvv/u ; without intensification, opw/u, ewv/u, in which the first v is assimilated from <r, oAAv/xt from 6Xv, with progressive assimilation
etc.
;
o-roporvftt
= oropeoT.
Suffix
Stem
i/a
:
o-ropeo-,
These are
all
denominative.
(T/CtiSl^ftt
KLpVTJjJLL
(Kpa.WVfJil),
;
by the side Of
Suffix v
TrtVa)
8a//a),
Tc/x.i/0),
<t>6dv<o,
<f>6w<i).
Suffix av
t/cd'va>
compare
compare
9ap,/3.
t/cavds, /ct^avco,
aufavw, a/xapravco j
^tyyavw,
with nasal
infix Aay^ctvw,
Xa/A/?ava>,
afjLptw,
/iai/^ava>,
^avSai/co,
Latin
//<?,
/<?-#/,
The
nasal
132
An
/,
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
and
/, <ai'voo,
back as
/?atVo>
/?ai//a>
root
/?a,
suffixes v
7T7rap/xat), ciXw
/cpti/ea),
= cX/eo
(dA^vat),
*pu/a>
K/oti//a>
future Kp/to,
/cAlVo) /cXivai,
:
TrAvVco TrAwu),
ZKXiOrjv
as a
mixed sound
cd/.,
oo>
68;'.,
;
co/Aai
<paw
</>ptK,
root TrraK,
root Atr;
assimilated
oAAo/xat
compare
with
o-reXXw,
o^eXXw
Homeric,
connected
6<a X<D,
in
OTTVO),
by the
side of
OTTUIO),
/<?
<^>i;tw,
^vo>.
Compare
Latin verbs in
syncopated as
in the
co-cro/^at
^/0 cupimus,
patior, gradior, as
/ contracted
to I
4th conjugation
ero = esjv,
erunt = esjunt,
as
eor/.,
which
is
tion.
is
dropped
or
0,
as
<z#z<?
for
is
assimilated in pello
compare
compare or^oXXw,
has
easily
vello, curro.
6.
The
suffix
ovc
generally an
inchoative sig-
nification
which may
suffix LO-KO
diminutive
)y
OvrjarKd),
it
reduplicated
lives yrjfjao-Kw.
One
is
some-
Present Steins.
root
etcncci)
133
root
&)%
root
j
Sox,
IK,
see
So,
Sec.
21,
TVAC,
SCI&'OTCO/LUU
&*,
TiTvovco/tae,
is
root
root Xa/c
ITK
<TK
instead of
in opvvfu,
we
epo-K
is
root
= 6p lp
to
weakened
y in
/uo-yw,
An
suffix appears in the Epic forms of the imperfect and aorist to denote that a continuous action is repeated or that an
and Ionic
iterative
action
is
begun
in time past
C^CO-KOV, SOOTCOI/.
Compare
cresco,
disco
dicsco^ posco
=
\
18
7.
The
compare
is
/ in passive
TT/TTTO)
root
TVTT,
KpvTiTO)
compare
Sec. 32,
compare pa^,
)8Xa7TTO)
OOLTTTW
cra^r/v,
ySaTrro)
ySa^ry,
a^mo
IfiXdfirjv
fiXdfirj,
taTrro),
4,
vowel
dvvrco
Compare pecto,
nccto,
flecto ; t is
weakened
d in
Qw
Sec. 24.
8.
The
aspirated
suffix
or root determinative
4,
is
found in Trp^w,
by
dto-0<o, fiapvOo),
OaXiO^
134
present
TXOV,
An
Introduction
to
reduplication,
/2i/:?ao-0a>j/,
from
of
aorist
opeyco,
imperfect
I.
ope^Ocov
22.
II.
XXIII.
30,
p.TKldOoV Od.
9.
In Greek and Latin the present stem very generally exhibits the form of derived verbs, the other tense stems
that of primitive verbs, Sec. 39, 4; but the inverse relation also exists, e.g., in Trero/xat TrcT^o-o/xat, petimus petlvi
LXII.
GREEK IMPERFECT.
The
*s
and
its
secondary personal endings. Formation without tach- vowel eri'^i/, eStcW, fcm/i/,
:
with
(a)
fyi/,
eSci/cvw
cr
Root es ist sing, fy with the dropped, ^ with the v rejected, ^a, ea Ionic, 2nd sing,
;
l$i]v Sec.
60.
cr,
yarOa,
fycrOa
^e(i/), Zrjv,
i st
plural ^/x,v,
Doric
^5;
2nd
plural ^re,
52 ; 3rd plural rjo-av from without augment co-av, but retaining the or of the root
compare dual
Sec.
is
cacrt
early im-
Epic imperfect
rjia,
present-tense
I/ACC,
intensification
^o/xev,
rjiov
by the by the
torav
Epic
side of
rjio-ai/
Sec.
52,
Compound
tach-vowel conjugation.
Aorist.
135
asam, with
m in the
and
in the
readily adopts.
primary and secondary personal endings, the language For the conjunctive optative of the
sem,
rem
in
composition,
see
For the
52.
from
ertjuaov,
/being
the personal
Forms of
Teis,
3rd plural
(2)
COMPOUND TENSE-STEMS.
A.
E elation
same
momentary
can only be formed from such (mostly root) verbs as have a present stem different from the bare stem or the root, whether this
action in past time.
latter
But as the
stem be vocalic, as
/?oAA.o),
7Ti0<o,
or
consonantal as rvrrnD,
aorist, originally
compound
a supplementary one,
native
verbs,
annexed
to pure verbs,
denomistem
is
and
all
136
the
An
root
Introduction to Greek
as
in ap^u,
and Latin.
ypa<o>,
itself,
Aeyco,
or a
mere
nominal stem, lengthened by /, as in eA7riu>, <uAao-<7w, TcAc'w, Sec. 39, 2. Only a comparatively small number
of verbs,
suffix
e.g.
and verbs
cases with
in
fu
have both
aorist
forms,
in
some
the
difference
of an
intransitive,
or neutral,
and a
/3<uW
On
the
fre-
weak
root, that
second or strong aorist passive formed from the bare is, from the stem of the strong aorist active
,
with
17
annexed, as
evyi/v/u,
l/?Aai/ra, ipxdfirjv.
The
formation of the
compound
aorist
where the
existed, displaced
and over-
grown the
2.
latter.
Formation of the
compound
l
aorist.
'
The
past
to be
is
annexed
to the
is
dropped,
or v
a,
falls
away
ov.
ist sing.
The
stem- ending
is
only in 3rd
eSeife adik-s-a(f).
Second
sing, imperative
y
Original form from root dik was adiksa(m) conjunctive So cAvo-a, Xvo-a>, Av'o-ai/u. diksami, optative dik-saimi.
Middle
from
eXvcra/x^v,
Xvo-wfJiai,
\v(raifjir)v.
2nd
Sing.
e/Xvcrco
cAixrao-o.
Imperative
active
and
Greek Future.
137
be expected, Xv<ra<ro, Xvoxo, compare the present form Xvou from Xuco, Xvco-o. cr is doubled in lo-o-a, root Fes,
creXeo-o-a,
connected with
TeXeq/a).
o-
creXco-a,
stem
reXes,
IKT/O,
rcXc'a),
is
dropped
root
after F in
x*>
;
= e/o/Fa,
Homeric
in X, pj
v, p,
l^cva
= excFa,
after
stems ending
<f>r)va
fjp,vva 9
e/cptva,
by the side of
Homeric
cKcXo-a,
wpo-a,
ecepo-a,
The
corcXXav,
o-
is
assimilated
Denominatives with /^, and contracted verbs, have, as in the future, a long vowel before the auxiliary verb, and a at the end of a stem is
lyewaro.
generally lengthened
to
rj;
tyforjo-a,
eriprjo-a,
c&JXoxra,
except
TJpoo-a,
cfcaXco-a,
r/vco-a,
es,
and
also, in
analogy to
ereXeora.
^Eolic optative
Xixreiav,
forms are
Xvcreta,
Xva-ctas,
Xvcrctc,
3rd plural
Xvo-ctr/?,
3.
The
vowel instead of the stem- ending a as in the imperfect and strong aorist of the O-conjugation ; Homeric tfov, tfes
= war.,
Xcf
0,
c^o-cTo, SVO-CTO,
more frequent
,
in the imperative
of T,
OpO-CO,
j
OpVCV
OpCTO,
elided
from
opcrccro, etc.
otcrc, oto-cre,
^o-co,
LXIV.
This
is
formed
like the
aorist
by means of
138
An
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
which as
in
suffix /#,
it
many
to
a future
cor/w,
signification.
weakened
This form is compare Latin ero from esio. preserved as an independent word in the middle
o-w
voice,
CO-O-O/ACU.
ccr/.,
whence
eo-o/xai.
Original form of
the
compound
tense-stem dasjami
= Swo-oo.
The
Primary
various forms
of the future are determined by the fuller or weaker form of the auxiliary verb, which is always added to the verbal stem after the final letter (a) by retaining or
dropping the
o-
(fi)
by vocalising
(7)
by changing
into
c,
or
(8)
by dropping the
1.
original/.
The
<rio>
cr/<o,
as
from
TT/oaycr/,
<vAaio/xes,
Saxri'oo ;
compare desideratives
in crcuo.
2.
The
changed to
ccrcreTai.
in
3. The ordinary form in which / is dropped, and the ending shortened to <rw in stems which end in a mute Or a vowel, as A.v'cro), crnjoxo, Scoo-cu, cacrw, Tipjora>; TVI/^O),
Xcfya>,
ir/oa^o).
The stem-vowel
present
in
<;o//,<u,
TrAcixro/Aat,
Tevo^ai,
etc.
The
present reduplication
is
sometimes retained in
Greek Future.
the future;
139
Futures with a
;
Homeric
short vowel-stem-ending
KaXcVw
see also
Com
pound
4.
Aorist.
The
a-
between the stem and the ending, which can also be considered as a retention of the first sound of the auxiliary verb CO-CD. In liquid stems, uncontracted Epic and Ionic
TVw
<ai/a>,
from
Ti/cr(o,
KTvo,
ftcvco),
or contracted
ySaXw,
where
Kvp<T<D,
is
retained
Kcpo-a>,
without a tach-vowel,
<f>\)pcrtt)
^epo-o/^at,
jceXcra>,
in stems in
/>
and A;
in
other stems, as cSor/xat from coWo/xai, /x,a^ov/u,at, Epic and Ionic p,ax<rofj.ai, Trco-ov/xat Epic -rrco-eoftai, rcXca) Epic, rcXoi
Attic, so too reAeVo-a), TcXeo-w, like the present,
self indeed
which
it-
from
KO/UO-CO),*
)8ao-a), cXco,
eXa?, Sa/xcu
from
Sa/xacra), Sa/xas.
tr
This
IS
the
so-called
is
rejected
o-
and the
word contracted.
in verbal stems in
and contraction
IV. 56
;
II.
epvw
latter
XI. 454
et
XXI.
174.
The
Gramm.
KO/J.I,
KOfu-cw, stem
Sec. 263. Perhaps more correctly from connected with KOfjudj, whence Koplfa
Kqmyu, by the side of KO^U in KO/JL^LV Od. VI. 207 ; so there lies at the root of the future forms ATrtw, 0/xwrtcD, by the side of ATTiVw. 0poj/rtVw, ^p/o-w, from 5<rw, the weaker nominal stem
for frwid, thence the future eXTTieo-w, e\7rtu>.
140
5.
An
The
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
As such
;
t/u
Epic, Ionic,
and Attic
is
especially used
the Epic
verbal
fit.
forms
22,
/?o/&cu,
8770),
/?6to/uu,
2nd
singular /Jeg f
root
Sec.
ISo/xat,
irto/u,cu,
VCO/ACU,
by the side
as
of
II.
XXIII.
o-
76, xeo/^u
f,
compare
e^ea with
loss
of both
and
from
LXV. THE COMPOUND OR WEAK GREEK PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT, TOGETHER WITH THE FUTURUM
EXACTUM.
i.
The
perfect in
KCL
is
found in
Homer
only
all
when
forms.
plural
coexists
;
plural
/2e/3a//,i/,
3rd
/2e/?aao-i, /?e/3aajs
cor^Ka, ecrra/Acv,
2nd
plural also
TtOvrjKa
K/
TerXiyo)?;
^
root
Homeric
7T^>v/ca
infinitive
T0va/x,v
K^KIJ^KCL root
3rd plural Tre^vWt, SeSotKa plural SeSt/xcv. In the later language KO, is found after vowel, dental, and
liquid Stems, as
TreTretKa, ecrraX/ca,
<0apKa,
K/cpt/ca, reraKa,
moreover
from the lengthened original stem eS side by side with eSrjSws. Akin to this form of the perfect are the aorist forms ZOrjKa, eSw/ca, ^/ca from the vowel
cS^So/ca
roots
0e, So, I,
In
compare
f^/x,i
and
in ^KO>
from root
c in
with
IX^/oyo-i
Od. by
XXI.
365.
As
TH-CIK
in Tmjo-o-o)
Sa^ in
8tSao-Ko>
by the
side
Aorist
of 8a in
fect
and Future
Passive.
141
Safjvai, epvKa>
comes
to
by the side of />va>, the * of the perbe considered as an original root deter-
is
cs
to the perfect
stem;
thence
ist sing,
originally eo-a(/x),
ea,
rj,
tw
civ Attic,
compare
from
TroAeas.
2nd
77$,
as
Attic.
17,
civ Attic.
which
or is
retained.
3.
The
middle-passive futurum
is
exactum,
which ex-
formed by the addition of the future ending in the middle form to the perfect stem, which implies the idea of completion.
presses completion in futurity,
perfect Stem XcXv from
ycy/aai/ferai,
XeXv//,ai, TTCTrpa^erat
Stem
SeS^o-erat.
Isolated forms
:
of the futurum
LXVI.
i.
PASSIVE.
The
it
and the
whence
aorist, is
also
is
called
strong/
142
vowel
e
An Introduction
to
to
go, in
f\
which
;
is
lengthened to
and imperative
personal
to verbs
it
and the
it
active
endings without
tach-vowel;
is
almost confined
active
<ava>,
:
aorist
e.g.
root
$av
tydvrjv
conjunctive
optative
<av-t7/-v
faveirjv.
Imperative
2.
The weaker
passive, only
77,
differs
c,
lengthened as in
Kpi6rjv.
the present
06,
This
to set, to do,
is
here used in a
compare veneo, venum ire. Cognate the formation be of the German preterite of may the weak conjugation by compounding the stem with
passive signification,
to this
the root
of tuon,
to
do,
salbota,
Gothic do, O. H. G. to: thus Gothic salboda, O. H. G, H. G. salbte, though here certainly only with an
active signification.
Compare
Od. V. no(?).
3.
The
as
143
future form
The Homeric
II.
dialect
knows no
in
Orjo-ofjLai,
a passive future in
rja-ofjiai
once,
fect
/uyjyo-eo-flcu
X. 365
SeSaT/Ko,
is
everywhere
Homei
the
passive
future
B.
On
language
stems and
new
formations are
than in Greek.
forms of the
(a) the
(fi)
two
the tense
is
and conjunctive
pluperfect.
Sec. 64,
present,
and the indicative and conjunctive-optative imthe auxiliary verb esse. of (y) The indicative and perfect The future in bo. With reconjunctive imperfect. (8)
spect to the auxiliary verbs employed in these formations
these verbal forms divide themselves
into those with
si,
so,
ro,
auxiliary verb
Greek
<v,
vi,
bam, bo ; both
144
An
Introduction
to
roots are
amalgamated
LXVIII.
i.
WEAK LATIN
PERFECT.
is
The
perfect in si
esi,
which
a remnant of
appears in priperfect form from root es, original dsa ? with root endings consonantal verbs stem or mitive
whether these be gutturals, dentals, or labials lexi = from present stem /##, by legsi in intellexi, or legi, panxi
:
punxi by the
vig,
side vlpupugi,
in mansi, after
;
in sumpsi ;
is
misi from
lud-si etc.
the guttural
alg,
dropped
between r or /and
s in alsz,
torsi.
stem
Regressive assimilation in
from haus-si.
Syncopated forms
dixti,
2.
The perfect in
ui, vi,
verb fui with initial dropped ; u remains after a consonantal ending of the root or stem, after vowels it is
vi.
(a)
This form of
analogous
ire,
Greek
in are, ere,
as
amavi from ama-fui, delevi, audivi; verbs with infinitive in are and perfect in ui instead of avi, as the archaic
form necui instead of
necavi, sonui
Weak Latin
Perfect.
is
145
identical with
of at ; avi
is
nee, son, hence the ending is ui instead from the present stem of derived verbs
ama, amo from amao ; verbs of the so-called 2nd conjugation in eo with perfect ui instead of evi form the perfect
by dropping the stem-ending e as if from a consonantal stem thus monui instead of monevi, so the participle
:
passive
hardens v to b in the perfect ferbui; e is retained in abolevi, delevi, and in verbs with an inchoative present
form
suesco, quiesco.
io,
The
verbs in
infinitive ire,
by apocope of the
of the
present stem
is analogous; thus salui, aperui instead of aperi-vi; with syncope throughout in rapio, perfect On the other hand the perfect rapui, infinitive rapere.
ivi of present
stems in
esso,
as
if
from
essio,
in arcessivi,
analogous to
The
perfect form in
vi, ui,
in a
number
to
these belongs eo, im, which except in the supine itum and in the changing of / to e before the vowels a, o, u
i.
also
= stso,
in
levi, cresco
crevi,
whose root
ends
sterno
after
stravi,
trivi ;
calui,
the perfect
colui, volui,
roots ending in /
n r:
con-
10
146
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
supine tentum,
mposui frompono compare from posino, posno, where the root consonant s has been dropped, s reappears, hence the archaic form posivi, and
/
is
follows
then dropped, and we get the ending ui in posui ; ui double consonants texui, stertui. (y) Lastly,
denominatives in uo from a noun-stem in u form the perfect in ui instead of uvi by syncope of v and shortening
the
11,
verbs
in to;
as
aeuo,
arguo,
statuo,
tribuo ; argui
stem
statu, tribu
compare
3.
A combination
compound
and
from metsui, nexui co-existing with next from nee, pexui a rare form for pexi from pee-to.
The v
vowels and
is
contracted to
in
peristis,
dives^
from
si vis;
is
also
dropped
in the plu-
perfect
(a)
The
is
shorter
and
To
sit
annexed
esio*
he future
or/o>,
from root
(compare
ero
from
OXD Sec.
Tenses formed
or
from
Perfect.
147
more properly futurum exactum, as axo, capso, faxo, The longer and more recent formation so rapso. (/?)
:
is
annexed
to the perfect
stem in
or
si,
between
vowels becoming r: dedero from dediso, dederunt from dedisontt, stetero, scripsero ; syncopated forms of the perfect in
si,
dixis
= dicsi-sis,
jussit
= jub-si-sit ;
for
so in the
perfect stem
where
s is
doubled to compensate
or
by syncope and
assimilation, peccassit,
habessit
2nd conjugation in evi. Instead of these archaic forms in which s is retained and v is assimilated to ss, the more
developed language constructs forms with r as amavero, habuero ; the last being produced by syncope of e at the
end of the root and by vocalisation of v. sideration of the clear and thorough-going
also are to
(y)
In con-
signification
be regarded as early future forms of the futurum exactum constructed from the perfect stem with
/
syncopated,
lies
as
faxo
= fac-si-so,
faxim
= fac-si-sim.
There
at the root
perfect form in si faxi, axt, capsi, by the side of the perfect forms proceeding from the original reduplication
fed,
egi, cepi,
Sec. 59, 3.
2.
Conjunctive-optative perfect.
es,
:
The
optative from
root
is
legerim from
= dedisiem,
tutuderim
tutudisim.
Ar-
148
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
= audsi-sim,
of
before
r,
habessim
from habevi-sim
3.
For the
above
from
Syncopated form
dixis, dixti.
dixe,
archaic
dtc-si-sse,
dixim,
4.
The
^ tsam,
Compare
compare
?a,
ca
Sec.
62,
= dedi-sam.
Conjunctive sem
optative of the imperfect (e)sam, esaim compare amem from amaim, Sec. 56, 3 is annexed to the perfect stem
in
./,
= legi-sem,
fueram.
Earlier syncopated
LXX. FUTURE
IN
b.
Besides the originally optative form in e of the stemverbs of the 3rd conjugation, and the originally optative
io
have a in the
ist sing.,
came
so
to
be used as
es
futures,
Imperfect Indicative.
special future, simple
149
from
and precise
in
its
signification,
derived verbs in
a, e
fu
(<jf)v),
to betro)
Greek future
suffix in
cs.
From/k? comes by
is
aphseresis uo,
vowels
vo,
which
hardened
(com-
pare bis
= dvis),
;
compare
bam from
is
fuam
Sec. 7 1
amabo,
docebo.
and
4,
and
U
e,
a instead of
elsewhere
is
e,
used as legam
audiam,
statuam.
fuam,
annexed
future in bo
by dropping the first letters and hardening the- u by transition from v to b, Ibam, ddbam, stdbam ; stem verbs with a mere tach-vowel lengthen it anoma-
verbs
in
bam
:
without
a tach-vowel to the vowel-ending of the stem amdbam, docebam, and so do derived verbs in i in the earlier and
later poetical language, scibam,
audibam.
SO
An
Introduction to Greek
and
Latin.
annexed
to
conjunctive imperfect
in past time, that
is
it
annexed
The
conjunctive imperis
fect of the
an independent verb
have been expected, (a) sem with s changed into r is annexed to a root ending in a vowel, as forem from
fosem> irem, darem, starem
= stasem.
(ft)
s is retained
without tach-vowel
as
when
to
essem
from
ed>
eat
= edsem,
;
with regressive
gressive
velsem^
assimilation
assimilation) in ferrem,
from fersem,
compare
fert, vult.
io
(y)
In stem-verbs ending in
A consonant, in those in
and
in derived verbs in #,
e,
z,
sem
is
after
amarem
docerem, audircm.
INDEX.
Page
Adverbs
-99
152
Letters
Index.
Page
Page
5
Liquids
Medials
....
its
4 Root, the, "the expression " of a general idea 49 Roots, "always and uncon37
ditionally monosyl-
lables"classes of
,, -
Metaphor,
guage
* *
...
-
75 75
formation of
3
75
,,
,,
70 63
74 2 73 78
,,
113
115 113
,, ,,
, ,
Subjunctive (Latin)
Nominal
fixes
stems
are
(those
in
suf-
attached to
lysed"
...
Noun, the
...
-
Complex
86
Si
...
-
63
4
4
-4 -4
4
radical
elements
of-shifting,
law
of
ele-
duum
Prepositions
21, 23 (Grimm's law) the material basis of 6 the science of (Glot,, tology) 7 1 1 Sounds, analysis of 18 Spirants
,,
...
-
of linguistic "
analysis
...
-
,,
original
-56
-
Pronouns
Nominal
Reason and Language Inseparable Reduplication, law of
,,
,,
6 83 76 81
Superlative
-85
-
I
-
Verbal
,,
,,
78
"An
67
Nominal verbal
a-stem
-79
-91 -91
-
o
72
uj,,
91
Index.
Page 141 Verbs, personal endings of ,, 135 persons of Latin tenses of 143 101, Perfect and voices of ,, ,, Pluperfect (Greek)- 140 Vis Inertiae (Laziness), effect Future Greek of 137
153
Page 103 101
Compound Greek
f,
117 102
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
Futurum Greek
Exactum
-
Vowels
141
,,
.,
,,
indicative
-
,,
Latin
149
,,
changes of under ,,
ii 12
14
21
fundamental
(Indo-
Germanic)
127
Word, the 5, 87 "the complete form ,,
.orist simple or strong A< (Greek) 125 .orist simple or strong A<
"
,,
of language
bination
and
sounds
6
- 1 19 Pluperfect (Greek) weak Perfect (Latin) - 144 ,, 118 Tenses, compound of verbs ,, 101, 117
,,
Tenues
27
5
,,
80 Words "The
79
87
Denominative
-
bodiments and
only
conceptions'*
80
101
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