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Particulate Theory Of Matter

-Smallest neutral particles in an element & take part in chemical reaction

Na=sodium C=carbon, He=Helium, Ne=Neon, Al=Aluminum

-Made up of single type of atoms -Chemical reaction cant break down a substance of an element

Nitrogen=N2 Oxygen=O2 -Neutral particles -Is a group of 2/more atoms that chemically bonded together. -Made up of atoms of the same &different element Fluorine=F2 Chlorine=Cl2 Bromine=Br2 Iodine=I2 Phosphorus=P4 Sulphur=S8

-occupies space, has mass & volume -Made up of tiny discrete particles -Either elements / compounds -Either atoms, molecules / ions
-Neutral particles -Is a group of 2/more atoms that chemically bonded together. Water=H2O Ammonia=NH3 Methane=CH4 Carbon

-Made up of 2/more elements which are held together by chemical bonds. -Made up of molecules /ions

-Made up of atoms of the same &different element

dioxide=CO2

Mg2+ Cu2+ H+ Metals = positive + (Cation) Al3+ Cl ,I ,OH ,O2

- -

Non-metals = negative (anion)

Potassium manganate(Vll) crystal dissolves & the particles move very slowly into the spaces in between the gel particles.

Notes: Speed of diffusion depends: The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move & hence the faster the diffusion. The smaller the mass, the faster the particles move & the faster the speed of diffusion

Diffusion in solid Diffusion in liquid

Always collide among each other & affected when heat is provided.

Move from high concentration lower concentration

Diffusion in gas

Move rapidly in gases, slower in liquid & slowest in solid.

Potassium manganate(Vll) is made up of tiny & discrete particles. These particles move slowly into the spaces in between the water molecules.

Bromine gas is made up of tiny & discrete particles. These particles move randomly into the spaces in between the air particles.

State
Particles arrangement

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Particles movement Attractive forces Kinetic energy of particles

Packed closely together orderly manner The particles can only vibrate & rotate about their fixed positions Strong forces between the particles Low energy content as movement is restricted

Packed closely but not in orderly arrangement -Rotate, vibrate & move throughout the liquid. -They collide against each other. The particles r held together by strong forces but weaker than the forces in a solid. Higher energy content as particles can move easily

Very far apart from each other & in a random arrangement -Particles can move freely -Rate of collision is greater than the rate of collision in a liquid Weak forces between the particles High energy(particles move at random)

Properties
Shape Volume

Solid
Definite shapes Fixed volume

Liquid
Takes the shape of the container Fixed volume

Gas
Takes the shape of the container Takes on the volume of the container

Density Compressibility

High Not compressible bcoz the particles r very closely packed

Medium Difficult to compress bcoz the particles r closely packed

Low Easily compressed bcoz the particles r far apart

a) b) c)

Solid, liquid & gas has kinetic energy bcoz the particles r in constant motion & collide with each other. The higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy of the particles which move with higher speeds. The pressure of a gas is due to the collisions of the gas on the wall of the container and the collisions are elastic (with no energy lost in collisions)
Heating process

Sublimation Boiling/Evaporation Condensation

Heat energy absorbed, Temperature rises Heat energy released,

Melting Freezing

Solid

Liquid
Sublimation
Cooling process

Gas

Temperature drops

a) A matter changes its state form at a particular temperature & pressure. b) To change solid to liquid, liquid to gas & solid to gas, we have to overcome the forces of attraction between the particles in its original state. Therefore heat energy must be absorbed to effect this change. c) For the changes of gas to liquid, liquid to solid, & gas to solid to take effect, heat energy must be released. As the particles lose heat energy, their kinetic energy decreases. They move slower & the forces of attraction between them become stronger.

d) Solid

Gas

Heat is absorbed by the substance until the solid completely changed into a liquid without a change in temperature = Latent heat of fusion

e) Gas

Solid
Latent heat of vaporisation

Heat energy that is provided to the substance to convert liquid to gas =

Temperature (OC)

is the temperature at which a liquid changes

F Begins to boil Boiling point Begins to melt Melting point A Room temperature B C Begins to melted Time (minute)

into a gas at a particular pressure. is the temperature at which a solid changes

E Completely vapourised

into a liquid at a particular pressure.

When the solid is heated, heat energy is absorbed to gain kinetic energy & vibrate faster. The temperature increases as the particles received more heat energy.

The temperature does not rise, even though heating continues. The temperature remains constant bcoz the heat energy absorbed by the particles is used to overcome the forces between particles so that the solid can turn into liquid.

C to D: Liquid
The particles in liquid absorb heat energy & move faster. The temperature continues to increase.

D to E: Mixture of liquid & gas

The temperature remains constant bcoz the heat energy absorbed by the particles is used to overcome the forces between particles so that the liquid can turn into gas.

E to F: Gas
The particles in liquid absorb heat energy & move faster. The temperature continues to increase.

Temperature (OC)

A Boiling point Freezing point

Begins to condense Completely condensed B C Begins to freeze E D F Completely frozen Time (minute)

When the gas is cooled, the particles in the gas lose their kinetic energy. They move slower as the temperature decreases

The temperature remains constant bcoz the heat surrounding is exactly balanced by the heat energy liberated as the particles attract one another to form a liquid.

Room temperature

The particles in liquid lose heat energy to the environment & move slower. Hence, the temperature decreases.

The temperature remains constant bcoz the heat loss to the surroundings is exactly balanced by the heat energy liberated as the particles attracted one another to form a solid.

The particles in solid continue to lose heat energy to the environment & vibrate slower. Hence, the temperature decreases to room temperature.

James Chadwick (1922) Discovered neutrons, the neutral particles in the cell Nucleus contains protons & neutrons with electrons surrounding the nucleus in permitted cells.

Positively charged sphere Electron

J.J Thomson (1897) Neils Bohr (1913) -Electrons moved around the nucleus in fixed shells which contain protons. -Atom made up of positively-charged sphere with negatively charged atom - Electron is about 2000 times lighter than hydrogen atom.

Electron Nucleus

John Dalton (1803) Ernest Rutherford (1911) -Some alpha particles penetrated the gold plate & went through deflection, some were deflected, while some rebounded. -positively charged particles = protons -All elements made up small invisible particles = atoms -Atoms cant be created / destroyed -Atoms look like spheres

Electron

Nucleus

-Mass of an atom was concentrated in a small positively charged area = nucleus

Tiny invisible particle

Particle Proton Neutron Electron

Symbol Relative Relative Charge Masses

Electron (move around the nucleus)

Nucleus:
Proton & Neutron Nucleus is positively charged bcoz presence of protons. A neutral atom contains the same number of electron as the protons.

Nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons & neutrons in its atom. Nucleon number (mass number)
Proton number (atomic number)
Proton number = number of proton

Symbol of element

Nucleon number = number of protons + number of neutrons The relative mass of an atom is almost the same as its nucleon number

Isotopes of an element have different physical properties bcoz they have different relative isotopes masses

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons (proton number) but different numbers of neutrons (nucleon numbers)

Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties bcoz they have the same electron arrangement.

Element Hydrogen Carbon (3 isotopes) Oxygen (3 isotopes) Chlorine (2 isotopes) Bromine (2 isotopes )

Name of isotopes
Hydrogen 1 Hydrogen 2 Hydrogen 3 Carbon 12 Carbon 13 Carbon 14 Oxygen 16 Oxygen 17 Oxygen - 18 Chlorine 35 Chlorine 37 Bromine 79 Bromine 81

Protons
1 1 1 6 6 6 8 8 8 17 17 35 35

Neutrons
0 1 2 6 7 8 8 9 10 18 20 44 46

Proton number
1 1 1 6 6 8 8 8 8 17 17 35 35

Nucleon number
1 2 3 12 13 14 16 17 18 35 37 79 81

Carbon-14 dating is used to estimate the age of archeological specimens like the bones of prehistoric man Gamma radiation from the decay of cobalt-60 is used to destroy cancer cells

Uranium-235 decays to release heat energy which is used to heat water into steam which turns the turbines of generators to generate electricity By using radioactive phosphate ions, the rate of absorption of phosphate by plants can be determined using a Geiger-Muller tube

Generate electricity

Archaeology

Medical field
Gamma radiation is also used to sterilize surgical rubber gloves, medicines & plastic hypodermic syringes

Agriculture
Agricultural produce are perishable. They are exposed to gamma radiation before exporting to destroy microorganisms like fungus & bacteria which cause vegetables / fruits to root

Industrial use

Pipes carrying flammable natural gas must be checked for leaks regularly bcoz a spark near the leak can cause a fire. Sodium-24 isotope is used to check for leaks

Radioisotope is used to detect canned food which is partially-filled. If the can is partially-filled, the GeigerMuller tube will detect high radioactivity

Second shell can take a maximum of 8 electrons.

Electrons in the outermost shell are called the valence electrons. This atom has 1 valence electron.

First shell can take a maximum of 2 electrons. Valence shell The third shell can take a maximum of 18 electrons. However the atom attains stability if the third shell is filled with 8 electrons. Nucleus of the atom containing protons & neutrons

1) The electrons are arranged in shells surrounding the nucleus. 2) The electrons are filled starting from the first shell, the one closest to the nucleus. 3) The occupied shell which furthest from the nucleus is called the valence shell / outermost shell. The electrons in the outermost shell called the valence electrons. 4) Elements with the same number of valence electrons will have the same chemical properties. Exp: Element Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Symbol F Cl Br Electron 2.7 2.8.7 2.8.18.7 arrangement

Electron Arrangement of Elements with Proton Numbers 1 to 20

Hydrogen

1 1

Sodium
23 11

2.8.1

Helium
4 2

Magnesium
24 12

2.8.2

Lithium

7 7 3 7 9 4 11 5

2.1

Aluminium
27 13

2.8.3

Beryllium

2.2

Silicon
28 14

2.8.4

Boron

2.3

Phosphorus
31 15

2.8.5

Carbon
12 6

2.4

Sulphur
32 16

2.8.6

Nitrogen
14 7

2.5

Chlorine
35 17

2.8.7

Oxygen

16 8

2.6

Argon
40 18

2.8.8

Fluorine
19 9

2.7

Potassium
39 19

2.8.8.1

Neon
20 10

2.8

Calcium
40 20

2.8.8.2