Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
DEC L U,,/
ACCESSION NO____
PO kRIGITkY________
C o AIAA/Z. AND 6 OCOd%6EE
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tjJN2?1
1965
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Supply and equipment in the arctic, by
Lt Col C. E. Tennesson. CGSC. 1947-48.
This Document
IS A HOLDING OF THE
ARCHIVES SECTION
LIBRARY SERVICES
FORT LEAVENWORTH, KANSAS
DOCUMENT NO. N-2128.89 COPY NO. 1
CGSC Form 160 Army-CGSC-P2-1798-7 Mar 52- 5M
13 Mar 51
juiU 2 1 1965
A IWHIVEI
F.; 1LIIA~-Ai NWO s'ki Bik
Subje
act: Supply and quipment in the Arctic DEC 1 1952
I. Problem
ACCelSSION NO
To study the essential suppl$ and equipag esOIOmtF To
military operations in the Arctic and to recommend appropriate
action based upon this study.
II. Discussion
In this study the Arctic will imply all areas wherein extreme cold
temperatures, ice and snow impose unusual problems of supply upon
military operations. (Appendix A)
2. The Arctic has assumed all important proportions in military
planning for the future. (Appendix B)
3. The climate, weather and Terrain of the Arctic regions pose
difficult and peculiar problems in equipment and supply methods
and constitute the greatest factors affecting military operations.
(Appendix 0)
4. The greatest problems in equipment arise in individual equipment
and-oversnow vehicles. (Appendix D)
5. The most difficult problems in supply are found in installs ions,
storage and transportation. (Appendix E)
6. Present Arctic clothing is not satisfactory and considerable
research and development is necessary to produce equipment that
will meet the needs of units operating in the Arctic. (Appendix D)
7. Self-contained tracked vehicles are best suited to overland
transport but present equipment does not meet requirements.
(Appendix
D)
8. The problems of installations and storage in the Arctic have
not been solved satisfactorily. (Appendix E)
9. Construction techniques to overcome the effects of permafrost
mnst a "e devo"^?;?" /
must be devel&p&d permit building of essential supply installations
(Appendix 3)
10. Air supply is necessary in exaggerated proportions in operations
in the Arctic and some means must be developed to provide for the
necessary overland transport as well. (Appendix I)
RA Pa
21AP
i
f
4.
-. 3.
11. The results of the various testing expeditions sent into the
Arctic during the past three years have not been altogether
satisfactory from a research and development point of view and
a studs of their reports show differences of opinion on the needs
and value of equipment. (Appendix D and E)
III. Action Recommended
1. The U.S. Army establish in the vicinity of Fairbanks, Alaska
a permanent Arctic research and development and field testing
center for the purpose of developing equipment and suppl$ methods
for the support of military operations in the Arctic.
2. The respoasibilityfor the supervision of the activities carried
on at this installation be vested in the Director of Logistics,
General Staff U.S.Army and personnel for it's operation will be
provided by the Technical Services as directed by the Director
of Logistics.
0. That Appendix F, Letter to Commanding General U.S.Aia y, Alaska,
Director of Logistics, GSUSA And the Chiefs of Technical Services
directing the above action be dispatched.
S. That the Directed of Logistics, GSUSA be authorized to appoint
a committee to confer with the U.S.Navy and the U.S.Air Force with
a view to coordinating all Arctic research and development.
B- Importance of the Arctic
C - Factors Affecting Arctic Operations
D - Equipment Q5 .
E - Supply l
F - Letter to Corn Gen U.S.Army, Alaska, Dir of Log, GSUSA
and Chiefs of Tech Ser
Concurrences:
Non-concurrences:
.A? I + k
ARCTIC DELIMITATION
General Discussion
Georaphi~J. Concept
Climatical Concept
VPegi tational Concept
Military Concept
International Boundarie s
Exhibit 1 - Map of' Arctic Regions
Exhibit 2 - International Boundaries
1,
2.
3.
5.
6.
1. General Discussion
Before proceeding with any study of conditions in the
Arctic it is first necessary to define exactly what is meant
by the Arctic. There are basically three different concepts
under which the Arctic might be defined they are based upon
geographical location, temperatures and the prevalance or lack
of vegetation. For military study and planning it is not feasible
to adhere strictly to any of the three but to envision a fourth
which may be aptly be called the "military Arctic"
2. Geographical Conceit
The Arctic region is often consideredto be the area lying
between the Arctic circle and the north pole. Actually this is
trdebut it does notpresent a real picture of the areas which it
is necessary to consider in this study. All areas lying within
the Arctic Circle do not present the problems to be discussed
in this study and likewise there are areas outside the Arctic
Circle which do,
3. Climatical Concept
Another concept of the Arctic regions is that they comprised
all of the area north of the 50 degree isothern or that the
southern boundary of the area is an isothermal line along which
the temperature averages over 50 degrees Fahrengait for not
more than three months of the year. Actually the area between the
50 degree isothern on the south and the tree line on the north
is more properly known as the sub-arctic,the coniferous forest
area or Taiga,
4. Vegitational Conceot
The third concept of the Arctic is that it consists of the
areas north of the tree line. Th concept too is not suitable for
A-2
a military analysis in that it also fails to include vast
areas which present characteristically Arctic problems.
5. Military Concept
In this study none of the aforementioned concepts of the
Arctic will be strictly adhered to, A combination of the three
will be used and throughout this study the use of the term
Arctic will imply all of those areas both Arctic and sub-Arctic
wherein conditions of extreme cold temperatures, severe weather
and rugged terrain habitually covered with ice,snow and glaciers
or tundra impose unusual problems of supply and equipment on
military operations.
6. International Boundaries
Of further interest both from a commercial,politcal and
military point of view are the presently accepted international
agreement exists a dibision of jurisdiction based upon a 1926
decree by the U.S.S.R. is generally accepted internationally.
It is interesting to note that in this division of jurisdiction
(see exhibit 2) the U.S.S.R. controls almost 50% of the Arctic
area while the United States has less than 10%.
A-3
A-4
2
Exhibit 2
International
3
oundarie a
A - 5
IMPORTAN~CE OF TEARCTIC
1. General Discussion
2. Commercial and. Political
3. Military
3.xhibit 3 - Map of World. Showing Relative Positions
of Population and. Commercial Centers
Exhibit 4 - Air Routes Over the ;Arctic
B-2
1. General Discussion
The realization that time and space are all important
in modern warfare and the rap&I advances in the reduction of
these factors focuses attention upon the Arctic regions. This
vast but little known area assumes all important proportions
in. commercial,political and military thinking and planning.
2. Commercial and Political
Over 3/4 of the land surface of the earth lies north of
the equator and approximatly 85% of the worlds population is
found in this area. The major industrial and trade centers of
the entire world lie in the northern hemisphere. (see exhibit 3)
The direct routes between these great hubs of commerce in the ...2
northern contiments lie across the Arctic and these distances
are unbelievably short. The airline distance between New York
and Moscow is only 5100 miles. (see exhibit 4) The unfeasability
of surface travel across this area in the past has tended to
hide this important aspect of the north polar region but with
the advent of global transtprt this area has become the potential
crossroads of commercial air routes.
In addition is the fact that the land masses of the Arctic
contain vast natural resources. Greenland possesses a hood
amount of fair grade coal and the worlds largest deposit of
cryolite which is used in the processing of aluminum. Coal, iron
silver,pyretes,nickle,copper, zinc and lead are found in abundance
in Scandinavian Lapland. In Russia and Siberia are vast deposits
of coal,iron, copper,nickle and mica,oil,graphite and gold. Canada
and Alaska are rich in deposits of tin, gold,coal, copper, manganese,
nickle, antimony, chromium, tungston, and there are indications that
B-2
uranium ore vital to development of atomic energy is to be
found in this region. As yet these mineral resources are
virtually unassessed ans undeveloped. In addition to the
mineral wealth the entire sub-arctic is rich in Timber. While
furs and fish for the entire world come from these regions,
3. Military
The military importance of the area becomes readily im-
portant for as never before commercial, political and military
interests are inseperable. Any region which assumes a world wide
commercial and political importance immediatly becomes of
military interest. The vital industrial and population centers
of the northern continents are within easy aircraft range of
each other by military aircraft and they all lie within the
operational radius of present day long range bombardment air-
craft. (see exhibit 4) In the event of a future war the air
routes over the Arctic will be those along which we must be
prepared to intercept enemy aircraft and to plot our own air
offensive.
Not only will the air over the Arctic be of vital im-
portance but Arctic bases for ground air defense installations
as wll as for aircraft are likely to be deciding factors in
any future conflict of world wide proportions. To defend or
seize such bases will require the use of large numbers of
ground combat and service troops. The support of such operations
will necessitate a vast logistical effort within the Arctic
regions. The military importance of the Arctic is further en-
hanced by the fact we have not in the past embarked upon really
B-3
large scale military operations in this area and do not possess
the equipment, "know-how" or experience factors upon which to
base future planning. The co-ordinated efforts of the Arn,Navy
and Air Force must be directed to extensive research and develop-
ment in Arctic problems if the Armed Forces are to be prepared
to conduct successful operations in this area.
B-4
3
3-5
Exhbit 4
To Singapoi
Air Routes Over the arctic and Distances Between New York City
and Other Great Cities of the World via These Routes.
B.6
T
K 4
---
I ;:
,> -7
APPENDIX C'
FACTORS A~FECTING ARCTIC OPERATIONS
1. General Discussion
2. Weather
3. Terrain
4. Permafrost
Exhibit 5 - Arctic Terrain under Normal Precipitation
Exhibit 6 - Arctic Terrdn under Slight Precipitation
Exhibit 7 -Arctic Coastal Plain
Exhibit 8 - Alaskan Plateau
Exhibit 9 - Mt. McKinley Terrain
Exhibit 10 - Volcano in the Aleutians
Exhibit 11 - Volcano in Alaska
Exhibit 12 - Permafrost Typical Cross-section
Exhibit 13 - Permafrost Typical Cros-section
Exhibit 14 - Surface Eruptions thru Permafrost
0-1
1. General Discussion
In the Arctic as in no other region of the world is
mastery of the elements or at least the ability to live with
them a prerequisite to military operations. In addition to
all of the common influences of nature this region is subjected
to the most violent reactions of weather,terrain and a peculiar
phenomonum called permafrost. Since other factors affecting
the equipment and supply of units operating in the polar regions
do not differ materially from those encountered in any other
operation the scope of this study will be limited to these
three.
2. Weather
Arctic weather is a dangerous obstacle to military operations
and can easily cause success or failure. A throrough knowledge
of and it's possible effects upon men and equipment essential
in planning for military operation in Arctic regions.
Temperatures in the Arctic cover a wide range of extremes
and though following a generally predictable pattern are in
some areas subject to sudden changes. On the Arctic Sea the
temperatures are cold usually below 30 degrees Farhenhait even
during the summer season but due to the steading effect of the
slight change in temperatures between summer and winter. Nearby
laud temperatures range from -90 to# 90 degrees in the summer
but the temperatures over the Sea will vary only -20 in the
winter to t 30 in the summer. The coldest temperatures are not
as might be expected to be found in the vicinity of the north
pole, but are some distance inland on both the Siberian and
Canadian side of the pole. On the Siberian side temperatures
C-2
have been recorded as low~as -- 100 degrees while on the American
side the lowest temperature recorded has been -80 degrees.
Precipitation in the Arctic also varies widely in differ-
ent regions. In general though there is comparatively little
snowfall and rainfall in the polar regions. The precipitation
over most of this vast area is about 15 inches annually and
it is in these areas that the most normal Arctic conditions
are encountered. (see exhibit 5) However in Southern Greenland
it averages 40 inches and runs as high as 60 inches in the
Aleutians. In the Siberian desert and along the Canadian Archi-
pelagos there is practically no precipitation. The constant
accumulation of frost in these areas is so heavy that it is
drifted by the winds and gives the appearance of snow. (see
exhibit 6) Winds throughout the Arctic also vary to a great
extent. Across the Siberian Plateau and through the Aleutians
heavy gales lasting from a few hours to weeks are prevalent.
In Lapland, Canada and Alaska the winds are equally violent
reaching proportions of over 100 miles per hour but are less
frequent and of shorter duration. The winds coupled with pre-
cipitation or heavy frosts render visibility and movement at
times impossible. The effects of Arctic weather on military
operations manifests itself in many other ways. Landslides
and snowfalls block roads and passes. Sudden thaws wash out
bridges and roads and the attendent mud renders cross country
movement impossible. It effects supply because extra and
special equipment is required and installations must be selected
with great care. It effects the manner in which supplies and
equipment can be packaged, stored and transported. It effects
evacuation by causing a higher rate of non-battle casualties
0-3
from frostbite,trench foot"and respiratory diseases. The
violence of Arctic storms and the intensity of the cold re-
strict all movement,
3. Terrain
Of all the natural factors which effects Arctic operations
none exerts a greater influence than the geography of the area.
No study of these regions would be complete without an anaylasis
of the terrain over which operations would be carried out, The
Arctic is characterized by exagerated terrain features,rocky
crags, glaciated peaks and vast expanses of floating or land-
fast ice, In this study both the Arctic Ocean and the Land areas
surrounding it eill be discussed for both are equally important
parts of the terrai n in this region.
a. Arctic Ocean
STwo thirds of the area lying within the Arctic Circle
is covered by the Arctic Ocean. A vast inland sea whose depths
run to 1800 feet. Actually the Arctic Ocean should more correctly
be called a sea for it is more than anything else a landlocked
water with narrow outlets into the Atlantic and Pacific. The
Arctic Ocean is surrounded by a continental shelf which is quite
broad and flat on the Siberian side and narrow and rugged on the
Alaskan and Canadian side. The outlet from the Arctic Ocean and
the Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia and the Greenland
Sea between Greenland and Spitzbergen. (see exhibit 1)
The Arctic area is ringed with many islands most of
which lie on the Canadian side of the North Pole. Some of the
islands are very large and Greenland and Ellesmere Island the
two largest are for the most part covered with glaciers while
most of the other islands are free from glacial ice.
c-4
The Arctic Ocean itself is covered for the most part
with ice. This ice is formed by the direct freezing of the sea
water augmented by precipitation. The ice of the Arctic is in
three general forms the Grand Pack, land-fast ice and packice.
The Grand Pack can best be described by likening it
to an immense island of ice located roughly in the center of
and covering about 70% of the Arctic basin. The ice in the
Grand Pack is made of many ice floes hundreds of years old.
These floes are in constant motion by the currents and winds
and by collision either built up tremendous mountains of ice
or separates to form narrow channels of open water. The Grand
Pack as a whole appears to move in a generally clockwise
direction about it's center which is called the ice pole.
Sections of the Grand Pack are constantly being broken off
by the action of the wind, seas and motion.
Land-fast or shore ice as it's name impl6es is built
up during the winter months along the shores of the Arctic
basin, This relatively thin sheet of ice attains a thickness of a
about 3 to 6 feet and breaks up in the summer leaving open
water along the coast. This ice is restricted from any appre-
ciable horizontal movement by the shore. Pack ice is composed
of numerous small floes which break away from either the Grand
Pack or the land-fast ice. The density of the pack ice depends
largely upon the severity of the winter season. Pack ice moves
with the main currents but is unpredicable in it's extent thus
creating one of the greatest hazards to Arctic shipping during
the short summer.
b. Land Areas
The land areas of the Arctic can best be discussed
C-5
by a brief description of each section. For the most part
however the terrain of each is similar in that it contains
rugged mountains, plateaus and. vast tundra plains. While some
sectors of the rim of the Arctic basin rise sharpely into
mountainous areas most of this region is characterized by
coastal plain dotted with many lakes and pools caused by drain-
age from higher regions and surface eruptions. (see exhibit 7)
These water areas while frozen solid in the winter are subject
to the summer thaws.
The Siberian coast from Bering Strait to the Yalmal
Peninsula contains all of the typical terrain types found in
the Arctic. From the Strait to the Kolyma River the Chukchi
Peninsula is a rugged upland region rising abruptly from the
shore of the Arctic Ocean. Elevation through this area average'
about 706 feet. The area between the Kolyma River and the Lena
River is a low plain stretching from the shore of the ocean
far inland. This face of this plain is cut by two long low
ridge lines running generally perpendicular to the shore line.
The vast Siberian plateau lies between the Lena and Yenisei
rivers. This plareau is about 1000 feet and it extends south-
ward for some 700 miles. From the Yenisei River to the Finnish
Border is another large lowland plain about 150 feet in eleva-
tion. This plain is divided almost equally by the Ural Mountains
which run north and south and extend all the way to the rim
of the Arctic Basin.
The Scandinavian region borders upon the Arctic Ocean
is a rugged upland which rises steeply from the coast. The area
slopes off to the east into a region of lakes. The entire coast-
line of Finland and Norway is charecterized by deep gorges or
0-6
indentations probably wrought by ice age glacial action,
Spitzbergen and Franz Josef Land and rugged island
groups lying just off the edge of the Grand Pack. Both have
extensive glacier areas and Franz Josef Land is ice locked
most of the year. Spitzbergen however is open to shippingand
being the closest &ce free land to the geographical top of the
world is of great military strategic importance.
Greenland which is the largest island in the world
and Ellesmere Island are rugged irregular mountain areas al-
most totally covered by glaciers. The glacier covering Green-
land have attained such a depth that it actually is one single
large ice cap. There is a narrow strip of glacier free land
along both the eastern western coast of Greenland but this
too is rugged and mountainous.
The Alaskan sector of the Arctic shoreline is a great
coastal plain with many small lakes. (see exhibit 7) Inland
from this plain the land rises Brooks Range which extends
completely across Alaska. To the south of Brook Range is the
Alaskan Plateau (see exhibit 7) and a large lowland area drained
by the Yukon River. South of the Yukon plain lies the Alaska Range
which is a continuation of the Rocky Mountains. This range ex-
tends on into the Aleutians. These mountains are extremely
rugged (see exhibit 9) and contain Mt.McKinley the highest
mountain in North America. The mountain areas of Alaska contain
numerous glaciers and in the southern and Aleutian mountains
are found volcanoes. (see exhibit 10 &ll)
Oanda is divided generally into three compartments. From
the Alaskan border east is the great central plain which is
drained by the McKenzie River. This plain extends southward
0-7
through the United States. The coast line east of the great central
plain is broken inhundreds of islands separated by narrow
crooked straits. The northernmost of these islands are rugged
and glaciated while those lying generally south and west are
flat and comparatively free of ice. The waterways separating
these islands are closed by ice most of the year. South of the
island region and east of the great central plain is the lake
region and Hudson's Bay. This area is somewhat higher in
elevation than the central plain and rises in gentle rolling
hills towards the high rugged eastern coast.
Labrador and Baffin Island have coastal areas which are ";'
broken by many deep fjords and marked by high rugged cliffs.
The coast line is in general quite similar to that of the
Scandinavian Peninsula and on both Labrador and Baffin slopes
off to lowlands in the west. Baffin is largely glaciated in the
eastern and central portion of the island.
The effect of the Arctic terrain on military operations
is readily apparent . Not only does the Arctic contain the
most rugged terrain but the terrain is largely unpredictable
due to the violent changes in climate. The terrain in the
Arctic covers such a wide range of extremes that many types
of special equipment are required and movement in some areas
is impossible. Soil throughout the Arctic is formed by the
disintegration of rock rather than by decaying vegetable matter.
Vast areas that are frozen solid one month are seas of mud and r
water the next. The summer flooding makes the land Surrounding
the Arctic Basin on both continents virtually impassable.
4. Permafrost
One of the most important factors affecting Arctic
_Q-8
operations particularyfconstruction, location of installations
and transportation is permafrost. Although other nations have
long been aware of the effects of permafrost and have put a
great deal of effort into solving this problem it only recently
that we have manifest any interest in this phenononum. This is
due mostly to the fact that the United States has had a corres-
ponding lack of knowledge or interest in the Arctic in general.
Permafrost is a layer of permanently frozen sub soil
which underlies approximatly a fifth of the entire surface of
the earth. (see exhibit 12 & 13) The thickness of the layer
increases from a few inches at it's temperate zone extremities
to 900 feet in some areas of the northern extremities. The
depth of the permafrost table below the surface of the earth
is depended upon the latitude and the insulating effect of the
earth above the table. At the southern edge of the permafrost
zone the permafrost table lies from 7 to 11 feet below the
surface while in the northern-most region it coincides with
the surface.
The layer of earth which cover the permafrost table
freezes in the winter and thaws in summer this is called the
active layer. This layer also varies in thickness depending $
upon the latitude and the insulating quality of this layer it-
self. For the most part it gradually decreases as it extends
into colder latitudes. However incertain areas which are sub-
ject to irregularities of either hot or cold temperature or
where the insulating effect of this layer due to composition
is exceptionally poor or good. The permafrost table may either
rise close to the surface or drop lower than the surrounding
level. Water provides very poor insulation while moss, tundra
- 3-9
and vegetation are excellent insulators.
Permafrost is as hard and impermeable as rock. During
the seasonal thaws drainage is restricted to that shallow area
between the permafrost table and the earths surface thus setting
up a false water table, Temperature changes in the active layer
and the upward pressure of the true water table which is closely
under pressures just below the active layer. Where the active
layer is weak particularly where it is composed of moss or
tundra swelling or surface eruptions are likely to occur.(see
edhibit 14) This accounts along with surface draihage for the
numerous lakes and pools found in the Arctic plain. This action
results in pronounced soil destruction aid the creation of
deep crevices and sink holes.
In addition to the swelling and eruptions the hydro-
static ipressure in the false water table can cause horizontal
movement of sub soil, This results in the heaving or sagging of t
the earth and the opening of vast crevices.
The effects of permafrost on military operations mani-
fest themselves mainly in transportation and location and con-
struction of supply installations. The action of permafrost
upon the surface of the earth and it's subsequent effect upon
passage by vehicle or on foot over these areas is readily
apparent. The effect of the heaving, sagging and eruption of
the earth upon any construction effort can also be easily
visualized. Considerable effort has been expended in trying
to overcome the effects of permafrost but so far with no real
results,
Ji-10
llxhibit5
1-/9-
Actic Terrain under Normal Precipitation
xzhibi t 6
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Arctic Terrain under Slight Precipitation
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kbhibit 7
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efxhibit 8
Alaskani Plate e
C-13
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lxhibit 11
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Volcano in Alaska
0-16
Bzhibit 12
Thawed part of
active layer
Permafrost
Island -
Ice
Lens
typical Permafrost Cross-section
..
Water from intermediate
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Moss
area and surrounding
Sand, gravel
hills moves through
and some clay
moss on this contact
PERMAFROST
Water from distant areas--"'... .r
is slowly moving thru l' Sand, gravel
ioints in bedrock under X and some clay
a hydraulic head 'I
greater than 130 Jointed bedrock
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good insulation
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APPENiDIB
E3IPMENT
1. General Di scus s ion
2 Clo thing
a. Footgear
b:. Body Clothing
C. Headgear
d.. Sleeping Bags
3, Vehicles
a.. Commercial Type
b. Military Oversuovw Vehicles
Efxhibit 15-.;iR Y ootgeax'
Exhibit 16 - Parkas and. Trousers - iGc
Exhibit 17 - Arctic Sleeping Bags - woCe~A \c A(
Exhibit 18 - Deisel. Tractors.
Exhibit 19 - Military Oversnow Vehicles
D-1
1. General Discussion
As in any other military planning equipment problems are
the first to arise in this type. In past operations in the Aratic
in spite of relatively high rate of material failures in metals
plastics and rubber most of our equipment has with modification
proven adaptable for use. Those failures which have occured
can for the most part be corrected by laboratory research and
devel&pment. A study of the frequency of minimum temperatures
in various areas of the Arctic is an important factor in estab-
lishing the basis for this development.This study will cover
only the two types of equipment wherein the greatest deficiencies
have been apparent . Those are cl&thing and overland vehicles.
2. Clothing
In a region where the temperatures range downward from
-50 degrees Fahrenheit the problem of protection of the indiv-
idual is the first consideration and must be provided for
before other problems can be approached.
DW2
3. EFFECT OF EXTREME COLD ON MATERIALS. -- The effect of extreme cold
on materials is a subject that is being given much attention today. Laboratory
and field tests are widespread and it is expected that more emphasis will be
placed upon this in the future. Some of the problems encountered in design
and operation of arctic equipment arisefrom the following material defects:
a. Steel. Steel shrinks and becomes brittle when subjected to
extreme cold and must therefore be handled carefully.
b. Copper wire is also brittle when cold.
c. Glass is very susceptible to sudden temperature changes and the
warmth of the human skin may cause it to shatter.
d. Rubber becomes hard and brittle at low temperatures. Natural
rubber is generally better than the synthetic product for use in extreme
cold however there is a synthetic in the development stage in the Signal
Corps laboratory that may prove to be satisfactory for limited uses at
temperature as low as - 67 degree F.
e. Canvas will freeze and lose its pliability in cold weather.
f. Lubricants freeze at low temperature and require extensive
preheating before they can be used. There is much controversy regarding
lubricants and it is impossible at this point to say more than that numerous
agencies are experimenting and that some have developed oils with satis-
factory pour points, although corrosive effect is exceedingly high.
4. PREHEATING ENGINES. -- A major problem inherent to all engines
is that of the necessity for preheating prior to operation in sub zero
temperatures. Not only does this conserve time and manpower but it
requires additional installations and equipment . At present external means
are used for preheating. It is believed that in the future internal means
should be incorporated in all engines designed for operation in the extreme
cold. To illustrate the seriousness of this problem it might be well to
note that vehicles preheated indoors to operating temperatures have been
known to freeze up and stop after only a few hundred yards of travel in
extreme cold. Airplanes have crashed on takeoff despite the most careful
preheating procedures.
5. PERSONAL COMFORT. -- Another problem of arctic and sub-arctic
transportation is that of adequate provision for comfort and safety of
operating personnel. Every piece of transportation must be designed in
such a way as to make possible its operation under the most adverse con-
ditionof temperature and weather. It is preferable of course to provide
closed heated space for vehicle crews so that they may operate under the
most comfortable and healthful conditions. If this is not possible it must
be kept in mind that a man bundled up in heavy arctic clothing cannot operate
and maintain machinery in the same manner as can a man working at moderate
temperature.
6. ARTILLERY. -- a. Conclusions. (75 mm How (pack))
(1) Howitzes proved very satisfactory for tasks assigned to
artillery.
(2) Standard buffer oil, oil, recoil, special U.S. specification
AXS 808 was not affected by temperature as low as -160 F. At this tempera-
ture sight mechanism became difficult to operate.
(3)"Howitzers were cleaned with kerosene after firing and this
proved very satisfactory. No particular problems of maintenance were in-
curred by cold temperatures.
(4) Traversing and elevating mechanism worked satisfactorily
throughout. Care must betaken to keep snow and ice out of elevating arcs.
(5) No breakage occurred that could be attributed to cold.
(6) Smothering effect of snow and ice is greater with fuze quick
thanws/delay.... In firing on prepared "ice concrete" and log bunkers, fuze
quick had no destructive effect while fuze delay penetrated and destroyed
these.
(7) White phospherous smoke (M57) while difficult to observe
against snow background proved very helpful in registration. No smoke
screens.were attempted. Colored smoke would have been very useful.
(8) Time shell is a "must" in snow operations, both for anti-
personnel missions and as an aid to registration.
(9) Packing of ammunition proved very satisfactory. No rounds were
rusted or damaged by climatic conditions, and no misfires occurred in 1900
rounds fired.
(10) Skis for weapons towed behind tracked vehicles in deep snow
are absolutely essential. See attached copy for skis used on 75 mm pack
howitzers.
3. COMMERCIAL TRACTOR TRAINS. -- a. General.Givilian enterprises in
Canada, Alaska and the Government in Soviet Russia have for some time been
operating tractor trains. These trains have proven very successful for over-
land hauling in the Arctic and Sub-arctic. Their recent military counterpart,
the military oversnow vehicle, will be discussed later.
b. Alaskan trains. -- As developed in Alaska the train consists of a
large crawler type tractor which tows one or more trailers or wanigans fitted
with skids or runners. In more elaborate trains are included , in addition
to cargo carriers, a bunk house, cook house shop and maintenance carrier.
In mining and lumbering operations these trains have been used for distances
up to 700 miles. Compared to water transportation they are exceedingly ex-
pensive.
c. Tractors. -- Probably the most widely used tractor is the D-8
manufactured by the Caterpillar Tractor Company of America. It is big,
powerful and durable. Other models by this company have been found to be too
light for extended operations. In restricted operations the International
T9-18, T9-14, TD- 9 and Allis Chalmers HD-10 and HD- 7 are also used. All
tractors will be fully winterized. Bulldozer blades are necessary for break-
ing trail, protecting the engine and radiator when traveling thru timber and
for providing necessary weight to the front end of the tractor to overcome
sudden rises. A hydraulicable operational blade provides more precision
in work however, it requires too much maintenance and for this reason the
cable-lift blade is preferable. For continuous operations, one D-8 is
required for every three trailer units or approximately 50 tons of cargo.
d. Trailers. (1) The trailer units may be either mounted on runners
or skids. If the latter, they are called "go devils", which are simple of
design and can be constructed in the field. Their capacity is limited and
their serviceable life is relatively short compared to the runner type.
In addition, the maneuverability is rather poor.
(2) The runner type trailers are more durable and maneuverable,
and their size is somewhat dependent on trail conditions. When wider than
10 feet or longer than 30 feet, they are hard to handle and are readily
damaged. The runners are of the bob sled type with cross-connecting chains
to give front and rear steering. The width of the runners must not exceed
the width of the tractor track, however, it must not be so narrow as to cause
tipping. A width of 5 feet is acceptable for most trail conditions. For
long trips, 20 to 40 ton slede are desirable.
e. Wanigans. -- Wanigans are small buildings that can be mounted on
"go devils" or sleds to provide housing, mess and shop facilities in the
field. They must be heavily braced and insulated. A minimum ' ceiling
and 8' overall width are normal. An 8'x 36' cook house will provide cooking
and mess facilities for about 40 men, and an 8' x 26' bunk house will sleep
10 to 15 men. A utility wanigan is a combination cook and bunk house for the
trail-breaking party, which usually consists of from 4 to 6 men.
f. Train crews. -- Personnel comprising the crews must be rough0.and
rugged. A typical crew would include tractor operators, swampers or handy
men, mechanics, welders, blacksmiths, cooks, cooks-helpers, and supervisors.
g. Supply. -- Supply is a problem when it is considered that a D-8
train will on long hauls consume a 53 gal. drum of fuel oil every 14 to 16
hours, while averaging 10 miles every 24 hours.
h. Route selection. -- In selecting routes, the reconnaissance party
should avoid lakes, streams, hills, mountains, heavily wooded areas, and hot
spring areas. Small observation planes are often used to assist in route
selection.
4. MILITARY OVERSNOW VEHICLES. -- a. Experimentation. -- Considerable
experimentation has been performed on oversnow vehicles for military use.
Probably the most widely known experiment is the Canadian operation Muskox,
recently completed. (See exhibit 11 for route). These tests proved that
powered tracked vehicles could operate for sustained periods under the most
severe Arctic conditions. (See exhibit 12) Some of the conclusions regarding
military oversnow vehicles are not only interesting, but they indicate a trend
that we may well follow in future developments of our Arctic vehicles.
b. General description. --A Canadian report indicates that these vehicles
should be self-contained motor-driven and full tracked with sufficient cargo
capacity so towing of trailers will be necessary only in emergencies. The
compartment should be well insulated so that no restricting clothing has
to be worn by the crew, and so arranged that cooking, sleeping, etc.,
are provided for. Since it is expected that operations will be per-
formed under the most severe weather conditions, it will be mandatory
to so design the vehicle that most of the ordinary field maintenance can
be performed from within the heated interior. Communications equipment
should include 2-way radios for contact with the bases, and for homing
beacons for aircraft, as well as direction-finding loop for navigation.
Maintenance points should be located at air bases at 500 mile intervals,
while intermediate supply caches and maintenance shelters are required
for each 100 mile interval. These vehicles should be capable of unassisted
operations between caches, with air support required only in emergencies.
c. Military requirements. -- Recommended military requirements are
the following three basic hulls, each capable of carrying superstructures
designed to meet special requirements:
(1) A light, fast 1 ton vehicle, suitable for carrying personnel
and light infantry weapons. The crew to consist of a driver-mechanic and a
driver-radio operator. It should be capable of 24 hours sustained operation
in the near vicinity of a mother vehicle.
(2) A 4 ton pay load line of communication cargo or mother
vehicle.
(3) A slow heavy cargo vehicle of 10 or more tons pay load,
designed to tow a large powered trailer.
d. Navigational problems. -- Some of the ground navigation
problems encountered on the Muskox expedition are:
(1) Absence of contoured maps and a shortage of accurate
maps.
(2) Terrain features that would assist in navigation such
as lakes and rivers are obscured by uniform snow cover.
(3) Straight courses over long distances are impossible,
because of the necessity to avoid obstacles.
(4) Adverse weather conditions often obscure the sun and stars
for long periods of time.
Section III - Air Transportation
1. OPERATIONAL FLYING. -- The problems of operational flying in
the Arctic are so numerous that a complete discussion thereof are beyond
the scope of this study. A few of the more important follow:
a. Forced landings in the Arctic and the ensuing rescue operations
present a multitude of problems that are being worked out very satisfactorily
by our Air Forces. Wheeled planes have landed successfully on snow and ice
as was demonstrated recently by the C-54 landing on the northern Greenland
ice cap by USAF pilot Cavenar. Ski landings were attempted by Sir Hubert
Wilkins in 1927. His third, a forced landing, was made successfully in a
blinding storm at night. Pontoons have also been used.for successful land-
ings on snow. Et Pritchard, USCG rescued an Army Fortress crew from the
Greenland ice cap by landing his Grumaan Amphibian with the wheels up on
a long down slope using the pontoons as skis. Pontoon landings on sub-
Arctic lakes are dangerous because of the shallow depth of most of the lakes.
b. Since there are practically no shadows in the vast expanse of
Arctic, white pilots lose depth perception and the danger of misjudging
distances is always present. It is entirely possible for a pilot to touch
outcropping of ice with his wings without having seen the danger.
2. LANDING FIELDS. -- a. Landing strips are easily constructed of solid
flat sea and river ice by scraping and/or packing. Fields constructed on
perma frost present altogether another problem, and one that has not yet been
solved satisfactorily. In.addition to the action of perma frost damaging
the fields, the element of danger to the planes is always present. Sudden
buckling, eruptions, flooding, etc., all contribute to making operations
fromthese fields hazardous.
b. Experiments are now being conducted with various types of
insulating materials to prevent excessive melting of the perma frost table
under the landing strips.
3. MAINTENANCE. -- The maintenance problems of gasoline powered vehicles
are also inherent to airplanes. Providing adequate heated space for equip-
ment, materials and personnel during maintenance operations in the Arctic
is a major problem. The problems of adequate lubricants and materials for
use at sub-zero temperatures is one that has yet to be solved before
we can say that the airplane is suitable for sustained Arctic use in
support of large scale military operations.
fxhibit 15
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APP 1~IX 3
SUPPLY
l., General Disu~selion
2, Installations
3. Storage
4. Transportation
a. General
b. Water
C. Rail
d.Al
e, Overland
5. Pipelines
Exhibit 20 -
Exhibit 21-
Exhibit 22 -
Exhibit 23 -
Exhibit 24 -
Exhibit 25 -
Sa~pplyrShip in Ice Pack
Rail Routes in U.S.S.R.
Rail Routes in Canada and. Alaska
Alaskan Railway
Air Routes over U. S. S.R.
Half-track in Oidr'a
1. General Discussion
Of equal importance with equipment and no less oi a
problem in the Arctic warfare is the actual supply of units
operating on this area. Even as the basic principles of warfare
remain unchanged so will the basic principles of supply. The
normal methods and proceedures for supply will have to be
modified due to the effects of climate, terrain and other
factors peculiar to the Arctic. For the most part however
present methods and procedures can be made to apply to Arctic
operations. The greatest problems of supply occur in location
and establishment of installations, storage and transportation,
2. Installations
Problems encountered in the establishment of installations
for effecting supply distribution are two-fold. First of all
there is the actual establishment of and the subsequent find&
ing of 'these installations by the using units. At first this
does not appear to be too much of a problem however it must
be remembered that there will be no roads, virtually no perm-
anent land marks. In addition all of the forces of nature
including climate, weather and terrain combind to hinder over-
land movement and navigation. A partial solution to this pro-
blem will be to expand unit distribution to the all inclusive
point. This however is not to practical in face of the ever
present shortage of service troops. A more practical solution
would be to devise a system o radio directional beamsto guide
the vehicles of using units to the supply installations. The
lack of road nets and the slowness of transportation will also
necessitate locating supply installations much closer to the figh
fighting troops than in normal operations.
E-2
3. STORAGE. -- Storage problems in the Arctic are not as great as
might be imagined. For instance there are many items on which the low
temperatures have no ill effects. Food stuffs, clothing and weapons,
to name a few, do not have to be protected from the elements, as much
in the Arctic as in the Tropics. Others, such as medical supplies,
batteries, and many delicate instruments, must be stored in protective
containers and possibly in heated shelters. It is one of the require-
ments of Arctic research to determine just which supplies will require
protective storage and to devise an efficient type of storage. Little
has been done on this to date.
The second problem is the design or construction of suitable shelters
for use at supply installations.' Tentage is out of the question due to the
violence of arctic storms and the lack of protection afforded. The build-
ings required must be sturdy enough to withstand the effects of climate and
weather and afford sufficient warmth and protection for supplies stored in
them. Such shelter must of necessity be rigid and heavy and it is here that
the problem becomes more complicated for as it has been pointed out in
Appendix B the action of perma frost will cause such structure to sag or
break up and to date no solution has been found to overcome this effect of
perma frost. A possible solution is to resort to the extensive use of ice
igloos.
4. TRANSPORTATION. - a. General. -- The movement of supplies in the
Arctic presents the greatest of all supply problems. Of the three methods
air, water and overland, this discussion will be devoted mostly to the latter
since it is this type wherein the greatest problems are found. Undoubtedly
Air supply will be utilized to an extent never before imagined but supplies
will have to be moved by surface transportation eventually and it is to the
solution to this problem that much effort must be directed.
b. Water transport. -- Water transportation in the Arctic may be
placed under three general classifications: maritime shipping, coastal
shipping, and barging.
Coastal shipping has been developed to some extent in the Arctic
but is seasonal and complicated by adverse weather, sea and ice conditions.
Most of the civilian equipment now in use is small, light and lacking
in navigational devices. Present naval craft available for coastal and
ship to shore operations, due to lack of steel hulls, small. Ice flows
would puncture present ply-wdd hulls and large scale coastal operations
could not be accomplished without redesigning present equipment.
During the summer months barging becomes one of the most important
means of transport in the Arctic. This is due both to the fact that the
rivers are open to a much greater degree and great expansion of land areas
which had remained solidly frozen all winter become impassable during the
thaws. The season is short and due to the shallow draft of most Arctic
rivers the tonnages carried are relatively small. Narrow swift rivers make
navigation difficult and lack of proper loading and unloading equipment adds
to the difficulties.
Pipe Lines
The degree of usefulness that can be obtained from large long distance
pipe lines is unknown. It may be presumed that in the sub-Arctic where
temperatures do not run to extremes of cold they would be satisfactory.
Under extreme cold conditions, the oil would have to be cut with more
volatile petroleum products and pipe lines heavily insulated. It may
prove feasible to heat the oil at pumping stations or to maintain frequent
heatings for the pipe itself. Under the Canal Project crude oil from the
Norman Wells waw run to the refinery at White Horse and a pipe line was
built to Fairbanks to carry the finished products. They were used but
little but were fairly successful. Research in this direction is a must
not only due to the fact that pipe lines are an efficient method of carrying
POL to the fighting front but indications are that large use will have to be
made in the future of the North Canadian oil reserves.
Transportation Problems
Section I - Water Transportation Problems
1. MARITIME SHIPPING. a. This mode of transportation is not only
the most important means of Arctic transport, but also the very backbone
of any economic development in the north. Regular shipping lanes extend
westward from the east coast of the U.S. three quarters of the way around
the world to the Bering Strait. The Soviet North Sea Route from Murmansk
to the Bering Strait is of particular significance when considering the
problems of Polar shipping. The Soviets have encountered many of the
same difficulties to be found in connection with the North American North-
west Passage, which to date is undeveloped.
b. Icebergs create a definite hazard to maritime shipping. Since
practically all Polar bergs originate on the coasts of Greenland, it is
obvious from an analysis of the sea currents that only the shipping pass-
ing off the coasts of Newfoundland, thru the Denmark Strait between Iceland
and Greenland and following the Labrador current north toward Baffin Bay
will be materially affected. The Soviet waters are for all intents and
purposes free from large icebergs. Constant vigilance and accurate and
timely reporting by C.G. Ice Patrols, aircraft and shipping is of great
value in warning vessels of the presence and location of icebergs in regular
shipping lanes. Radar equipment may be utilized by commercial shipping to
give warnings.
c. Icebreakers have proved valuable in keeping lanes open through
pack ice, as is evidenced by the successful establishment of the Soviet
North Sea route during the summer months. Icebreakers may be of 2 types:
the ice cutting type is limited to operations in areas where ice is not
very thick, or where there is leeway for the ice to be pushed to the sides;
the ice crushing type breaks the ice by its own weight and for this reason
can be operated in solid ice fields. Ice forcing ships are designed to
withstand damage from heavy ice conditions, however they are of no value
in ice breaking.
In recent operations in support of the development of Naval Petroleum
Reserve #4 a Navy Department observer concluded that the AKA vessels
presently used in transporting materials to the Arctic are unsuited for
this work because they are not built to withstand ice pressures of many
details of ship design peculiar to successful operation in the Polar Sea
is the location of the screws. Conventional twin screw vessels are very
vulnerable to damage by ice flowing back along the hull. Single screw
or twin screw vessel with some sort of protecting device are desirable
for navigation in Arctic and sub-Arctic waters.
2. COASTAL SHIPPING. a. Coastal shipping operations are complicated
by adverse weather, sea and ice conditions and the absence of adequate
navigational aids. It is obvious that this mode of transportation must
be utilized to the maximum in any future large scale Arctic operation.
b. Navy observers from the Arctic concluded that the small boats
presently available for coastal service and ship to shore operations in-
cluding landing craft and pontoon equipment nist be redesigned for Arctic
operation in flow ice. Experience has proven present craft to be unsatis-
factory due to absence of iron barking on hulls. Large scale operations
could rt b carried on with any degree of safety with this equipment.
Overland Transportation
1.. GENERAL. a. In view of the fact that Arctic and sub-Arctic
transportation of the future will be required to operate not only over
land and snowbut over ice as well. This study will consider all surface
transportation other than water under the general heading of land trans-
portation.
b. A discussion of showshoes, skis, sleds, dog, reindeer and
other more common modes of Arctic travel are considered beyond the scope
of this study and therefore will be eliminated. In passing it is well
to mention that although these methods are quite ancient they are never-
theless important to military operation and must be in the future utilized
and developed.
2. PROBLEMS. a. General.- In general it may be said that when
the weather is favorable for mechanical operation of machinery, navigation
and personnel the condition of the ground is unfavorable for overland
movement. On the other hand when the condition of the surface is favorable
for the movement of wheeled and tracked vehicles then the weather is usually
so severe that the functioning of machinery and personnel is very inefficient.
Movement by wheeled or most tracked vehicles is nearly impossible
in permafrost areas where the regional seasonal thaw is thick and is
composed of moss or tundra. The result of such movement being that
vehicles bog down to the extent that further movement is impossible and
recovery is a major problem. Installation in permafrost areas are subject
to buckling, sagging, shearing, and even complete destruction as a result
of the phenomenal action of permafrost. Unless special insulating pre-
cautions are taken against excessive melting of the permafrost table dur-
ing the period of season thaw construction performed on top of the region
can be expected to be damaged. For example a building constructed on
frozen ground without proper provisions for insulating the heat.
Ixhibi t 20
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Exhibit 21
Exhibit 2
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Zxhibit 25
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Vehicles Bogged-down in Arctic Tundra
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. C-1812 Report on Winter Operations, Camp McCoy, Wisconsin by 2nd
Infantry Division. 1942-1943.
2. R-6110 Organization Chart and Related Papers on Service of Supply.
(Stockage at Icebound Posts) 1942
3, R14788 History of the Tenth Light Division (Alpine) (#28). AGF.1946
4. N-14910 Infantry Division training for mountain warfare Mountain and
winter Warfare School and Training Center.
5. 0-10642 AGF Board report 0-741. ETO. 18 Mar 45.
6. 0-10554 AGF extracts from overseas reports. AGF. 15 Feb. 7 Apr 45.
7. N-14349 Report on Exercise Musk-Ox. 1946.
8. N-13255 Observer's report on Operation Musk-Ox. WDGS. 18 Feb 46.
9. Quartermaster Critique on Arctic and Sub-Arctic Testing winter 1946-47.
10. Analytical Study "Arctic Transportation" by K.B.Lemmon Jr. Lt.Col.U.S.A.
6 June 1947
11. Arctic Operations by R.C. Erlenbusch Lt. Col.U.S.A. 8 May 1947.
12. Suplg Problems in Polar Ioerations by H.R.Page Lt.Col.US.A.F.,
The Military Review Oct. 1947.
13. TM 1-240 Arctic Manual
14. Archives Micro-film 415 "Permafrost"
15. Permafrost