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Select 151 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
Graphite oxidizes at high temps. So
gaskets made with graphite deteriorate as
well. Thermiculite
C
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Select 93 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
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HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
7
BT@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
BILLY THINNES, NEWS EDITOR
HPIN BRIEF
A diamond
in the rough
Although problem-free pump oper-
ation is the primary goal of all pump
operators, achieving that goal is not a
simple matter. The key components of
a pumpmechanical seals, impellers,
couplings, roller bearings and hous-
ingsare all subject to wear. Keeping
a pump in good working condition is
essential for cost-effective and reli-
able operation of plants and systems.
Unplanned downtime can ruin pro-
duction schedules and adversely affect
a facilitys bottom line.
Mechanical seals are recognized
to be responsible for most pump
failures and consequently represent
the highest cost for pump repairs.
Therefore, reducing the mean time
between failure (MTBF) or the mean
time between repair (MTBR) can sig-
nificantly improve pump operations
and save money.
Industry surveys have shown that
dry running and inadequate lubrica-
tion are responsible for more than
50% of all mechanical seal damages;
consequently, it is safe to state that
approximately 20% of all pump fail-
ures are due to poor lubrication or dry
running of the mechanical seal faces.
To combat the problem of dry run-
ning, EagleBurgmann has developed
a seal face coating based in diamond.
Diamond is the hardest natural miner-
al known and offers excellent chemi-
cal and thermal resistance. The new
technology is a synthetically manufac-
tured, ultra-pure diamond with the
same characteristics as the natural
stone. It has a microcrystalline coating
of 8-m thickness on a silicon carbide
seal face extends the life of the seal,
reducing maintenance costs and mini-
mizing life-cycle costs for pump users.
In an analysis of the service life
of pump components, it was found
that mechanical seals, with an aver-
age service life of only 1.2 years, are
the weakest link in terms of pump
components, compared to the next
weakest component, bearings, with
an average service life of three years.
It is thought that by using mechanical
seals coated with diamond, the aver-
age service life of mechanical seals
substantially increases. HP
Curtiss-Wright Corp. has received an order from Petrobras for
12 top and bottom fully-automated coke drum unheading systems. The units
are expected to be delivered to the Petrobras Abreu e Lima refinery located in
Pernambuco, Brazil. During the opening of a coke drum, known as unheading,
extreme temperatures can be present. Curtiss-Wrights system safely opens the top
or bottom of a coke drum during the delayed coking process. Unlike traditional
unheading systems, this remotely operated device creates a totally enclosed, fully
automated coking system, from the top of the coke drum down to the coke pit,
minimizing safety risks to personnel.
Total Petrochemicals has successfully demonstrated UOP
technology that will enable the use of feedstocks other than petroleum to pro-
duce plastics and other petrochemicals. A demonstration unit built by Total
Petrochemicals at its complex in Feluy, Belgium, used UOPs methanol-to-
olefins (MTO) technology to convert methanol to ethylene and propylene. The
propylene was then successfully converted to polypropylene product. This dem-
onstration proves that propylene produced from methanol at a semi-commercial
scale is suitable for plastics production.
The demonstration unit has run consistently for more than 150 days since its start-up
last year and has met product yield expectations. The unit has processed up to 10 metric tpd
of methanol to produce the light olefins ethylene and propylene. The demonstration plant
integrates MTO process technology with Total Petrochemicals and UOPs olefin cracking
process (OCP). Use of the OCP could boost the total yield of usable ethylene and propylene
while minimizing hydrocarbon byproducts. The OCP unit is scheduled to start up later this
year after initial testing of the MTO unit is completed.
The demonstration plant was designed to assess, on a semi-commercial indus-
trial scale, the technical feasibility of the integrated MTO and OCP processes
with full product recovery and purification.
ProSep Inc. was awarded a $2 million contract to provide process
engineering and specialized internals for crude separation. This contract was awarded
through a commercial alliance with the engineering and manufacturing company
Thermo Design and will be installed at an oil and gas producers steam-assisted gravity
drainage facility located in Albertas oil sands. The crude separation equipment will
be built using ProSeps vessel designs and internals, allowing for efficient separation of
crude, natural gas, water and solids from the production stream.
Refineria de Cartagena SA (REFICAR) has selected Merichem to
provide multiple technologies for treatment of hydrocarbons and spent caustic
at its refinery in Cartagena, Colombia. Merichem will license its technologies
and supply modular equipment to treat coker LPG and saturated LPG at the
facility. Merichem will also license other technologies to supply modular equip-
ment, including salt and clay beds for treatment of kerosene/jet fuel. In addition,
REFICAR has also selected Merichems technology and equipment for the treat-
ment of spent caustic generated by new and existing units.
CPFD Software LLC, which created the Barracuda simulation
package for particle-fluid systems, announced the signing of a distribution agree-
ment with Hi-Key Technology to distribute and support Barracuda in China.
Barracuda is used by oil and gas, chemical, petrochemical and power equipment
manufacturers for simulating, understanding and optimizing the operation of
fluidized systems. Common applications are fluidized catalytic cracking (FCC)
reactors and regenerators, fluidized bed reactors (FBRs) for chemical manufactur-
ing and circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boilers in coal-fired power plants. HP
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HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
HPIN RELIABILITY
HB@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
9
In most small machines there is a need to limit both contami-
nant ingress and oil leakage. Inexpensive lip seals are sometimes used
for sealing at the bearing housing, but lip seals typically last only
about 2,000 operating hoursthree months. When lip seals are too
tight, they cause shaft wear and, in some cases, lubricant discolor-
ation known as black oil. Once lip seals have worn and no longer
seal tightly, oil is lost through leakage. This fact is recognized by the
API-610 standard for process pumps, which disallows lip seals and
calls for either rotating labyrinth-style or contacting face seals.
Small steam turbines often suffer from steam leakage at both
drive- and governor-end sealing glands. Each bearing housing (Fig.
1) is located adjacent to one of these two glands, which contain
carbon rings. It is a well-known fact that, as soon as the internally
split carbon rings start to wear, high-pressure and high-velocity
leakage steam finds its way into the bearing housings. Traditional
labyrinth seals have proven ineffective in many such cases and only
solidly engineered bearing protector seals now manage to block
leakage steam passage.
The bearing housing protector seal in Fig. 2 was designed for
steam turbines. It incorporates a small- and a large-diameter dynamic
O-ring. This bearing protector seal is highly stable and not likely to
wobble on the shaft; it is also field-repairable. With sufficient shaft
rotational speed, one of the rotating (dynamic) O-rings is flung
outward and away from the larger O-ring. The larger cross-section
O-ring is then free to move axially and a micro-gap opens up.
When the turbine is stopped, the outer of the two dynamic
O-rings will move back to its stand-still position. At stand-still,
the outer O-ring contracts and touches the larger cross-section
O-ring. In this highly purposeful design, the larger cross-section
O-ring touches a relatively large contoured area. Because Contact
Pressure = Force/Area, a good design aims for low pressure. Good
designs differ greatly from technologically outdated configurations
wherein contact with the sharp edges of an O-ring groove will
cause O-ring damage.
Fortunately, concerns as to the time it might take to upgrade
to advanced bearing protector seals have been alleviated. In June
2009 Total Raffinaderij Nederland (TRN) asked for the installa-
tion of the bearing protector seal shown in Fig. 2 in one of its 350
kW/3,000-rpm steam turbines. No modifications were allowed on
the existing equipment and installation of three LabTecta-STAX
seals on the first machine had to take place during a scheduled
plant shutdown in June 2009.
With no detailed drawings of the bearing housings available,
the exact installation geometry could only be finalized after dis-
mantling the Turbodyne turbine. One of the main problems was
the short outboard length: less than 0.25 in. (6.35 mm) was avail-
able due to the presence of steam deflectors and oil flingers. But
the manufacturers engineers were able to modify the advanced
design in Fig. 2 to fit into the existing OEM labyrinth seal groove.
Delivery was made within one week of taking steam turbine and
bearing housing measurements and the turbine has been running
flawlessly since June 2009.
Our point is that highly cost-effective equipment upgrades
are possible at hundreds of refineries. However, superior bearing
protector products for use in steam turbines must be purposefully
developed. The type described here has important advantages
compared with standard products typically used in pumps:
It is suitable for high temperatures.
It incorporates Aflas O-rings as the standard elastomer.
Extra axial clearance is provided to accommodate thermal
expansion.
High-temperature graphite gaskets are incorporated in this
design.
There should no longer be any reason for water intrusion into
the bearing housings of small steam turbines at reliability-focused
HPI facilities. HP
Consider bearing protection for small steam turbines
The author is HPs Equipment/Reliability Editor. A practicing consulting engineer
with close to 50 years of applicable experience, he advises process plants world-
wide on failure analysis, reliability improvement and maintenance cost-avoidance
topics. Mr. Bloch has authored or coauthored 17 textbooks on machinery reliability
improvement and over 470 papers or articles dealing with related subjects.
Drive-end
outboard
Drive-end
inboard
Governor-end
inboard
Small steam turbine cross-section view
(Source: Worthington-Turbodyne S.A.).
FIG. 1
Cross-sectioned half-view of a bearing housing protector
seal for small steam turbines (Source: LabTecta-STAX,
AESSEAL Inc., Rotherham, UK and Rockford, TN).
FIG. 2
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LETTERS TO THE EDITOR
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
25
editorial@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Chemical process safety chat
Thank you for publishing the process
safety-related article by Mr. Shah about
layers of protection (p. 67, April 2010). I
am a long-time reader and have seen very
few, if any, articles in Hydrocarbon Processing
that I would classify as pure process safety.
Mr. Shahs article is a very good high-level
overview of LOPA and I hope it prompts
readers to make the effort to learn more
about this valuable risk-management tool.
I am a process safety professional and teach
several process safety related classes. LOPA
is included in most of them as a tool for
improved risk management. Reading Mr.
Shahs article gives me the incentive to offer
process safety-related articles for publication
in Hydrocarbon Processing.
There is one minor correction to the arti-
cle that should be made. Mr. Shah references
CCPS as Center Chemical and Process
Safety. That is not the correct title. CCPS
is the Center for Chemical Process Safety
and was formed in early 1985 by AIChE
after the Bhopal tragedy. The mission was
(and still is) to eliminate catastrophic pro-
cess incidents by advancing state-of-the-art
technology and management practices, serv-
ing as the premier resource for information
on process safety, supporting process safety
in engineering, and promoting process
safety as a key industry value. Originally,
there were 17 members. CCPS now has over
120 member companies in 19 countries. To
learn more about CCPS, go to http://www.
aiche.org/ccps/.
Adrian L. Sepeda, P.E.
A. L. Sepeda Consulting Inc.
Plano, Texas
A dual-temperature
control challenge
In his March 2010 HPIn Control
column (p. 17), Y. Zak Friedman chal-
lenged me to write an article showing a
real column having stable dual-temperature
control. I have written many such articles
in the past, so the history of success is well
established. For example, see the applica-
tion to a styrene-ethylbenzene column (Oil
& Gas J., July 14, 1969), to an alkylation
deisobutanizer (Oil & Gas J., July 28, 1969)
and to a series of columns in an NGL sepa-
ration unit (Chem. Eng. Progr., June 1975).
Obviously, this is not news.
Out of respect for client privilege, I am
not at liberty to present recent success sto-
ries of stable dual-temperature controls.
Those who are interested should not draw
any conclusions from Friedmans one-page
editorial without first reading my entire
10-page article, Multivariable Control of
Distillation, appearing in Control in May,
June and July 2009.
F. G. Shinskey
Process Control Consultant
Wolfeboro, New Hampshire
Authors response
Mr. Shinskeys 1969 and 1975 papers
are not relevant to the current argument.
The papers are about mass balance control
structure with analyzer feedback, sometimes
with a single tray temperature controller.
Neither paper contains any process data
to support Mr. Shinskeys position, but in
any case, the argument that mass balance is
sometimes a useful control technique is not
controversial. What is controversial is dual
composition control implemented on top of
unstable dual-temperature control.
I would repeat that the only reasonable
way to promote a theory is to show that it
works in practice. I am actually surprised to
hear that clients have declined to release Mr.
Shinskeys technical papers. In my experi-
ence, clients who are proud of their APC
applications are eager to publish papers and
participate as authors.
Y. Zak Friedman
Correcting a misperception
There was misinformation in the Janu-
ary 2010 issue. I am referring to the HPIn-
novations section (p. 19) which indicates
that Curtiss-Wrights pressure-relief software
has now been awarded a US patent. How-
ever, the title gives an incorrect impression
to your readers (Pressure-relief software
awarded first US patent). The title implies
that Curtiss-Wright has obtained the first-
ever US patent that was awarded for pres-
sure-relief software. We wish to point out
that Siemens Pressure Protection Manager
was the first software for which the US
Patent Office granted a patent. This pat-
ent was granted in 1995. As such, the title
of the article should read, Pressure-relief
software awarded a US patent. This change
removes the ambiguity for your readers and
is grounded in the aforementioned facts.
Eva-Maria Baumann
Siemens AG Energy Sector
Erlangen, Germany
A plastics fan
I want to thank you for publishing the
article, Plastics enable better automobile
designs in your April 2010 issue (p. 43).
As someone who has been involved in the
automotive and petrochemical industries
for over 20 years, I cant tell you how much
advances in polymers have made vehicles
safer, lighter, more responsive and pro-
portionally less expensive. The fact that
automakers can use plastics in fenders and
bumpers, instead of more expensive met-
als, ups profit margins for producers and
lowers sticker prices for consumers. By my
reckoning, thats a good deal for everyone.
While the world may not know how much
it depends on plastics, this community does
and we should continue to develop even
more advanced polymers.
Peter Sanderson, P.E.
Grand Rapids, Michigan
An expression of love
I just love this statement by Heinz P.
Bloch, Dont employ the nonteachable,
from his May 2010 HPIn Reliability col-
umn. Sorry but it had me and our engineers
in stitches. If this rule were applied at the
CEO, COO and CFO levels, we might
begin to get somewhere!
Harry J. Gatley, Chem.E., P.Eng, P.E.
West Jordan, Utah
Hydrocarbon Processing welcomes
and encourages feedback from its
readers. Send your comments to:
Hydrocarbon Processing
Attention: Letters to the editor
P.O. Box 2608, Houston, Texas 77046
editorial@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
26
I
AUGUST 2010 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
HPI CONSTRUCTION BOXSCORE UPDATE
Company City Plant Site Project Capacity Unit Cost Status Yr Cmpl Licensor Engineering Constructor
UNITED STATES
Illinois Air Products Granite City Granite City Air Separation Unit (1) 500 tpd P 2012 Air Products
Illinois Air Products Granite City Granite City Air Separation Unit (2) RE 500 tpd P 2012 Air Products
Kentucky Marathon Petroleum Catlettsburg Catlettsburg Hydrocrack, Gasoil 70 Mbpd C 2010 Shaw
Michigan FRONTIER RENEWABLE RES Kinross Kinross Bio-ethanol 40 MMgal F 2013
Utah PM Petroleum Green River Green River Refinery 25 Mbpd P 2014
LATIN AMERICA
Brazil Petrobras/BG/Repsol/Galp Energia Santos Santos LNG Floating (FLNG) 2.7 MMtpy F 2013 Technip Chiyoda|SBM Offshore|Technip
Brazil Petrobras Tres Lagoas Tres Lagoas Ammonia 2.2 Mm-tpd F 2013 KBR
Colombia Ecopetrol Barrancabermeja Barrancabermeja Coker, Delayed 54 Mbpd E 2013 FW
Colombia Ecopetrol Barrancabermeja Barrancabermeja Coker, Naphtha 30 Mbpd E 2013 FW
Colombia Ecopetrol Barrancabermeja Barrancabermeja Crude Unit 100 Mbpd E 2013 FW
Colombia Ecopetrol Barrancabermeja Barrancabermeja Hydrocracker 50 Mbpd E 2013 FW
Peru PERU LNG Pampa Melchorita Pampa Melchorita LNG Liquefaction Plant 4.5 MMtpy 3800 C 2010 CB&I CB&I
Peru PERU LNG Pampa Melchorita Pampa Melchorita Storage Train, LNG (1) 130 Mm3 3800 C 2010 CB&I CB&I
Peru PERU LNG Pampa Melchorita Pampa Melchorita Utilities None 3800 C 2010 CB&I CB&I
Venezuela Petronas/PDVSA/ONGC/Repsol/IOCL Jv Anzoategui Anzoategui Upgrader, Heavy Oil 200 Mbpd P 2014
ASIA/PACIFIC
China Ningbo Heyuan Chemical Ningbo Ningbo Methanol-to-Olefins (MTO) 600 Mm-tpy F 2012 CB&I
China Ningbo Heyuan Chemical Ningbo Ningbo Olefins Conversion 90 Mm-tpy F 2012 CB&I
China Xinwen Mining Group Xinjiang Yili Coal to SNG Plant 6 MMNm3/d P 2012 Davy Process
India Mangalore Rfg & Petrochemicals Mangalore Mangalore Heater, Coker None F 2011 Technip
India Mangalore Rfg & Petrochemicals Mangalore Mangalore Heater, Crude None F 2011 Technip
India Mangalore Rfg & Petrochemicals Mangalore Mangalore Heater, FCC None F 2011 Technip
India Mangalore Rfg & Petrochemicals Mangalore Mangalore Heater, Vacuum None F 2011 Technip
AFRICA
Cameroon GDF SUEZ Kribi Kribi LNG 3.5 MMtpy F 2012 FW
Egypt Carbon Holdings Ain Sokhna Ain Sokhna Polyethylene (1) 450 Mtpy F 2012 Univation
Egypt Carbon Holdings Ain Sokhna Ain Sokhna Polyethylene (2) 450 Mtpy F 2012 Univation
Egypt Carbon Holdings Ain Sokhna Ain Sokhna Polyethylene (3) 450 Mtpy F 2012 Univation
Nigeria Nigerian Natl Petr Corp Lekki Lekki Free Trade Zone Refinery 500 Mm-tpy S 2014
MIDDLE EAST
Iraq Iraq Ministry of Oil Basra Al Basrah Cracker, FCC 55 Mbpsd 17.9 F 2011 APS Eng Co Roma
Turkey Petkim/SOCAR/Turcas JV Aliaga Aliaga CCR 28 Mbpsd F 2014 FW
Turkey Petkim/SOCAR/Turcas JV Aliaga Aliaga Coker, Delayed 40 Mbpsd F 2014 FW
Turkey Petkim Petrokimya Hldg Aliaga Aliaga Hydrocracker 66 Mbpsd F 2014 FW
Turkey Petkim/SOCAR/Turcas JV Aliaga Aliaga Hydrogen 160 MNm3/h F 2014 FW
Turkey Petkim/SOCAR/Turcas JV Aliaga Aliaga Offsites None F 2014 FW
Turkey Petkim/SOCAR/Turcas JV Aliaga Aliaga Refinery 214 Mbpsd F 2014 FW FW
UAE Borouge III Ruwais Ruwais Polyethylene, LD 350 Mtpy 400 U 2013 Tecnimont Samsung Eng
See http://www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/bxsymbols for licensor, engineering and construction companies abbreviations,
along with the complete update of the HPI Construction Boxscore.
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Select 155 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
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FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT SPECIALREPORT
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
29
Prevent electric erosion in
variable-frequency drive bearings
Here are the reasons and remedial actions
H. P. BLOCH, HP Reliability/Equipment Editor
T
he problem of electric current pass-
ing through electrical machine roll-
ing bearings and causing damage in
the inner and outer ring ball or roller and
raceway contact areas has been known for
decades. In addition to the bearing element
damage, it was also understood that the
lubricant structure might change under
the influence of a passing current. Both
AC and DC motors potentially suffer from
the electric-current passage phenomenon.
However, since the 1990s, increasing use of
variable-frequency drives (VFDs) has had a
measurable effect on the number of motor
bearing failures. This article examines the
reasons and recommends remedial action
to be considered.
Modern induction machines are con-
trolled via fast-switching voltage-source
frequency converters that, in motors,
provide the possibility for precise con-
trol and adjusting rotational speed and
torque as well as energy regeneration at
braking operations. The power-switching
semiconductor devices used in frequency
converters have changed from thyristors
to gate turn-off transistors (GTOs) and
further to the insulated-gate bi-polar tran-
sistors (IGBTs) that dominate the VFD
market today. While IGBTs are used to
create the pulse-width-modulated (PWM)
output voltage waveform and thereby
improve drive efficiency and dynamic
performance, these advantages are not
achieved without certain drawbacks.
New effects have been observed when
power is supplied from a PWM converter.
Depending on the power range, switching
frequencies of several kHz are employed
and associated voltages and currents are
encountered apart from the classic volt-
ages and currents generated by the motor
itself. Bearing damage is now caused by a
high-frequency (spanning a relatively wide
kHz to MHz range) current flow that is
induced by these fast-switching (100 ns)
IGBT semiconductor devices.
1
The basic causes and sources for bearing
currents are:
Electrostatic charging
Magnetic flux asymmetries in the
motor
Frequency converters and their com-
mon-mode voltage in combination with
high-slew-rate voltage pulses.
The first two phenomena are well known
and considered classical reasons for bearing
currents. All electric motors and generators,
whether they are main- or converter-fed,
are at risk with respect to the first two phe-
nomena. This would explain that insulated
bearings were used by risk-averse reliabil-
ity professionals decades ago. However,
common-mode voltages in combination
with high-slew-rate voltage pulses, the third
bearing current cause or source, only exists
for converter-fed motors and generators.
Current damage explained. When
an electric current passes through a roll-
ing bearing, electric discharges take place
through the lubricant between the inner
and outer ring raceways and the rolling ele-
ments. Spark discharge then causes local
bearing metal surface melting. Craters are
formed and molten material particles are
transferred and partly break loose. The
crater material is rehardened and is much
more brittle than the original bearing mate-
rial. An annealed material layer lies below
the rehardened layer and the annealed layer
is, of course, softer than the surrounding
material. In rolling bearings three major
types of current damage: pitting, fluting
and microcratering have been identified
and characterized by their appearance.
One prominent type of electric cur-
rent damage is called electric pitting. It
is mostly related to single-crater damage
and was, in the past, typically seen in
DC applications such as railway traction
motors. The crater diameter is typically
from 0.1 up to 0.5 mm and can be seen
with the unaided eye. The predominant
source of such craters is a very high volt-
age; it can be extremely powerful.
Fluting (electric erosion) in rolling-element bearings (SKF USA, Kulpsvlle,
Pennsylvania).
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FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT SPECIALREPORT
31
Fluting or washboarding is another
frequently encountered type of current
damage (Fig. 1). It consists of a multiple
grey line pattern across the raceways that
then appear both shiny and darkly dis-
colored. The reason for this fluting is a
mechanical resonance vibration caused by
the rolling element dynamic effect when
they are moving over smaller craters. Note
that fluting is not a primary failure mode
produced by the current flow through the
bearing itself. Instead, fluting represents
secondary bearing damage that becomes
visible only after some time and has small
craters as points of initiation.
Because frequency converters are com-
mon, the third type of defectmicrocra-
teringis by far the most common type
of current damage. The damaged surface
appears dull and is characterized by molten
pit marks. Multiple microcraters cover the
rolling element and raceway surfaces. Cra-
ter sizes are small, mostly with diameters
from 5 to 8 m, regardless of the craters
being found on an inner ring, outer ring
or a rolling element. The true crater shape
can only be seen under a microscope with
very high magnification.
Electric current discharges also cause the
bearing lubricant to change its composi-
tion and degrade rapidly. Localized high
temperatures promote a reaction between
additives and the base oil; base oil burn-
ing or charring can result. Additives will be
used more quickly and the lubricant tends
to harden and turn black. Rapid grease
breakdown is thus a typical failure mode
that results from current passage.
Technology and failure avoidance.
A number of bearing failure avoidance mea-
sures exist, including reasonable steps such
as insulating the bearings, ceramic bearings
and certain mechanical contact-type shaft-
grounding devices. Flawed measures include
so-called electrically conductive greases.
It turned out that electrically conduc-
tive greases do not represent a suitable
solution, especially under high-frequency
currents due to their too-high electrical
resistance. Moreover, the conductive par-
ticles contained in the grease will often
affect the bearing tribological properties.
Shaft grounding devices usually con-
nect the rotating shaft and stationary motor
parts by a sliding contact. This sliding con-
tact is made by carbon or graphite brushes
located outside the motortypically at
the drive-end side. The brushes are often
directly sliding on the shaft and varying
degrees of contamination and malfunction
risk exist with some designs. In general, a
measure of predictive or preventive brush
maintenance is needed with some of these
devices. Besides, the electric resistance of
conventional brushes may become too
high with respect to the electric regime,
especially at high frequencies. To what
extent purchase of these components and
combination with countermeasures, such
as insulated or hybrid (ceramic) bearings,
make sound economic sense is influenced
by train considerations that extend to the
driven equipment.
2
Shaft currents can
travel across certain coupling types or styles
and, unless protected, may thus damage the
driven equipment bearings.
Hybrids have been available for a num-
ber of years. They definitely solve prob-
lems with electric current and handle many
issues traceable to poor lubrication. They
are ideally suited for many VFDs and
other industrial electric-motor applica-
tions. Even more prevalent are electrically
insulated bearings, i.e., bearings provided
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Select 158 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT SPECIALREPORT
34
break-free and nonwearing service. These
carbon fibers must be allowed to flex within
their elastic limit and while contacting the
shaft with the proper overlap. Long-term
reliable fibers are placed in an engineered
holder or channel that protects against
breaking and mechanical stress.
As of 2010, the most reliable design is
to arrange one or more rows of fibers in a
continuous ring inside a protective chan-
nel completely surrounding the motor
shaft. This design ensures that there are
literally hundreds of thousands of fibers
to handle discharge currents from VFD-
induced voltages at the various prevailing
high frequencies. One SGR brand has two
full rows of fibers and its continuous cir-
cumferential ring design and fiber flexi-
bility allows them to sweep small amounts
of oil film, grease and dust particles away
from the shaft surface.
There are indications that using just a
few fiber bundles is a less reliable design.
An optimal placement in the protective
channel is thought to ensure that the
fibers overlap and maintain electrical
contact with the shaft while preventing
breaking and contamination problems.
The best available designs no doubt
optimize fiber density to maintain the
required fiber flexibility. If too many
fibers are bundled together (as may be
the case in less-than-optimal designs) the
fibers will break.
While there are compelling reasons
to specify insulated (actually, aluminum
oxide-coated) rolling-element or ceramic
(hybrid) bearings for VFDs, there may
be instances where bearing protector rings
are well justified and further reduce the
risk of shaft current-induced bearing dis-
tress. When specifying such shaft ground-
ing rings, steer clear of knock-off prod-
ucts that use carbon fibers and mounting
methods that compromise long-term reli-
able service.
One can see that an induction motor
fed by a frequency converter is a very
complex drive system that is influenced
by many parameters. The whole drive,
including supply, DC link, switching ele-
ments, cables, motor and load, has to be
regarded as a total system. In short, elec-
tric currents are often an unavoidable fact
of life in bearing applications. Currents
have potentially damaging consequences
when they pass through rolling bearings.
Damage mainly occurs in the inner and
outer ring ball or roller and raceway con-
tact areas.
Summary of recommended user
practices. Logic tells us that bearing
selection for VFDs must be based on
applying proven reliability engineering
principles. Accordingly, we would encour-
age thoughtful professionals to work with
VFD and motor suppliers that will have
a thorough knowledge of insulated and
ceramic (hybrid) bearings. Hybrid tech-
nology affords a measure of superiority in
insulating along with the added tribologi-
cal benefits. We would consider adding
shaft grounding rings in instances where,
for well-explained reasons, insulated or
hybrid bearings cannot be used or present
some definable risk.
On SGRs or other externally-added
rotating grounding devices, reliability-
focused users are mindful of the unques-
tionable merits of overlapping carbon fiber
designs placed in retainer structures that act
as a protection. Relevant literature sources
are available and some of these let us under-
stand electrostatic technology parameters.
6
Others will thoroughly explain the decade-
old use of insulated bearings in protecting
VFD bearings from these currents.
1
Recall
that hybrid bearings
2
could be an impor-
tant solution for VFD applications since
ceramic rolling elements made of silicon
nitride are excellent electric insulators. We
would also pay attention to advertisements
and commercial literature
4,5
and review the
science that supports or generates questions.
When in doubt, science and peer-reviewed
publications
6
can provide us with answers
regarding competing designs. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
http://evolution.skf.com/zino.aspx?articleID
=336&lan=en-gbn.
2
Consider Ceramic Bearings for Screw
Compressors, Hydrocarbon Processing, August
2009.
3
National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) Specification MG1 Part 31.4.4.3 (MG 1
pertains to Definite-Purpose Inverter-Fed
Polyphase Motor bearings, section 31.4.4.3
pertains to Shaft Voltages and Bearing
Insulation).
4
Commercial literature, Electro Static Technology
Company (EST), Mechanic Falls, ME 04256; also
sales@est-static.com.
5
Commercial literature, INPRO/Seal Company,
Rock Island, lL, 61201; also www.inpro-seal.com.
6
Muetze, Annette and H. Will Oh; Design
Aspects of Conductive Microfiber Rings for Shaft
Grounding Purposes, Proceedings of the IEEE,
September 2007, pp. 229236.
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FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT SPECIALREPORT
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
37
Valve design reduces costs and
increases safety for US refineries
The goals were achieved by using alloys with superior corrosion resistance
R. D. JOHNSON and B. LEE, Flowserve Flow Control Division, Cookeville, Tennessee
I
n the 1980s and early 1990s, methyl tertiary butyl ether
(MTBE) was seen as an economical blending component that
would eventually replace processes like hydrofluoric (HF) acid
catalyzed alkylation (Fig. 1). However, MTBE was eventually
banned in the US due to public health concerns after the chemi-
cal compound was detected in groundwater. As a result, refineries
shifted their focus from MTBE back to established processes like
HF alkylation to continue to produce high-quality gasoline.
HF catalyzed alkylation is a long-proven process that refineries
use to produce clean-burning, high-octane gasoline. However, HF
units required frequent maintenance that can result in downtime
and significant costs for refineries. This has prompted the industry
to look for ways to increase the time between HF unit shutdowns.
The solution that one supplier found was a valve design that not
only saved refineries money, but also helped mitigate safety risks
associated with hydrofluoric acid.
MTBE background. MTBE is a volatile, flammable and color-
less liquid chemical compound created by the chemical reaction
of methanol and isobutylene, and is used commercially to raise
gasoline oxygen content. According to the US Environmental
Protection Agency, refineries started using MTBE at low levels in
1979 to replace lead as an octane enhancer, which helps prevent
automobile engines from knocking.
In 1992, refineries started adding higher concentrations of the
compound in some gasoline to fulfill oxygenate requirements set
in 1990 by the Clean Air Act Amendments. Increasing the oxygen
content by using MTBEs helps gasoline burn more completely
and reduces harmful tailpipe emissions from pre-1948 vehicles.
However, emission reduction in modern vehicles is negligible.
In 1995, the US Geological Survey reported finding MTBE
in shallow groundwater throughout the country, which raised
public health concerns. All states now ban MTBE use, though
most refineries voluntarily removed the compound from their
products before the bans went into effect.
MTBE removal from gasoline resulted in several challenges
for refineries. The bans caused a volumetric reduction in the US
gasoline supply and octane levels and emissions to the atmosphere
were both adversely impacted. Refiners were left to find a viable
oxygenate to replace MTBE to keep their gasoline quality high.
Ethanolnot a perfect substitute. Some refineries turned
to ethanol as an oxygenate substitute. Ethanol is commonly used
in gasoline blendsaccording to the American Coalition for
Ethanol it is blended into about 70% of the US gasoline supply.
Adding 10% ethanol to gasoline raises the fuels octane rating by
two or three points, which improves performance.
The task forces findings were used to develop a superior
HF alkylation plug valve design. Features include the
availability of an advanced stem seal design. The findings
also led to developing a design that allows for repairing
the valve in line.
FIG. 1
Recycle isobutane
Propane
Alkylate
Fresh acid
Acid oils
Reactor
Settler
Acid
purier
Caustic washer
Deisobutanizer
Depropanizer
Feedstock
(olens,
isobutane)
Improved valve designs reduces costs and improves safety. FIG. 2
FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT SPECIALREPORT
38
However, 10% ethanol blends have a Reid vapor pressure
(Rvp), a common measure of gasoline volatility, well above the
levels allowed in most states. To meet Rvp requirements, 10%
ethanol blends require removing lighter components such as
butane and pentane, which adds to the refinerys costs and com-
plicates the production process.
Alkylates help create high-quality gasoline. Alkylates
are high-octane, low-Rvp blending components produced by
reacting C
3
and C
5
olefins and isobutene. The alkylation process
does not contribute any additional aromatics, sulfur or olefins
into the gasoline pool, and has been found to be an ideal blending
component.
There are two processes for producing
alkylates: sulfuric and HF acid-catalyzed
alkylation. HF alkylation is more common
in US refineries because it is a more effi-
cient process. It does not require refrigera-
tion to maintain a low reactor temperature
and has a significantly lower acid consump-
tion rate.
HF alkylation produces clean-burning,
high-octane gasoline. However, due to the
corrosive nature of the process, most HF
units historically operated with turnaround
times of just two years, which required
refineries to shut down production so they
could repair and upgrade the unit.
The downtime for repairs and upgrades
resulted in significant revenue loss for refin-
eries, and the industry looked to suppli-
ers to help increase the time between HF
unit shutdowns. To accomplish this goal,
suppliers needed to develop products that
required less maintenance and provided
longer service life (mean-time-between-
failures) in HF environments.
One of the key concerns for the refiner-
ies is valves used in HF units. Valves were
among the components that needed the
most repair and maintenance, and required
the most attention and scrutiny during
operation and shutdown. One supplier
rose to the challenge by developing a valve
design that required significantly less main-
tenance, saving the refinery money while
also helping them mitigate safety risks asso-
ciated with HF leaks.
HF alkylation task force. Because
valves were among the most difficult com-
ponents requiring frequent repair, a special
task force was created by the valve supplier
and charged with lengthening the process
capability of its valves to reduce the mean-
time- between-maintenance-intervals. In
certain unit areas, valves were experiencing
higher corrosion levels than anticipated.
The task force also found several valves
with stem leaks that created an environ-
mental hazard, and some valves were being
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One of the key concerns for the
refineries is valves used in HF units.
Valves were among the components that
needed the most repair and maintenance,
and required the most attention and
scrutiny during operation and shutdown.
Select 160 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT SPECIALREPORT
39
fouled by buildup of iron fluorides that would wash down from
the adjacent carbon-steel pipe, inhibiting valve operation.
The task force recognized that the key to improving valve func-
tionality was gaining a better understanding of the HF alkylation
process. They spent the next five years collecting information
from two turnarounds at two different refineries. They were able
to observe unit maintenance first hand, including why valves were
replaced or repaired.
This investigation led the team to identify the circuits within
the HF unit that put the most strain on the valves; the most dif-
ficult being the acid rerun circuit. Valves in this circuit operate
in the highest temperatures, acid concentration and water levels
found in the HF unit. These extreme con-
ditions cause accelerated valve corrosion
and result in decreased turnaround time
and increased maintenance costs.
One of the key findings of the task force
was understanding that oxygen in the unit
causes nickel to leach from the materials
used to manufacture the valvesASTM
A 494 M35-1 (monel). Monel is a nickel-
based alloy composed of 60% nickel and
35% copper, with 5% trace elements.
Where oxygen is present in the system,
the nickel is leached out of the alloy at an
unacceptable rate and leaves behind copper
and the other components of the original
monel.
Because this chemical attack degrades
the monel quality, the surface characteristics
are compromised. As a result, the valve may
begin to leak hydrofluoric acid. Therefore,
it was found that many of the applications
in the difficult unit areas, such as the rerun
circuit, required using alternative alloys for
the valves.
The valves are constantly being exposed
to HF acid. In cases where HF can become
trapped in crevices where the acid is not
allowed to refresh, it can cause pocket cor-
rosion. In those cases, the team found that
HF might permeate through the stem seal.
When it meets the atmospheric moisture, it
becomes very corrosive, causing valve stem
pitting. This pitting can cause the stem to
leak acid into the atmosphere.
Iron fluoride is created in the HF unit
when the carbon steel in the pipes reacts
with the acid. The iron fluoride creates
a desirable protective barrier that retards
further pipe corrosion in the system. The
valves used in the unit are generally made
of monel or a similar alloy, which does not
react with hydrofluoric acid. However,
iron fluoride from the piping can wash
into valves and other components. Because
many of the valves are not operated fre-
quently, these iron fluoride deposits can
build up inside the valve, increasing the
turning torque to make it more difficult
to open and close the valve.
Improved valve design saves money. Using findings
from the task force, the valve supplier sought to improve prod-
uct design to achieve higher mean-time-between-failure and
mean-time-between-repairs (Fig. 2). This goal was achieved by
using alloys with superior corrosion resistance to manufacture
valves used in highly corrosive HF unit areas such as the rerun
circuit. An advanced stem design option was introduced to
handle areas where stem leaks were a problem. These features
were integrated into a plug-valve design that refineries preferred
because of superior sealing capability and longevity compared
to the gate valves originally specified for HF units.
The valve supplier offered the option of using an alternative
Creating Value.
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FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT SPECIALREPORT
40
material in the valves that is more resistant to the combination of
challenges in the HF units. The new material eliminated nickel
leaching from the monel, which significantly reduced corrosion.
The supplier addressed the possibility of acid permeation that
causes corrosion and eventual leakage. In those cases where per-
meation could be excessive, it developed a new stem design with a
welded-metal diaphragm seal to prevent any primary fluoropolymer
seal permeation from reaching the environment. The design incor-
porates additional outboard stem seals to prevent stem pitting.
To prevent iron fluoride deposits from building up inside the
valve, the team recommended refineries run partial-stroke tests
periodically to wipe away the deposits and ensure the valve is
functional. To help refineries comply with its recommendation,
the supplier identified new products, such as positioners and
asset management, to make running partial-stroke tests simple
and less costly.
Many refineries are now welding valves into the pipeline to
eliminate potential leak paths. This practice led the supplier to
make recent improvements to the valve design that allows the
refinery to repair the valve inline. This simplifies the maintenance
process and saves significant time when maintenance must be
performed. Other valve designs must be cut out of the pipeline
and sent to a shop with special tools when any repairs are needed,
which is costly and time-consuming.
Safety concerns. Using the best equip-
ment possible in HF alkylation units makes
sense, not only because it saves money but
also because it improves plant operator
safety and protects the environment. In
1993, the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) released a bulletin
warning of the potential safety and health
risks posed by HF acid. OSHA has estab-
lished a permissible exposure limit of three
parts per million (ppm) averaged over an
eight-hour work shift.
Depending on the release conditions,
HF acid can form a vapor cloud that can
be dangerous to humans. The OSHA
report sites a number of accidental HF acid
releases from HF alkylation units at major
petroleum refineries in the US.
Valves designed for HF units have made
great strides over the years to reduce the
incidences of HF acid leaks that can be
extremely dangerous to personnel and the
environment. By utilizing the suppliers
superior valve design, refineries have been
able to significantly lengthen the time
between turnarounds to four to five years,
greatly reducing costs. The supplier contin-
ues to look for ways to improve plug valve
design to increase safety and lower costs for
customers. HP
Roy Johnson is the director of
marketing for the process/chemical
sector of the Flow Control Division of
Flowserve. In his 30-year tenure with
the company, he has served in many
management and supervision roles for the valve and
automation businesses for the company. Mr. Johnson
holds a business management degree from Tennessee
Technological University.
Ben Lee has been with Flowserve
for 29 years working as a sales engi-
neer and product manager. His cur-
rent position is product manager for
Durco plug and butterfly valves at the
Flowserve facility in Cookeville, Tennessee. Mr. Lee
holds a BS degree from Queens University and a bach-
elor of education degree from University of Toronto.
Manufactured by
Wood Group ESP, Inc.
Pressure to lower maintenance costs and reduce environmental
impact has paved the way to better surface pumping solutions.
Our multi-stage centrifugal SPS
C
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time, s
Suction
Discharge
Design
Dynamic temperature behavior in compressor suction
and discharge lines.
FIG. 8
Hot recycle line
Suction line
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time, s
M
a
s
s
o
w
r
a
t
e
Mass flowrate dynamic behavior with cold- and
hot-recycle valves.
FIG. 7
Maheen Kapadia is a supervisor process engineer at SNC
Lavalin Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He has 19 years of experi-
ence in SMR hydrogen, cryogenic operations and gas processing
working with EPC and operating companies in Canada and India.
Mr. Kapadia holds a BSc in chemical engineering from the Gujarat
University, India. He has also worked for GSFC Ltd, Vadodara, India. He is registered
Professional Engineer in the Province of Alberta, Canada
Rodolfo Tellez-Schmill is a senior consultant with WS
Atkins Inc., in Houston TX, and has 15 years of experience in pro-
cess design, quality control, project management, research and
development. Prior to joining WS Atkins, he worked with SNC
Lavalin as a senior process engineer. Dr. Tellez-Schmill received his
B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees from the National Autonomous University of Mexico, and
his Ph.D. from the University of Calgary. He is a registered Professional Engineer in
the Province of Alberta, Canada.
Iraj Ajdari is the deputy chief process engineer at SNC-Lavalin
Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He has more than 20 years of expe-
rience in the oil & gas industry working with EPC and operating
companies. Mr. Ajdari received his B.Sc. in chemical engineering
from the University of Tehran, Iran in 1985, and his M.Sc. in petro-
leum engineering from the University of Wyoming, USA in 1995. He is registered
Professional Engineer in the Province of Alberta, Canada
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time, s
M
a
s
s
o
w
r
a
t
e
Blowdown line
Suction line
Mass flowrates dynamic behavior with cold-recycle and
blowdown valves.
FIG. 5
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ENVIRONMENT/LOSS PREVENTION
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
51
E
conomic and environmental considerations increase when
using flare gas recovery systems (FGRSs) to reclaim gases
from flare header systems for other uses. An FGRS reduces
flaring noise; thermal radiation; operating and maintenance costs;
air pollution and emissions; and fuel gas and steam consumption
while increasing process stability and flare tip life without any
impact on the existing safety relief system. The article details
installing an FGRS at the Khangiran gas refinery in Iran and how
the system was involved in the reduction, recovery and reuse of
flare gases. The systems operation, design guidelines and process
economics will also be covered.
Introduction. Flaring is used to consume waste gasesinclud-
ing hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S) rich gases and gases burned during
emergenciesin a safe and reliable manner through combustion
in an open flame. It is used routinely to dispose of flammable
gases that are either unusable or uneconomical to recover. Often,
gas plant workers must do emergency flaring for safety purposes
when equipment is depressurized for maintenance.
Worldwide, final product costs for refinery operations are
becoming proportionally more dependent on processing fuel
costs, particularly in the current market where reduced demand
results in disrupting the optimum energy network through slack
capacity. Recovering hydrocarbon gases discharged to the flare
relief system is probably the most cost-beneficial plant retrofit
available to the refinery. Flare gas use to provide fuel for process
heaters and steam generation leaves more in fuel processing, thus
increasing yields. Advantages are also obtained by reducing flare
pollution while extending tip life.
In spite of the advantages, suitable projects for flare gas reduc-
tion and recovery have not yet been planned. Therefore, there
is an essential need to emphasize installing FGRSs into the gas
refinery to recover and reuse flare gases.
Khangiran gas refinery. Due to the large amount of flare
gases produced in the Khangiran gas refinery (21,000 m
3
/hr),
operational conditions were investigated, especially in the units
that produced flare gases.
1
Based on the existing data, it was found
that the methyl diethanolamine (MDEA) flash drum, MDEA
regenerator column and MDEA regenerator reflux drum, residue
gas filter and inlet gas separator into the gas treating unit (GTU)
were the most critical when looking at producing flare gases. Flare
gas composition in the flare header during three tests is given in
Table 1. Regarding the results of the data analysisthe mean
value of the molecular weight of the flare gas is 18.16 and the flow
discharge rate modulated between 2,500 m
3
/hr and the maximum
of 10,000 m
3
/hr. The average temperature is 30C and the average
pressure is 6 psig.
Advised practical methods to reduce, recover and reuse flare
gases for the Khangiran gas refinery are presented in Table 2.
Gas refineries can benefit from
installing a flare gas recovery system
Take a look at these environmental and economic paybacks
O. ZADAKBAR and A. VATANI, University of Tehran, Iran;
and S. MOKHATAB, Consultant, Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada
TABLE 1. Flare gas composition in flare header
Test No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
composition % mole % mole % mole
C1 86.327 75.723 85.682
C2 0.461 0.759 0.58
C3 0.104 0.212 0.076
i-C4 0.03 0.062 0.012
n-C4 0.05 0.124 0.018
i-C5 0.028 0.07 0.028
n-C5 0.022 0.089 0.022
C6+ 0.218 0.212 0.218
CO
2
8.2 14.575 8.713
H
2
S 3.3 5.265 3.393
N
2
1.26 2.909 1.258
Total 100 100 100
TABLE 2. Advised practical methods to reduce,
recover and reuse flare gases
Objective Advised practical methods
Reduce and/or reuse flare gases Improving structure of MDEA flash drum
to reduce CO
2
and H
2
S to send gases to
the fuel gas header
Improving equipment with predicted
streams to send gases to the fuel gas
header
Improving inlet gas separator internals
Recover and reuse flare gases Installing the flare gas recovery system
for the MDEA flash drum
Installing the overall flare gas recovery
system
ENVIRONMENT/LOSS PREVENTION
52
I
AUGUST 2010 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
In addition, the flame igniter system, flame safeguards and the
existing flare tip needed to be replaced. The existing flare control
system was not compatible with the distributed control system
(DCS) of the refinery and needed to be upgraded.
FGRS design considerations. The design considerations
include: flare relief operation and liquid seal drum, flare gas flow
and composition, and refinery fuel systems. The considerations
led to the unit design for normal capacity up to 21,000 m
3
/hr at
25C30C and 5 bar.
The proposed flare gas recovery system is a skid-mounted
package, located downstream of the knockout drum since all
flare gases from various units in the refinery are available at this
single point. It is located upstream of the liquid seal drum, as
pressure control at the suction to the compressor will be main-
tained precisely by keeping the increased height of the water
column in the drum. The recommended system has a modular
design, composed of three separate trains capable of handling
varying gas loads and compositions. It consists mainly of com-
pressors that take suction from the flare gas
header upstream of the liquid seal drum,
compresses the gas and cools it for reuse in
the refinery fuel gas system.
The compressor selection and design
is crucial to the system capacity and turn-
down capability.
2,3
During the project
design phase, the most appropriate type
and number of compressors were selected
for the application. Liquid ring compressor
technology is commonly used due to its
rugged construction and resistance to liq-
uid slugs and dirty gas fouling. A number
of factors that must be taken into account
when compressing flare gas are as follows:
the gas amount is not constant, the gas
composition varies over a wide range, the
gas contains components that condense
during compression, and the gas contains
corrosive components.
4
The recommended
system includes three liquid-ring (LR)
compressors, three horizontal three-phase
separators, three water coolers, piping and
instruments. The FGRS that used an LR
compressor at the Khangiran gas refinery
is illustrated in Fig. 1.
The compressed gas is routed to the amine treatment system
for H
2
S removal. Some hydrocarbon vapor is condensed and
discharged into the separator together with motive liquid. The
condensate is separated from the motive liquid in the three-
phase separator and routed to storage.
Fuel gas consumption. The expected effect of a devised
FGRS on flaring in the Khangiran gas refinery is shown in Fig.
2. The fuel gas at the Khangiran gas refinery is supplied by sweet
gas. Using flare gases as an alternative fuel gas resource can sig-
nificantly eliminate using sweet gas. The recommended FGRS
can reduce 21,000 m
3
/hr of gas flaring and provide 4,810 m
3
/hr
of sweet gas as an alternative fuel gas resource based on conditions
of the FGRS outlet stream. This is similar to conditions of a fuel
gas stream. Therefore, sweet gases that are used as fuel gas can be
injected again into the GTU outlet stream.
Another advantage of using an FGRS is that gas emissions
are reduced. The recovery and use as an alternative fuel source
will not only offset fuel consumption but also reduce gas emis-
sions, a potent greenhouse gas.
57
This waste put into fuel system
significantly or entirely reduces the facilitys emissions (such as
NO
x
, SO
x
, H
2
S, CO, CO
2
and other hazardous air pollutants/
greenhouse gases) and the emissions are converted into a rev-
enue stream and profit center.
810
By installing an FGRS at the
Khangiran gas refinery, gas emissions were decreased by 90%.
Thermal radiation. An important factor when installing
an FGRS is the reduction of thermal radiation. Installing an
FGRS not only reduces gas flaring but also decreases the harm-
ful impacts of flaring. Thus, some safety considerations in pre-
liminary flare design can be neglected. When investigating the
thermal radiation from the flame at the Khangiran gas refinery,
the radiation fluxes that vary with distance from the flame were
measured. Once the FGRS was installed, a simulation software
was used to predict thermal radiation from the flame.
11
Fig. 3
0
1 2 3
Max aring before installing FGRS, m
3
/hr
Max aring after installing FGRS, m
3
/hr
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
Maximum monthly gas flaring before and after installing
an FGRS at the Khangiran gas refinery.
FIG. 2
CB HC
CB HC
FC
PI
LC LC
FI
FI
FC
PI
TI
To second
and third
FGRS
units
Three-phase
separator
Cooler
KO drum
Compressor
To amine
unit
FGRS Unit 1
To are Feed gas from are
Recommended FGRS. FIG. 1
ENVIRONMENT/LOSS PREVENTION
53
shows the distribution of the radiation fluxes that were calcu-
lated using reduced flowrate of flare gas from the flame, before
installing an FGRS. Each black line in Fig. 3 indicates a 10 m
distance from the flare stack. In addition, the impact of wind
direction and wind speed is obvious.
The results of thermal radiation reduction due to installing
an FGRS are illustrated in Fig. 4. Comparing the results of our
modeling before and after installing an FGRS shows that thermal
radiation flux will be significantly reduced at the specific distance
from the flame. The reduction of radiation fluxes increases the safe
area around the flare stack.
Noise level. Just as portions of energy released in burning waste
gas go to thermal radiation other portions of energy go to sound
and light. In some cases, the sound level becomes objectionable
and is considered noise. Flaring noise is generated by at least three
mechanisms:
From the gas jet as it exits the flare burner and mixes with
surrounding air
From a smoke suppressant injection or mixing
From combustion.
12
The noise generated by the first two, especially the second, can
be mitigated by the use of low noise injectors, mufflers and careful
distribution of a suppressant.
The third important component when installing an FGRS is
noise-level reduction. Flaring noise was investigated in a specific
area, 100 m diameter from the stack. Comparisons between the
results of modeling flare noise level at the Khangiran gas refinery
before and after installing an FGRS are illustrated in Fig. 5. The
results show that noise level will be significantly reduced at the
specific distance from the flame. Also, reducing radiation fluxes
creates an increase in the safe area around the flare stack.
Economics. The FGRS includes three separate trains capable
of handling varying gas load and compositions. Thus, three LR
compressors, three horizontal 3-phase separators, three water
coolers, piping and instruments are needed. Finally, capital
investment to install an FGRS is approximately $1.4 million.
This estimate includes maintenance, amortization and taxes cor-
responding to a payback period of approximately four months.
These results have been obtained based on $0.15/m
3
for fuel gas,
$6/ton for steam and $0.05/KWH for electricity. HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
www.khangiran.ir
2
Fisher, P. W. and D. Brennan, Minimize flaring by flare gas recovery,
Hydrocarbon Processing, pp. 8385, June 2002.
3
Ibragimov, E. R. and R. N. Shaikhutdinov, Use of Screw Compressor Units
for Flare Gas Recovery, Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Vol. 36,
Nos. 56, pp. 290291, 2000.
2.29
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
2
The distribution of the radiation fluxes from the flame
before installing an FGRS in the Khangiran gas refinery.
FIG. 3
10
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Distance, m
Before installing FGRS
After installing FGRS
T
h
e
r
m
a
l
r
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n
,
k
W
/
h
r
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Comparing the results of modeling before and after
installing an FGRS (logarithmic scale).
FIG. 4
G
J
P
4
.
6
e
1
0
Jet Mixer System
Liquid jet mixers are used to mix and circulate liquids. With the
jet mixers a three dimensional ow is achieved in the tank without
producing a rotating motion.
Advantages: high eciency, high operating safety,
long life time, no turning parts so little wear and
tear, simple construction, available in any material
used in the equipment, resistant to fouling.
GEA Process Engineering
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Telefon: +49 7243 705-0, Telefax: +49 7243 705-330
E-Mail: info.gewi.de@geagroup.com, Internet: www.gea-wiegand.com
Select 167 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
ENVIRONMENT/LOSS PREVENTION
54
I
AUGUST 2010 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
4
Alcazar, C. and M. Amilio, Get fuel gas from flare, Hydrocarbon
Processing, pp. 6364, July 1984.
5
Tarmoom, I., Gas Conservation and Flaring Minimization, SPE Middle
East Oil Show, Bahrain, February 2023, 1999.
6
Akeredolu, F. A. and J. A. Sonibare, A Review of the Usefulness of Gas
Flares in Air Pollution Control, Management of Environmental Quality:
An International Journal, Vol. 15, Issue 6, pp. 574583, 2004.
7
Sharama, R. K., Y. B. Prasad and V. Harishbabu, Minimize your refinery
flaring, Hydrocarbon Processing, February 2007.
8
Cain, J., A. Lee and A. Mingst, Developing and Using Technologies to
Manage and Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions, SPE International
Conference on Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration
and Production, Abu Dhabi, UAE, April 24, 2006.
9
Veerkamp, W. and W. K. Heidug, A Strategy for the Reduction of
Greenhouse Gas Emissions, SPE International Conference on Health, Safety
and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, Abu Dhabi,
UAE, April 24, 2006.
10
Misellati, M., The Path to Zero Flaring in ZADCO, SPE International
Conference on Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration
and Production, Abu Dhabi, UAE, April 24, 2006.
11
FLARES Simulation Software, Enviroware (www.enviroware.com), Italy.
12
Schwartz, R. E. and J. W. White, Flare Radiation Prediction: A Critical
Review, 30th Annual Loss Prevention Symposium of AIChE, New Orleans,
Louisiana, February 28, 1996.
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EVENT
Ali Vatani is a professor and head of the petroleum engineering department
at the University of Tehran, Iran. He has written many research papers on various
petroleum and natural gas engineering related topics and has conducted research
on multiphase flow transmission and natural gas processing.
Omid Zadakbar is a researcher at the Institute of Petroleum Engineering (IPE)
at the University of Tehran, Iran. He earned an MSc degree in chemical engineering
from the University of Tehran and a BSc degree in chemical engineering from Iran
University of Science and Technology. Mr. Zadakbar has been involved with research
concerning a wide range of energy related topics, including oil and gas process
modeling and simulation.
Saeid Mokhatab is an internationally recognized expert in the field of natural
gas engineering with a particular emphasis on raw gas transmission and process-
ing. He has been involved as a technical consultant in several international gas-
engineering projects and has published over 180 academic and industry oriented
papers and four books on related topics. As a result of his work, Mr. Mokhatab
has received a number of professional awards and is listed in several international
biographical listings.
81.8
81.4
81
80
79
78
77
76
66
65
64
63
62
61
Noise level (dB) around the stack before (left) and after
(right) installing an FGRS at the Khangiran gas refinery.
FIG. 5
The recommended system has a
modular design, composed of three
separate trains capable of handling
varying gas loads and compositions.
Select 168 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
STORAGE/LOSS PREVENTION
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
55
T
he volume of a vertical cylindrical storage tank in custody
or inventory service for crude and refined products is estab-
lished by tank calibration. The calibration process simply
involves using a calibrated tape with a given tension to measure
the tank circumference of each and every course on the tank by a
manual method as detailed in API and ISO standards.
1, 2
Tank external circumference may be measured with a tape in one
single strap (i.e., using a tape that can traverse the entire tan circum-
ference). The tape handling becomes extremely difficult due to its
weight as the tank diameter increases. It becomes more and more
difficult to maintain the tape in perfect contact with the tank shell,
at a given tape tension. The tanks may also be strapped in successive
segments, using a tape that is easy to handle, that can maintain full
surface contact with the tank shell and yet maintain the tape in a
truly horizontal plane for a given tension of the tape (Fig. 1).
Three cases relating to the uncertainty of manual
strapping:
1. 50 ft small strapping tape
2. 100 ft strapping tape
3. Single tape that covers the circumference in one segment
n = Number of successive straps or number of strapping
segments
= (for partial-length strapping tapes)
Integer
* D
L
+1
= (for full-length strapping tape)
* D
L
CS
=
S
n (1)
DS
=
CS
=
S
n
(2)
Estimating tank calibration uncertainty
Use these calculations for a specific tank calibration
S. SIVARAMAN, SS Tech Services, Setauket, New York; A. BERTOTTO, Soft Lab Inc., Buenos
Aires, Argentina; and D. COMSTOCK, Comstock Consulting LLC, Houston, Texas
Three-segment tank strapping circumference
measurementan example.
FIG. 1
Segment 1
Segment 2
Segment 3
Starting
point 1
End point 1
Starting point 2
End point 2
Starting point 3
End point 3
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STORAGE/LOSS PREVENTION
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
57
Uncertainty in diameter due to thickness measure-
ment:
D
1
= D
o
2t
D
1
= 2 t (absolute value)
Total tank volume uncertainty calculation (per
course and all courses)
Thickness measurement impact per course. This can
be calculated as follows:
V
C
=
D
2
1
4
=
(D
o
2t )
2
4
, for unit height (3)
V
C
=
2(D
o
2t ) (2t )
4
Expressing V
C
as a total volume fraction for a given course
leads to:
V
C
V
C
=
2(D
o
2t ) (2t )
(D
o
2t )
2
4
1
4
V
C
V
C
=
(4t )
(D
o
2t )
, in absolute units (4)
Since 2*t is very small, compared to D
O
, Eq. 4 may be reduced
to the following:
V
C
V
C
=
(4 t )
D
o
, for a given course (5)
Or, in more general terms, the thickness uncertainty as a % of
the course volume is simply expressed as:
U
TC
V
C
V
C
100 =
4 t
D
100, for a given course (6)
Segmental strapping impact per course. By analysis similar
to Eq. 6 with regards to diameter only and assuming that thick-
ness is constant, the following equation is derived for uncertainty
in diameter per course due to strapping procedure:
V
C
=
D
2
1
4
=
(D
o
2t )
2
4
, for unit height (7)
V
C
=
2(D
o
2t ) (D
o
)
4
V
C
V
C
=
2(D
o
2t )(D
o
)
(D
o
2t )
2
4
1
4
Since D
o
>>>> 2*t, Eq. 7 reduces to:
V
C
V
C
=
2D
o
D
o
=
2D
D
(8)
U
DC
=
V
C
V
C
100 =
2D
D
100, or a given course (9)
where D is computed using Eq. 2, based on the number of seg-
ments and the uncertainty associated with each segment.
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STORAGE/LOSS PREVENTION
58
I
AUGUST 2010 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
Total course volume uncertainty (U
CV
%). Total impact
of uncertainty in diameter due to successive straps and due to
thickness uncertainty on course volume is the statistical sum of the
two individual uncertainties (%) as computed in Eqs. 3 and 5.
U
CV
= U
2
DC
+ U
2
TC
, % for a single course (10)
U
CV
=
(2 D)
2
(D)
2
100
2
+
(4 T )
2
(D)
2
100
2
(11)
Total tank volume uncertaintyall courses. Total tank
volume uncertainty is the statistical sum of all individual course
uncertainties and is computed in Eq. 6. Since all course volumes
are assumed equal (= U
CV
) for the current analysis, Eq. 12 is sim-
plified and may be used directly in percentage.
U
TOV
=
U
CV
(%)
N
(12)
where N = the number of courses (6 or 8 courses typical).
It is generally good practice to use absolute volume units for a
statistical sum. However, as long as the course volumes are almost
equal, one can statistically add the percentages.
Impact of deadwood and other parameters on
tank uncertainty. Deadwood reflects the components
within the tank such as inlet and outlet piping, heating coils,
roof drain piping and other support structures. The space occu-
TABLE 1. Parameters used for development
of uncertainty
Tank diameter (ft) 50, 100, 200, 250 and 300
Number of courses or rings 6 for each tank diameter under
consideration (C
1
through C
6
)
Calibration tape length (ft) 50, 100 and full length tape
(strap circumference in full)
Maximum target limit of uncertainty 0.05%
Desirable value of calibrated 0.01% to 0.05%
volume uncertainty
Strapping uncertainty in mm (s) 5 mm to 20 mm for segmental tapes and
floating up to 50 mm
10 to 50 mm for full length tapes and
floating up to 160 mm
TABLE 2. Tape length and number of segments
Tank diameter (ft) 50 100 150 200 250 300
50 ft tape 4 7 10 13 16 19
100 ft tape 2 4 5 7 8 10
Full length tape 1 1 1 1 1 1
TABLE 3. Tank calibrated volume uncertainty: U
TOV
( %): 6 Courses
Tank diameter (ft)
50 100 150 200 250 300
Tank Volume %
Tape length, ft s mm t 1 to 3 mm t 1 to 3 mm t 1 to 3 mm t 1 to 3 mm t 1 to 3 mm t 1 to 3 mm
50 5 0.020.04 0.010.02 0.01 0.01 0.010.02 0.01
50 10 0.040.05 0.020.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.03
50 15 0.050.06 0.030.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
50 20 0.070.08 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03
50 25 0.05
50 30 0.05
50 35 0.05
50 40 0.05
100 5 0.020.03 0.010.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
100 10 0.030.04 0.02 0.010.02 0.01 0.01 0.01
100 15 0.040.05 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
100 20 0.050.06 0.030.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
100 30 0.05
100 40 0.05
100 45 0.05
100 50 0.05 0.05
Full-length 10 0.020.04 0.010.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Full-length 20 0.040.05 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01
Full-length 25 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01
Full-length 50 0.09 0.040.05 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
Full-length 80 0.05
Full-length 110 0.05
Full-length 140 0.05
Full-length 160 0.05
STORAGE/LOSS PREVENTION
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
59
pied by these components is measured and excluded from the
tank volumes.
1
When the tanks are newly constructed, the volume occupied
by the deadwood is measured as entry into available tanks. The
volumes are computed accurately using physical measurements
with some residual deadwood uncertainty. Tanks undergo recali-
bration once every 10 to 15 years. Such recalibration is generally
carried out using the deadwoods original value since the tanks
may be in service. Thus, the original uncertainty, if available, will
be carried over.
In addition, the deadwood is unique to each tank. To account
for uncertainty, a safety or an experience factor of about 30 to
50% may be applied to the total tank volume uncertainty com-
puted, using Eq. 12. This takes into account all other miscella-
neous factors such as temperature correction, density correction,
deadwood, etc.
Total tank volume uncertainty including deadwood.
From Eq. 12, U
TANK
is computed and includes deadwood uncer-
tainty.
U
TANK
= 1.3U
TOV
to 1.5 U
TOV
(13)
U
TANK
= 1.3
U
CV
(%)
N
to 1.5
U
CV
(%)
N
(14)
Basic parameters used for development of uncertainty are listed
in Table 1.
A typical application of the calculation methodology is illus-
trated under Example 1 for a 100 ft diameter tank using a 100 ft
tape. Using the same procedure illustrated, estimated tank volume
uncertainties (U
TOV
%) are presented in Table 2.
Analysis of uncertainties. Table 1 provides a ready correla-
tion between three parameters, namely, strapping uncertainty (s in
mm), thickness uncertainty (t in mm) and overall calibrated tank
volume uncertainty for diameters ranging from 50 ft to 300 ft.
The following observations were deduced from Table 2 and are:
The resulting volume uncertainty (U%), for any given tank
diameter is more or less the same for all three tape applications
within the specified range of strapping uncertainties (s)
The choice of tape length, therefore, is not that critical as
long as one can handle the larger tape length with the same level
of precision (i.e., t, s) at all course heights from the bottom to
the top of the tank.
It must be emphasized that a 50 ft or 100 ft tape is much
easier to handle than the full length tape at all elevations.
The chance of random error propagation is also reduced
with shorter lengths of tape.
Smaller tanks inherently are subject to higher volume uncer-
tainty (%) since the divisor is small. A full-length tape under con-
trolled condition provides the best option for smaller tanks
One can target for a 5mm best achievable segmental uncer-
tainty for shorter-length tape or a 10 mm best achievable segmen-
tal uncertainty for full-length tape if the following conditions
are met:
Maintain absolute contact between shell and the tape at
all levels
Maintain the tape in true horizontal position at all levels
Compensate for the tapes weight with proper supports
Maintain constant tension on the tape at all times and at
all levels which requires sliding the tape to transmit equal tension
across the tape
Carry cut calibration at stable ambient conditions with
no wind or rain.
If the tank owner permits overall uncertainty around 0.05%
for all diameters, then the corresponding strapping uncertainty
(s) could be proportionately larger for varying diameters as
illustrated under the shaded area of Table 3.
Using a full-length tape while difficult to handle espe-
cially on large diameters (e.g., 300 ft)gives more flexibility in
strapping to achieve the same desired level of volume uncertainty
of 0.05% for all diameters (e.g., for a full-length tape for 300 ft
diameter, one can tolerate a strapping uncertainty of 160 mm
to achieve a volume uncertainty of 0.05%).
The calibrated tank volume uncertainty compares very
favorably with meter calibration residual uncertainty (allowable
meter factor variation 0.025%).
Conclusion. The primary objective in calibration or recalibra-
tion is to ensure that the uncertainty due to the field procedures
is maintained and controlled at a minimum level. The guide-
lines presented will enable one to estimate quickly the overall
volume or strapping uncertainty prior to calibration start. The
methodology presented is simple and straight forward for quick
evaluation and facilitates easy application of basic principles to
estimate the uncertainty values and it does not call for compli-
cated computer skills or tools. It will also help in controlling
the segmental uncertainty (mm) for a given tank or the volume
uncertainty (%) or vice versa.
A full-length tape offers the best option as long as proper pre-
cautions are taken for its application as outlined. This does apply
to the measurement of a reference strap on the bottom course
which requires a master tape that is directly calibrated by a national
metrological institute of the country (e.g., NIST in the US).
Finally the calibration uncertainty is always systematic in
nature and that will eventually manifest itself as a net loss or
gain in mass balance in refining and chemical plants, as well as in
pipeline terminal systems.
3
This is why the calibration quality of
a tank is so critical to subsequent measurement accuracy.
Notations
U
TANK
= Overall tank calibration volume uncertainty %
(includes deadwood)
U
TOV
= Uncertainty in the total volume (%)
U
DC
= Uncertainty in course volume % due to
segmental strapping
U
TC
= Uncertainty in course volume % due to thickness
measurement
V
C
= Course volume per unit height
t = Thickness of tank shell wall
D = Nominal tank diameter (ft)
D
o
= External diameter of the tank shell (ft)
D
I
= Internal diameter of the tank shell (ft)
t = Uncertainty in thickness of tank shell wall (mm)
s = Strapping uncertainty per strap segment (mm)
CS
,
DS
= Computed uncertainty in circumference and
diameter due to segments (mm)
D
t
= Uncertainty in tank diameter due to thickness
(mm)
n = Number of strapping segments for a given
circumference (3 to 19 segments)
N = Number of courses (6 and 8 courses typical)
C = Course or ring
STORAGE/LOSS PREVENTION
60
I
AUGUST 2010 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
Example 1 calculation
Tank data:
Nominal tank OD 50 ft
t, thickness uncertainty 3 mm
Number of courses 6
Per segment uncertainty 20 mm
Tape length 50 ft
Step 1: Thickness impact
U
TC
=
43 mm
50 ft 12
in.
ft
25.4
mm
in
100 (6)
U
TC
= 0.08%
Step 2: Segmental strapping impact
DS
= 20 mm
4
22
7 = 12.7 mm (2)
U
DC
=
212.7 mm
50 ft 12
in.
ft
25.4
mm
in
100 (9)
U
DC
= 0.17%
Step 3: Course volume uncertainty
U
CV
= 0.08
2
+ 0.17
2
(10, 11)
U
CV
= 0.19%
Step 4: Total tank volume uncertaintyall courses
Assume course volumes are all equal = V
C
(for any single
course)
Total tank volume TOV = 6 * V
C
(for 6 courses)
First course V
C
= V
C
* (0.19/100) in volume
units
Second course V
C
= V
C
* (0.19/100), etc.
Total tank V
T
=
% Uncertainty
% Uncertainty
U
TOV
= 0.08%
Step 5: Total tank volume uncertainty including
deadwood, etc.
U
TANK
= 1.3 * 0.08 % to 1.5 * 0.08% (12, 13)
U
TANK
= 0.10% to 0.12% or an average value of 0.11%
All net values are rounded off to the second decimal place. Its
recommended to round off at the completion of the total tank
volume uncertainty calculation. HP
V
2
C1
+ .....V
2
C6
U
TOV
=
V
C
6 V
C
0.19
100
6
( )
100
U
TOV
=
0.19
6
= V
C
0.19
100
6
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HEAT TRANSFER
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
79
P
inch analysis and process integration techniques are estab-
lished methods to increase process heat recovery, thereby
limiting overall plant energy requirements. Pinch analysis
proceeds in two basic steps: 1) targeting possible energy savings,
and 2) developing design based on pinch principles to achieve the
identified targets. To attain the defined targets, changes to the heat
exchanger network (HEN) may be extensive and complicated. Such
excessive changes may lead to extremely high costs and hamper the
feasibility of the project.
In regions where refining profit margins are low, revamp proj-
ects requiring very high capital investment cannot be justified.
Therefore, minimizing modifications becomes critical to justify
such projects economically.
Case study. In this example, a study was conducted regarding the
expansion of a refinery crude distillation unit (CDU). The targeted
CDU capacity was 20% more than the current operating capacity.
The unit was already operating at 30% over the original design
capacity. Some modifications were done previously in the heat
exchanger network to improve heat recovery. Previous attempts for
further expansions with traditional solutions, such as adding a new
preheat train, were not successful due to high capital costs.
Maximizing energy opportunities. Most heat exchang-
ers are already low minimum approach temperatures; thus, there
is little scope to increase the heat duty of the existing exchangers
by merely adding surface area or intensifying heat transfer. Also,
the sequence of heat exchangers is thermodynamically correct
with higher-temperature hot streams providing heat to crude at
higher temperature.
The project goal was to achieve the required throughput targets
with minimal modifications in the existing equipment and piping.
It was very critical to the project to minimize capital investment
and keep the modifications simple.
Since the primary objective of this study was debottlenecking
issues rather than energy conservation, an increase in furnace load
within its limits was considered to minimize modifications.
Crude preheat train. The primary focus of this study was
the crude preheat train. To minimize necessary modifications, the
crude preheat train was divided into three sections for analysis.
The preheat train heat exchangers were installed in groups that
were placed at considerable distances. These groups formed the
basis to divide the crude preheat train in different sections for this
evaluation, as shown in Fig. 1.
The first section is between the crude surge drum and the
desalter. The second section is the area between the desalter and
the flash drum, and the third section is between the flash drum
and the heater. Once each section was defined, the section was
analyzed beginning with the third section (between the flash drum
and furnace).
An iterative procedure was adopted. The first step was to ana-
lyze each section separately, and then analyze the whole train
collectively. In the analysis of the whole preheat train, the thermal
sequence of the exchangers, i.e., heating crude at higher tem-
peratures using higher temperature stream was investigated and
changes were made accordingly. Only the major heat exchangers
with high heat duties were considered in the retrofit, as minor heat
exchangers would not yield much benefit.
The heat duty was added not by conventional methods of
installing new shells, but by replacing the tube bundles with
twisted-tube bundles as well as by adding new shells with twisted
Increase crude unit capacity
through better integration
In revamp projects, better energy integration provides
more benefits with less capital investment and lower operating costs
A. S. ASEERI, M. S. AMIN and M. S. IBRAHIM,
Gulf Advanced Process Technologies (GAP-Tech), Dammam, Saudi Arabia
Crude from
surge drum
45C 100C 85C 120C
245C
245C 250C 325C
230C 165C
120C 95C 95C
135C
E4 E3 E2 E1
E6 E7 E5
E9
Q
E8
80C
180C 200C 150C 125C
140C
95C
190C 250C
280C 380C
55 MMKcal/h
230C
190C
140C
250C 210C
350C 325C
TPA Kero IPA-A
Desalter
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
LDO
IPA-B RCO-2 HDO
BPA RCO-1
RCO-2
Heater
Vapor
to column
Flash
drum
Original crude preheat train for the case study refinery. FIG. 1
HEAT TRANSFER
80
I
AUGUST 2010 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
tube bundles where needed. The units with high-performance
tube bundles can help reduce or, in some cases, eliminate the
need of more exchanger shells. Furthermore, the increased duty
was achieved by maintaining a reasonable approach temperature.
Fig. 2 shows the overall procedure for the study.
Section 3, between the furnace and the flash drum being the
most critical, was analyzed first. This section has two exchangers.
These heat exchangers already had low minimum approach tem-
peratures; there was not much scope to add more duty to the heat
exchangers by any means. Therefore, to have higher approach tem-
peratures and to create scope for additional heat duty or recovery,
the crude stream between the flash drum and furnace was split.
Now, the two exchangers in this segment are in parallel rather than
in series. The stream splitting provided two benefits:
1. An increase in approach temperatures
2. Improvement in pressure drop performance on the cold
side of the heat exchangers from lower crude oil flow.
Since the approach temperature has increased due to splitting,
adding duty to the heat exchangers enabled better energy recov-
ery in the crude preheat train. Around 20% additional duty was
achieved with reasonable approach temperatures through heat
transfer intensification and additional area. The splitting in Section
2 was proposed due to the same reason.
Heat from one of the product streams is used in two exchang-
ers located in two separate sections successively, 3 followed 2.
Now that more heat will be recovered and streams temperatures
are lower than two of the streams in Section 2, it us recommended
to be used in Section 1. Also, two streams from section 1 shall
be used in Section 2, while one of them shall be used in Section
1 successively. These modifications would correct the thermal
profile of the preheat train.
Benefits. For this project, the recommended changes will
improve the units economics greatly, as more crude (20% extra)
will be processed for the same energy cost. This is a direct benefit
for the refiner. The capital investment for the final design will be
much lower as compared to the conventional expansion solution.
Is thermal
sequence
correct
?
No
No
Yes
Yes
Re-sequence heat
exchangers
Split streams to
increase approach
temperatures
HEN OK ... Evaluate
other process units
and equipment
Are
required
duties
achieved
?
Addition of duty to HXs
(twisted tube bundles add
shells, tube inserts, etc.)
Simulation of base
case with HXs in
rating mode
Simulation at increased
throughput with HXs
in rating mode
Addition of pseudo
heaters to achieve
target T at the inlets
of major process nodes
Logic tree to analyze possible heat duty improvements for
the crude preheat train.
FIG. 2
Process Control and Instrumentation Webinar Part I
Join Y. Zak Friedman, Hydrocarbon Processing Contributing Editor and
Les Kane, Hydrocarbon Processing Editor as they take an in-depth look at
distillation column control. Distillation column control is challenging, complex
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Two-product distillation column process control is a challenge, because of feed ow and/or composition
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Two main distillation control handles: yield of the top product (or cut), and column loading by reux and reboiling (or fractionation)
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The use of tray temperature controllers to stabilize product qualities in the face of feed and weather changes.
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HEAT TRANSFER
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AUGUST 2010
I
81
The final proposed structure design was not very different
from the original. No additional heat exchanger units (matches)
were proposed. Only additional shells were needed to some of
the exchangers instead of a new preheat train. Also, the layout
of heat exchangers was kept consistent with the original design;
no exchangers were moved between the sections. Therefore,
due to the simplicity of the design, this project will have better
operability and safety implications, as well as economic feasibil-
ity. The environmental impact from these modifications is also
positive, as the ratio of flue gases to production capacity will
greatly be reduced. HP
48C 100C 80C 100C
210C 230C 165C
135C 94C 85C
130C
E4 E3 E2 E1
E6
E7
E5
Q
70C
200C
125C
125C
230C
325C
325C
165C
245C
190C
190C
125C 190C
140C
90C
195C
140C
380C
60 MMKcal/h
TPA Kero RCO-2
Desalter
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
LDO-2
HDO
LDO
IPA
E7
E5
190C
190C
210C
245C
290C
235C
190C 295C
210C
BPA
RCO
Furnace
Vapor
to column
Flash
drum
Proposed revamp of the crude unit preheat train to
conserve energy and increase processing capacity by 20%
with minimal capital investment.
FIG. 3
Mahmoud Samy Ibrahim is a process engineer in GAP-Tech. He is a gradu-
ate in chemical engineering from Suez Canal University. Mr. Ibrahim began his
engineering career as a process engineer for hydrocracker and hydrogen units at
the MIDOR refinery in Egypt. His interests include process modeling and simulation
of chemical processes.
Ahme Saleh Aseeri is the founder and general manager of GAP-Tech, which is
a consulting firm in the field of process optimization. He worked with Saudi Aramco
for 11 years as a process engineer. Mr. Aseeri has led and participated in 10 energy
assessment studies. In 2003, he obtained his M.Sc. degree in chemical engineering
with a research focus on process optimization under uncertainty. He also participated
in the development of three new methodologies in energy efficiency optimization.
Mr. Aseeri also led the development of two energy optimization software applications
for CHP and pumping systems load management.
Mohammed Shahid Amin is a process optimization engineer at GAP-Tech,
Saudi Arabia. His primary focus is on process Integration and optimization. Mr. Amin
has done studies for process improvements and debottlenecking projects. He holds a
BTech degree in petrochemical engineering from AMU, Aligarh, and an MSc degree
in refinery design and operation from UMIST, Manchester.
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AUGUST 2010 HYDROCARBON PROCESSING
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