1

Nick Car raway, the

Unreliable Guilty
Nar rator and
Character
Noa Broshi


Martha Nussbaum in Poetic Justice points to the fact that narratives have the power to
provide readers with thick descriptions of concrete human situations, which stimulate emotional
and intellectual responses. These responses enable the readers to engage in ethical reasoning and
judgment of fictional situations in a safe arena. This private platform can further encourage
meta-evaluation of the moral self. James Phelan in Living to Tell About it ties ethical response of
readers to techniques of narrative. In The Great Gatsby, Scott Fitzgerald uses the form of
unreliable character narration. Seemingly, it provides the implied author, likewise the readers,

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with a parallel safe arena to cognitively and emotionally explore ethical dilemmas concerned
with self. More specifically, the use of a guilty unreliable character narrator can allow the author
to grapple with a sense of personal guilt while at the same time point an accusing finger toward
the implied readers.
The novel The Great Gatsby supposedly sets to impart the enigmatic chronicle of the life
and death of the self-made man Jay Gatsby. As the story progresses, the mystery which shrouds
Gatsby gradually uncovers by means of a personal account delivered by an accidental neighbor,
a character in the plot, Mr. Nick Carraway. Nick`s narration cleverly seduces the reader to set his
eye on the glamorous figure of Gatsby, all clad in pink, speeding across the American Dream` in
a flashy yellow car, awaiting a princess in a golden castle. The blinding glare surrounding
Gatsby, which is intensified by the choice of narration technique, serves to obscure the reader`s
ability to see the real ethical drama unraveling in the shadow, that of Nick Carraway as an
unreliable character. Nick`s unreliable report of his unreliability as persona, whether intentional
or unconscious, allows him to avoid dealing with the tragic outcome of his careless pursuit of the
green` commodity and the extravagant power and lifestyle it can afford. Nick`s struggle with
guilt via unreliable narration illuminates a parallel and more subtle drama of an author grappling
with the same notion, similarly manipulating text to achieve absolution. Supporting evidence for
the existence of such a struggle can be found in Fitzgerald`s repetitious dwelling on the seductive
and corruptive powers of Mammon in other literary works. Since the characters and setting, the
narrator and narratees, the implied author and the implied readers in this novel are all citizens of
the Jazz Age era, the author might be redirecting the finger of guilt to point at the readers, either
to share a privy burden or to extort their understanding.

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Character narration marks literary texts wherein the narrator is a participant in the story
event. According to James Phelan it signifies texts where the implied author is addressing the
implied reader via an 'I narrator who Iunctions as a character in the text, and is addressing a
narratee. As such, 'character narration.is an art oI indirection. (Phelan 1) The narrator in this
type of literary structures solicits from the reader emotional responses as a character. These
responses in turn affect the readers` ethical engagement with the narrative. Yet, any character
action in the text likewise has an ethical dimension and it is in the power of the narrator to affect
the reader`s attitude toward it. This already multi-layered subversive ethical composite is further
complicated when the character narration is unreliable.
At the opening of The Great Gatsby Nick Carraway introduces himself to the narratees,
addressing them with a first person 'I. His voice is frank and informal, intimating a feel of an
oral direct conversation rather than a literary text. Nick commences with establishing his abilities
as a narrator. He claims to be able to gather insight into men`s private secrets, which they impart
to him often against his will, thanks to his Iather`s advice to reserve all judgments and an
apparent innate decency. In addition, Nick asserts to possess literary skills which he acquired and
were acknowledged at the Yale University. A son of a prominent well-to-do Middle West family
Nick fought in the World War and has moved to the East, ready for hard labor, in order to pursue
a productive career as a bonds man. He describes his arrival at the setting, adjunct to Gatsby`s
mansion as accidental, 'a matter oI chance (10), which rules out the possibility of a biased
narration based on previous acquaintanceship. Nick discloses that he has lost interest in the East
and returned disappointed to the West, in need for a morally sound world. He imparts an
elaborate description of Gatsby and asserts that he has lost interest in all his Eastern associations

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except for Gatsby. In fact Nick titles his book after Gatsby decorated with 'The Great, a choice
which designates Gatsby as its protagonist. Nick`s disclosure that Gatsby 'turned out all right at
the end (8), leads the Western narratees to expect their friendly and reliable narrator, based on
his qualifications as persona and firsthand experience as character, to provide them with a
reliable chronological account of the true story` of the man and his legacy.
But nevertheless Nick Carraway is an unreliable narrator. Unreliable narration as
technique has occurred in Western literary text since the 18
th
century, but has been prevalent in
literary theory only since the 1960s in account of Wayne Booth who coined the term and defined
the phenomenon (Heyd 217). 'I have called a narrator reliable when he speaks Ior or acts in
accordance with the norms oI the work (i.e. the implied author`s norms), unreliable when he does
not. (Booth 158-159). While Booth`s contribution to the field of unreliable narration is
immense, this initial definition is lacking in cases where the implied author`s norms are that oI
unreliability. In these cases there is no breach of intention. In The Great Gatsby the implied
author does not appear to create an unreliable narrator in order to manipulate the readers`
response to other characters and events which are narrated, there seems to be no voice of a
reliable implied author behind the character narrator. Rather, the epitome of the novel, its focus
of interest, is the unreliability of the narrator. Whereas the second time reader of Nick`s selI
presentation and declaration of intent cannot fail to detect outright falsity, the first time reader as
well, experiences a sense of vagueness and inconsistency. 'Gatsby turned out all right at the end
says Nick, does he refer to his personality or his well being? Nick`s 'prominent |and| well-to-
do (8) Iamily is 'something oI a clan (8), are they a clan or are they not? They have a tradition
that they are descended from the Dukes of Buccleuch but they do not. In truth the former of their

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line is Nick`s grandIather`s brother who not only evaded the Civil War by sending a substitute,
but also made a profit out of it, starting a wholesale hardware business. In the following sentence
the same shrewd 'grandIather`s brother is reIerred to as 'this great-uncle and the deflated
attitude toward the Civil War is blown up pompously when Nick terms the war in which he took
part as 'that delayed Teutonic migration known as the Great War. Nick`s unreliability as
narrator stands out before he actually moves to claim the position oI 'observer narrator (Phelan
198).
Phelan develops Booth`s idea and suggests that the agreement between the narration and
implied author should be considered on three levels of narration activity, that of reporting,
interpreting and evaluating events which occur in the story. The narrator can either misperform
these activities, in which case the implied readers will reject his words and reconstruct an
alternative, or under-perform these same activities, asking for the implied readers to supplement
the narrator`s view.(51) Nick misreports and under-reports, he misinterprets and under-interprets,
but his main fault, in which case Phelan`s distinction Ialls short, is that he rarely engages at all on
the level of evaluation, neither of characters` actions much less his own. This lack is what elicits
readers` response more than the reported actions that make the plot move on. Repeatedly, when
Nick describes a situation which demands an emotional or moral response he either abruptly
changes the subject or takes on a distant poetic point of view which both allow him to evade
taking a stand. Nick attends Tom`s private party where he meets with his mistress at their secret
apartment down town. Nick is among a vulgar and false crowd, lies, adultery, violence, pretense
and the public degradation of his cousin Daisy. He provides a meticulous description of the scene
down to the plucked eye brows and white makeup of Catherine to the 'spot oI dried lather on

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Mr. McKee`s cheek which 'had worried |him| all the aIternoon (38), yet Nick stays true to his
opening statement and does not pass any judgment. Rather he muses in a withdrawn voice, 'Yet
high over the city our line of yellow windows must have contributed their share of human
secrecy to the casual watcher in the darkening streets, and I saw him too, looking up and
wondering. (37) Is a perceptive detailed narration devoid of ethical evaluation reliable or
unreliable?
Theresa Heyd suggests a more pragmatic method contained in the intertextual level, over
the more impressionistic approaches mentioned above, in order to detect and handle unreliable
narration. (219) Heyd bases her model on cooperation theories which assume communication as
essentially a rational, intentional and purposeful interaction where its participants presuppose and
respect its maxims (Grice 26). According to Grice the maxims of quality and quantity forbid the
narrator to make false claims, be vague or evasive, leave out salient facts, or relate irrelevant
information (26-27). A violation of these maxims establishes unreliability, yet Heyd, relying on
politeness strategies which assume that participants in a communication act will strive to avoid
losing face, maintains that the level of intentionality involved in maxim breach should be
assimilated into the typology of unreliability. Heyd defines a dichotomy of intention where on
one end she places intentional unreliability, where false statements and deliberate omitting point
to a moral deviance, and on the other unintentional unreliability, where the narrator deviates
from fundamental cognitive and intellectual norms such as in the cases of the mad, nave or
uneducated narrator. The center line which contains the vast majority of cases and is most life
like is that of the semi-unconscious unreliable narrator or self deceiver. In these cases the
narrator`s transgressions include euphemisms, half truths, memory gaps, hedges, long winded

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sentences and admissions, all useful as mechanisms of suppression. The semi conscious
unreliable narration offers a psychologically highly subtle means of displaying inner conflict.
(233-235)
Nick`s narration includes Ialse statements such as when he refers to Tom and Daisy`s
move from Chicago. He says: 'Why they came East I don`t know. They had spent a year in
France for no particular reason, and then drifted here and there unrestfully wherever people
played polo and were rich together. (11) Later Nick narrates Jordan Baker`s account where she
tells of Tom`s car accident in Chicago which gave away his affair with a chambermaid and was
made public via the Chicago newspapers. (75). finally, after Tom admits to go off once in a
while on a spree, Daisy addresses Nick and asks: Do you know why we leIt Chicago? I`m
surprised that they didn`t treat you to the story oI that little spree. (125). When Nick narrates
that he does not know why Tom and Daisy left Chicago he is not telling the truth. Had Nick
narrated using the past tense I didn`t know` rather than the present I don`t know`, intentionality
was overruled. The falsity of his statement is especially discordant in light of the fact that on the
exact same page Nick writes 'It was Gatsby`s mansion. Or, rather, as I didn`t know Mr. Gatsby,
it was a mansion inhabited by a gentleman oI that name. (11) This type of manipulative play
with fabula is abundant throughout the narrative.
Nick time and again intentionally omits information. On his opening statement he
elaborates on the reasons for which made him move to the East. He states that after returning
Irom war he was restless and 'Instead oI being the warm centre oI the world, the Middle West
now seemed like the ragged edge of the universe (9). He Iails to mention a Iact which he will
enclose much later in the narrative, when Tom and Daisy will insist that they heard he was

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engaged to a girl out West. 'Of course I knew what they were referring to, but I wasn`t even
vaguely engaged. The fact that gossip had published the banns was one of the reasons I had come
East. You can`t stop going with an old Iriend on account oI rumours, and on the other hand I had
no intention oI being rumoured into marriage. (24). One cannot unintentionally or
unconsciously fail to mention such an emotional distressing situation, especially when we learn
later on that Nick still writes her letters once a week signed 'Love, Nick,. (59). False statements
and intentional omitting point to intentional unreliability. Yet, in addition, Nick also displays
semi conscious unreliability.
Semi unconscious unreliability according to Heyd is displayed via use of hedges and
euphemisms. The following paragraph is one example out of scores.
'I have been drunk just twice in my liIe, and the second time was that afternoon; so
everything that happened has a dim` hazy cast over it, although until aIter eight o`clock
the apartment was Iull oI cheerIul sun. Sitting on Tom`s lap Mrs. Wilson called up
several people on the telephone; then there were no cigarettes, and I went out to buy
some at the drugstore on the corner. When I came back they had both disappeared, so I
sat down discreetly in the living-room and read a chapter of Simon Called Peter either
it was terrible stuff or the whisky distorted things, because it didn`t make any sense to
me. (32)
Nick refers to alcohol as the reason for his dim hazy memory of the events which
occurred at Tom and Myrtle`s love nest, yet he insinuates that alcohol is the excuse not only for
his failing memory but likewise for his failing conduct. Earlier Nick claims that he tried to avoid
meeting Myrtle let alone spending time with her, but once he has a chance to leave the apartment
without offense he sits down and waits discretely reading a magazine. Where are Tom and
Myrtle? According to Nick they had both 'disappeared. Nick cannot pass as sexually nave after

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on the way to the apartment, visiting Wilson`s garage he narrates 'It had occurred to me that this
shadow of a garage must be a blind, and that sumptuous and romantic apartments were concealed
overhead, (27).
Nick`s semi conscious unreliable narration Iurther includes lapses in memory especially
evident in relation with Jordan. On their first meeting Nick narrates 'I had heard some story oI
her too, a critical, unpleasant story, but what it was I had Iorgotten long ago. (23). Describing
her character he declares that Jordan Baker 'was incurably dishonest but that 'It made no
difference [for him]. Dishonesty in a woman is a thing you never blame deeply I was casually
sorry, and then I forgot (58-59). On their final date Jordan asks Nick if he remembers a
conversation they once had about driving a car. Nick replies 'Why not exactly. (168) which
cannot be credited since this conversation is what impressed him most about Jordan`s character.
Nick uses long winded and vague sentences which hardly make sense especially when
reIerring to Gatsby`s past.
'I would have accepted without question the inIormation that Gatsby sprang Irom the
swamps of Louisiana or from the lower East Side of New York. That was
comprehensible. But young men didn`t at least in my provincial inexperience I believed
they didn`t driIt coolly out oI nowhere and buy a palace on Long Island Sound. (50)

'The truth was that Jay Gatsby of West Egg, Long Island, sprang from his Platonic
conception of himself. He was a son of God a phrase which, if it means anything,
means just that and he must be about His Father`s business, the service oI a vast vulgar
and meretricious beauty. (95)

Finally, Heyd points at salient meta-discursive statements, presumably politeness
markers, which disclose unreliable narration. (237) Nick often addresses the readers directly to

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discuss the quality of his narration or to explain narration choices. These personal appeals
convey closeness and a sense of sincere care Ior the readers` ability to attain a true`
understanding of the events. 'Reading over what I have written so Iar, I see I have given the
impression that . On the contrary . (56) and 'He told me all this very much later, but I`ve
put it down here with the idea of exploding those first wild rumours about his antecedents, which
weren`t even Iaintly true . (97). 'Now I want to go back a little and tell what happened at the
garage aIter we leIt there the night beIore. (198)
How can Nick tell of events which happened at the garage after he had left it? How can
he provide detailed descriptions of Gatsby`s past which do not stand in accord with Gatsby`s
quality of perception or voice? Phelan claims that Fitzgerald takes the liberty to grant Nick the
powers of an authoritative non-character narrator to narrate the scene in Wilson`s garage in order
to provide the readers with a more satisfying and full experience, and that the reader forgives
these slips in narration consistency for the sake of a better understanding (199). While it can be
claimed that these breaches in narration attest incongruity, an alternative explanation which
derives support from the text, denies intrusion by the implied author and points to Nick`s
inclination to rely on guessing and imagination. When Nick accidently meets Tom long after the
garage scene took place and he confidently had narrated it, he inquires '`What did you say to
Wilson that after-noon?` He stared at me without a word, and I knew I had guessed right about
those missing hours. (169) Visiting the Buchanan`s on a steaming hot day, Tom receives a
phone call which Nick imagines to be from his mistress. Nick narrates 'The master`s body?`
roared the butler into the mouthpiece. I`m sorry, Madame, but we can`t Iurnish it it`s Iar too
hot to touch this noon?` What he [the butler] really said was: Yes.Yes.I`ll see.` (110) Nick

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admits to narrating his imagination, which he often does, although in more subtle ways. In the
same manner, Nick seems to enlist imagination when referring to image of self. He declares that
'Everyone suspects himselI oI at least one oI the cardinal virtues, and this is mine: I am one oI
the few honest people that I have ever known. (59)
The fact that Nick Carraway is an unreliable character narrator can be further supported
by innumerable examples. Yet once the fact is established the implied reader interacting with the
text is called to question why? To what end does Nick choose to be deceitful? And what kind of
cognitive and emotional response does it stir? It is reasonable to claim that Nick at times tries
intentionally to conceal from the readers, and at others, tries semi-consciously to conceal from
himself, the fact that he is an unreliable persona. He deceives his women in the East and in the
West leading them to believe his feelings are sincere while they are not. He approves Tom`s
affair with Myrtle, and facilitates an affair between Gatsby and Daisy, simultaneously betraying
both his old time friends. He refuses Gatsby`s offer to join his criminal business not based on a
moral objection but rather on politeness maxims, 'I realize now that under diIIerent
circumstances that conversation [the job offer] might have been one of the crises of my life. But,
because the offer was obviously and tactlessly for a service to be rendered, I had no choice
except to cut him [Gatsby] short. (80) Nick reminisces on his refusal at a point in time where he
is fully aware of the nature of Gatsby`s business as it was already disclosed to him by Mr.
Wolfsheim.
Nick claims that his father is responsible for his reluctance to pass a judgment, that his
extended family approved his move to the East, that he didn`t plan to live on the West Egg but
was decoyed by a colleague at work, that 'Tom Buchanan compelled |him| . as though he were

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moving a checker to another square (16), 'Turning me around by one arm . He turned me
around again, politely and abruptly (13) alluding to a playful spinning top, that Daisy bewitched
him with her voice, an 'exhilarating ripple . I had to follow the sound of it . (83), and that
he was by nature too nave to believe Gatsby for what he was. He constantly exploits narration to
exhibit attenuating circumstances and pass on responsibility for his actions. Likewise Nick did
not pull the trigger on Gatsby and Wilson or carelessly run-over Myrtle, yet nevertheless he
could have prevented these deaths. Nick`s writing technique is employed to cover Ior the Iact
that he is guilty, guilty first and for most for standing by rather than taking a stand.
Gatsby tells Nick that after the accident he took a side road and left the car in the garage.
He thinks no one saw him. Nick narrates 'I disliked him so much by this time that I didn`t Iind it
necessary to tell him he was wrong. (136) Gatsby asks Nick who is the dead woman and
remarks that she seemed to want to speak to them. Nick conceals the fact that she is Tom`s
woman`. While Gatsby believes Daisy is all shaken and threatened by Tom and the accident,
Nick fails to enclose that she is cozily sitting with Tom at the kitchen table, leaving Gatsby on a
futile night vigil. Nick is not able to sleep and blames the fog horn but when he hears Gatsby`s
taxi arriving he '.immediately jump[s] out of bed and beg[ins] to dress I felt that I had
something to tell him, something to warn him about, and morning would be too late. (140). But
nevertheless he settles for a low key warning, 'you ought to go away,' . 'It`s pretty certain
they`ll trace your car.` (140) Nick is agitated, uneasy, and he delays going to work 'I didn`t
want to leave Gatsby (146). Finally, after missing two trains Nick takes leave and shouts across
the lawn to Gatsby, 'they`re a rotten crowd,` . You`re worth the whole damn bunch put
together.` (146) Nick shares that he has always been glad he had given this compliment. While

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the implied readers expect the reason to be that these were his final departing words, Nick
provides a twisted explanation 'It was the only compliment I ever gave him, because I
disapproved of him from beginning to end (146). At work, noon time, the phone rings. Nick
relates that although Jordan calls daily at this hour he started up with sweat breaking on his
forehead (147), connoting he was expecting bad news. He tries to call Gatsby several times but
the phone is busy. He sees to speak with an operator and 'draws a circle on the three-thirty train
(148). Nick`s narration resembles an alibi.
Nick goes back to describe what happened at Wilson`s garage although he wasn`t there.
He does not make an effort to explain the implied readers where he had attained the information.
Narrating Wilson`s tormented suffering and whereabouts it seems as if Nick is narrating his guilt
ridden nightmares, a detailed minute by minute vision oI Wilson`s deadly journey and Gatsby`s
last breaths. Nick narrates, 'I drove Irom the station directly to Gatsby`s house and my rushing
anxiously up the front steps was the first thing that alarmed anyone. But they knew then, I firmly
believe . I hurried down to the pool. (154). It is clear that Nick saw the murder coming, felt it,
feared it, but still did nothing. When he deals with the authorities and arranges for the funeral,
Nick takes on an over-righteous stand, 'I Iound myselI on Gatsby`s side, and alone ... it grew
upon me that I was responsible, because no one else was interested interested, I mean, with that
intense personal interest to which everyone has some vague right at the end. (156) Nick
undoubtedly has a personal intense interest in Gatsby`s death, aroused by guilt. Wolfsheim
preaches the painful truth 'let us learn to show our Iriendship Ior a man when he is alive and not
aIter he is dead` (163). On the conclusion of his narration Nick states 'AIter Gatsby`s death the
East was haunted for me . distorted beyond my eyes` power oI correction. (167)

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In The Great Gatsby the readers are engaged in an unreliable narration by an unreliable
character that uses the text to grapple with guilt arising mostly from observing rather than acting,
reporting rather than evaluating. Nick is culpable for taking on the passive position of a voyeur
while neglecting his obligations as character. This moral position is embedded in the narration
technique dictated by the implied author. Phelan defines the implied author as 'the streamlined
version oI the real author, an actual or purported subset oI the real author`s traits and abilities.
The implied author is responsible for the choices that create the narrative text as these words in
this order` and that imbue the text with his values. (45) Scott Fitzgerald is not the implied
author and the implied author is not the character narrator Nick, albeit the substantial similarities
in their biographical circumstances. What they have in common are psychological sensitivities.
The implied author creates the fictional Nick to examine and put to test his personal values, to
grapple with his similar sense of guilt, in their mutual historical context. In terms of Phelan the
distance, i.e. the relation between the norms of the implied author and those of the unreliable
narrator, is very short. (215)
Fitzgerald wrote a cluster of short stories ('The Diamond as Big as the Ritz (June 1922),
'Winter Dreams (December 1922), 'Dice, Brassknuckles & Guitar (May 1923) and
'Absolution (June1923) (Jeffrey Meyers 1994)) where he explores themes later to be developed
in the novel The Great Gatsby. In all, to a varying extent, he exposes the corruptive power of the
desire for wealth, the blinding force of glamour and beauty, the carelessness of the rich, the
impossibility of happiness and the pain following the irrecoverable loss of hopes and dreams.
Yet, albeit the similarities on the thematic level, the unique choice of narration technique
provides The Great Gatsby with an altogether different quality. The literary arena created by the

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text seems less safe, both for the implied author and the implied readers. The unreliable character
narrator as opposed to the all knowing disembodied voice calls for a distinctive intellectual and
moral engagement in the text. While Meyers claims that Fitzgerald`s most powerIul works are
searingly confessional and that his only material was his own life (79), the unreliable character
narrator confesses not only to actions and motivations but also to a failure to reliably perceive
and evaluate them. In the case of The Great Gatsby this formal technique foregrounds the
implied author`s struggle with guilt. Rudolph, the protagonist of Absolution absorbed with guilt
confesses for two sins, imagination and deceit. At confession he had stated with conviction that
he never lies, a lie within a lie. The rational he uses to appease guilt can serve for Nick as well.
He no longer thought God was angry with him about the original lie, because He must
have understood that Rudolph had done it to make things finer in the confessional,
brightening up the dinginess of his admissions by saying a thing radiant and proud.
(Bruccoli ed. 271)

The Great Gatsby is more than a personal narrative. It is a culture narrative of the post-
war roaring 20`s in America. Meyers writes that The Great Gatsby captures 'not only the lavish
house parties of Long Island but also.the gang wars, the multimillionaire booze barons, the
murders and assassination, the national breakdown oI morals and manners. (125) Juxtaposing
culture, text and narration technique can spill over the sense of guilt from the fictional character
narrator to the implied author, flow on to the implied readers of the time and trickle down to the
readers of present. The popular American contemporary television series Seinfeld ends with the
main character`s iconic statement 'You don`t have to help anybody. That`s what this country`s
all about. (1998) In American common law a bystander generally has no duty to rescue a

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stranger in peril. This law derives from The Declaration of Independence which states the
superiority of personal rights, personal autonomy and the individual right of freedom of action,
over the moral obligation to stretch a helping hand (Romohr). As such The Great Gatsby does
not exempt the contemporary American implied readers from facing a relevant and complex
ethical dilemma. Evaluating Nick and Gatsby`s conduct at a moment oI peril, the implied reader
is forced out of the position of bystander by the text and the narration technique, to actively
engage in reevaluating a cultural anxiety for individual freedom over compassion for fellowman.
In Fitzgerald`s words, 'Iiction must appeal to the lingering aIter-eIIects in the reader`s mind.
(Meyers 124).



Work Cited

Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction second edition. Chicago: University Chicago Press,
1979:149-240
Fitzgerald, Scott F. The Great Gatsby. New York: Penguin Classics, 2000.
---. The Short Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald. Ed. Matthew J. Bruccoli. New York: Charles
Scribner`s Sons, 1989.
Grice, Paul H. 'Logic and Conversation. Syntax and Semantics, vol. 3: Speech Acts. Ed. Peter
Cole and Jerry Morgan. New York: Academic Press, 1975.

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Heyd, Theresa. 'Understanding and Handling Unreliable Narratives: A Pragmatic Model and
Method. Semiotica 162/1, 2006. 217-243.
Meyers, Jeffrey. Scott Fitzgerald, a Biography. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1994.
Nussabaum, Martha. Poetic Justice. Boston: Beacon Press, 1995.
Phelan, James. Living to Tell About it. New York: Cornell University Press, 2005.
Romohr, Philip W. 'A Right/Duty Perspective on the Legal and Philosophical Foundation of the
No-Duty-to Rescue Rule. Duke Law Journal vol. 55, 2006. 1025-1058