1

Maclaurins Series :
f(x) = f(0) + x f'(o)+
! 2
2
x
f''(0) +
! 3
3
x
f'''(0) + . +
! n
x
n
f
n
(o) + .

1) Series for e
x


Let f (x) = e
x
, so that f (0) = 1
f' (x) = e
x
, f' (0) = 1
f'' (x) = e
x
, f'' (0) = 1
f''' (x) = e
x
, f''' (0) = 1

Substituting these values with Maclaurins series, i.e
f(x) = f (0) +
! 1
) 0 ( ' f
x +
! 2
) 0 ( " f
x
2
+
! 3
) 0 ( " ' f
x
3
+

We get e
x
= 1
! 1
x
+
! 2
2
x
+
! 3
3
x
+


We can also find the following series using the above series

a : Replacing x by x in above series
e
x
= 1
! 1
x
+
! 2
2
x

! 3
3
x

b : Replacing x by ix in above series
e
ix
= 1 +
! 1
ix
+
! 2
2 2
x i
+
! 3
3 3
x i
+
! 4
4 4
x i
+
! 5
5 5
x i
+
c : Now ax = e
x log a
, replacing x by x log a in above series, we get
a
x
= 1 +
! 1
log a x
+
! 2
2
x
(log a)
2
+
! 3
3
x
(log a)
3
+



2

2) Series for cosh x and sinh x

cosh x =
2
x x
e e

+

sinh x =
2
x x
e e

e
x
= 1 +
! 1
x
+
! 2
2
x
+
! 3
3
x
+
! 4
4
x
+
! 5
5
x
+
e
x
= 1
! 1
x
+
! 2
2
x

! 3
3
x
+
! 4
4
x

! 5
5
x
+

Adding and subtracting the series for e
x
and e
x


We get 2 cosh x = e
x
+ e
x

= 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + ...
! 4 ! 2
1
4 2
x x

or cosh x = 1 +
! 2
2
x
+
! 4
4
x
+

2 sinh x = e
x
e
x
= 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + ...
x x
x
! 5 ! 3
5 3

or sinh x = x +
! 3
3
x
+
! 5
5
x
+

3) Series for cos x and sin x

cos x =
2
ix ix
e e

+
, sin x =
2
ix ix
e e

We have seen earlier the series of e
ix
while finding out the series for e
x

e
ix
= 1 +
! 1
ix
+
! 2
2 2
x i
+
! 3
3 3
x i
+
! 4
4 4
x i
+
! 5
5 5
x i
+

3

But by Eulers formula
e
ix
= cos x + i sin x

Therefore equation the real and imaginary parts of
cos x + i sin x =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + ...
x x
! 4 ! 2
1
4 2
+ i
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ ...
x x
x
! 5 ! 3
5 3


(Nothing that i
2
= 1, i
3
= 1, i
4
= 1 )

cos x = 1
! 2
2
x
+
! 4
4
x

sin x = x
! 3
3
x
+
! 5
5
x



4) Series for tan x and tanh x

Since tan x =
x
x
cos
sin


tan x =
...
! 5 ! 4 ! 2
1
...
! 7 ! 5 ! 3
6 4 2
7 5 3
+ + +
+ +
x x x
x x x
x
[using the sine and cos series]



We perform division as follows






4

1
! 2
2
x
+
! 4
4
x

|
|
.
|
+...
! 6
6
x
x
! 3
3
x
+
! 5
5
x

! 7
7
x
+

\
|
+
3
1
x x
3
+
12
5
x
5
+
315
17
x
7
+
x
! 2
3
x
+
! 4
5
x
...
! 6
7
+
x

+

3
1
x
3

30
1
x
5
+
840
1
x
7
+

3
1
x
3

6
5
x
+
72
7
x
+
+

12
5
x
5

315
4
x
7
+

12
5
x
5

24
5
7
x
+
+

315
17
x
7
+
Thus tan x = x +
3
1
x
3
+
15
2
x
5
+
315
17
x
7
+

Similarly, using tanh x =
x
x
cosh
sinh


We can show that tanh x = x
3
1
x
3
+
15
2
x
5

315
17
x
7
+






5

5) Series for log (1 + x) and log (1 x)

Expansion of log (1 + x).
Let f(x) = log (1 +x),
,
1
1
) ( '
x
x f
+
=
2
) 1 (
1
) ( "
x
x f
+
= ,
3
) 1 (
1 2
) ( ' "
x
x f
+

= ,
.
f(0) = 0, f(0) = 1, f''(0) = 1.
f''' (0) = 2!, f
iv
(0) = 3! f
v
(0) = 4!

Putting these values in below Maclaurins series,

f(x) = f(0) + xf'(o)+
! 2
2
x
f''(0) +
! 3
3
x
f'''(0) + . +
! n
x
n
f
n
(o) + .

.... ) ! 3 (
! 4
! 2
! 3
) 1 (
! 2
) 1 log(
4 3 2
+ + + + = +
x x x
x x


+ + = + ....
5 4 3 2
) 1 log(
5 4 3 2
x x x x
x x
Expansion of log (1 x).

Changing x to x in above expansion, we get,
= ....
5 4 3 2
) 1 log(
5 4 3 2
x x x x
x x


6) Series for tan
1
x and cot
1
x

Let f (x) = tan
1
x
So that f (x) =
2
1
1
x +
= (1 + x
2
)
1

= 1 x
2
+ x
4
x
6
+ (using the binomial theorem)


6

Integrating both sides, we get
f(x) = x
3
3
x
+
5
5
x

7
7
x
+ + c

To find the value of the constant, put x = 0 in f (x) = tan
1
x, so that
f (0) = tan1 0 = 0
0 = c

tan
1
x = x
3
3
x
+
5
5
x

7
7
x
+

Now since cot
1
x =
2
t
tan
1
x, the series for cot
1
x is given by
cot
1
x =
2
t
(x
3
3
x
+
5
5
x

7
7
x
+ .)

7) Series for sin
1
x and cos
1
x

Let f (x) = sin
1
x
So that f' (x) =
2
1
1
x
= (1 x
2
)
1/2

or f (x) = 1 +
2
1
x
2
+
4 2
3 1

x
4
+
6 4 2
5 3 1


x
6
+
(using binomial theorem)
Integrating both sides, we get
f(x) = x+
2
1


3
3
x
+
4 . 2
3 1

5
5
x
+
6 4 2
5 3 1



7
7
x
+ + c

Put x = 0 in f (x) = sin
1
x, to get
f (0) = sin
1
0 = 0
0 = c
sin
1
x = x +
2
1


3
3
x
+
4 2
3 1

5
5
x
+
6 4 2
5 3 1




7
7
x
+ 0



7

Since we know that
cos
1
x =
2
t
sin
1
x
The series for cos
1
x can be written as
cos
1
x =
2
t

|
|
.
|

\
|
+


+

+ + ...
7 6 4 2
5 3 1
5 4 2
3 1
3 2
1
7 5 3
x x x
x


8) Expansion of (1 + x)
m
.

Since f(x) = (1 + x)
m
f(0) = (1 + x)
m

f'(x) = m(1 + x)
m1
f' (0) = m
f''(x) = m(m 1) (1 + x)
m2
, f''(0) = m(m 1)
f'''(x) = m( m 1) (m 2) (1 + x)
m3

f'''(0) = m(m 1) (m 2)

If ,x, < 1, then by Maclaurins series,
i.e f(x) = f(0) + xf'(o)+
! 2
2
x
f''(0) +
! 3
3
x
f'''(0) + . +
! n
x
n
f
n
(o) + .

Hence, ....
! 3
) 2 )( 1 (
! 2
) 1 (
1 ) 1 (
3 2
+

+

+ + = + x
m m m
x
m m
mx x
m