GCSE AQA BIOLOGY

UNIT 1
B1a HUMAN BIOLOGY 1. Co-ordination and control 2. Healthy eating 3. Drug Abuse 4. Controlling disease B1b EVOLUTION & ENVIRONMENT 5. Adaptation 6. Variation 7. Evolution 8. How people affect the planet

REVISION

1. The Nervous System

N.S. uses electrical impulses to enable you to react to your surroundings + co-ordinate behaviour Sense organs contain receptor cells which detect stimuli - receptors change stimulus energy into electrical impulses Neurones (nerve cells) transmit info (as electrical impulses) v.quickly to and from CNS CNS where info from receptors is sent + where reflexes and actions are co-ordinated. Effectors respond in diff. ways: - muscle contract - glands secrete hormones
STIMLULUS RECEPTOR SENSORY NEURONE CNS (co-ordinator) MOTOR NEURONE EFFECTOR

Sensory Neurone:

Motor Neurone:

 Reflex actions are automatic, rapid responses to certain stimuli - reduce chances of injury because no thinking about response: quicker: V.FAST Route taken by info in a reflex is reflex arc - bypasses conscious areas of brain (usually through spinal cord)
STIMULUS RECEPTOR SENSORY NEURONE RELAY NEURONE MOTOR NEURONE EFFECTOR

1. Reflexes

e.g. of reflex: - hand withdrawn from hot/sharp object - shock hormone adrenaline released - bright light pupils get smaller - breathing/ moving food through gut

The Reflex arc in detail

1. Synapses
Impulse arrives at synapse Sacs release chemicals called neurotransmitters Chemicals diffuse across gap (synapse) Chemicals arrive at receptor sites on next neurone This triggers a new electrical impulse.

 Hormones are chemical messengers, secreted by special glands, that are transported in the blood to activate target organs/cells Pituitary gland LH, FSH Ovaries oestrogen Pancreas insulin Testes testosterone Adrenal gland adrenaline Thyroid gland
Nerves Hormones

1. Hormones

v.fast message Slower message Act for short time Precise area Electrical message Act for long time More general way Chemical message

1. The Menstrual Cycle Stage 1: bleeding starts. Uterus lining breaks down for about 4 days. [At the same time, a new egg begins to mature in ovary] Stage 2: lining of uterus builds up again (from day 4-14) into thick layer ready to receive a fertilised egg Stage 3: mature egg is released from ovary: ovulation. Stage 4: lining is maintained for about 14 days, until day 28. If no fertilisation by day 28 lining starts to break down.

1. The menstrual cycles controlled by hormones

FSH causes egg to develop/mature in one of ovaries stimulates ovaries to produce oestrogen produced in the pituitary gland Oestrogen causes lining of uterus to thicken and grow stimulates production of LH & inhibits production of FSH produced in ovaries LH stimulates ovulation produced in pituitary gland

1. Hormones used in contraception...

Oral contraceptives (contraceptive pills) prevent release of eggs from ovaries. BECAUSE.. They contain oestrogen, which (when taken everyday to keep levels high) inhibits the production of FSH so no eggs can mature, and thus prevents pregnancy. Only a doctor can prescribe; ensures as little risk as possible. ADVANTAGES Over 99% effective @ preventing pregnancy Has helped to make families smaller (dev. world) less poverty because people have fewer mouths to feed China help control population Can reduce risk of some types of cancer DISADVANTAGES Can cause side effects; headaches, nausea, irreg. period Can also cause blood clots, high BP, heart attacks, stroke Must be taken regularly, if forgotten, bodys own hormones can take over v.quickly. Could result in unexpected pregnancy. Doesnt protect against STIs Ethical issues: religious groups conception = denying life (so forbidden).

1. Fertility treatment
FSH can be taken by women who do not produce enough (so cant get pregnant as eggs cannot mature) to stimulate ovaries to produce oestrogen, which stimulates production of LH, so ovulation can occur

ADVANTAGES Helps women get pregnant when they couldnt DISADVANTAGES Doesnt always work Too many eggs could be stimulated, could result in multiple pregnancies.

1. IVF- in vitro fertilisation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Fertility drugs (hormone; FSH) are used to make lots of eggs mature at the same time, so they can be collected. Once eggs are collected, theyre placed in a special solution in a petri dish. A sample of a mans semen is collected, and mixed with the eggs in the petri dish. Eggs are checked to make sure they have been fertilised and early embryos are developing properly When the fertilised eggs have formed tiny balls of cells, 1 or 2 of the tiny embryos are placed in the uterus of the mother. Some women have v.strong reactions to hormones used (abdominal pain, dehydration, vomiting) Ethical implications SPARE EMBRYOs designer babies

1. Controlling Conditions Homeostasis is the result of the coordination of the N.S., hormones and body organs. Humans need to maintain a constant internal environment by balancing inputs with outputs Water content need to keep a balance with water you drink+ produce in respiration with water lost in urine, sweat and breathing. Body Temp get rid of excess body heat when hot, but retain heat when environment is cold.

Controlling water and ions Water and salt lost in urine (made in kidneys). Kidneys can change amount of salt and water lost in urine, depending on body conditions. Some ions lost in sweat. Sports drinks (usually contain electrolytes and carbohydrates). The electrolytes (e.g. sodium) replace those lost in sweat, while the carbohydrates can give an energy boost. BUT claims about sports drinks need to be looked at carefully.

1.Controlling Conditions
Controlling Temperature Vital core body temp kept @ 37C Temp enzymes work best at N.S. v.important in Sweat cool down coordinating Shiver warm up

responses to temp.

Controlling blood sugar Digest food sugar passes into blood Levels would be v.high after meal.but low again few hours after. BUT conc. of glucose in blood kept constant by insulin hormone made in pancreas.

 Balanced diet; right balance of different foods you need and right amount of energy. Diet not balanced= malnourished too fat/too thin/deficiency diseases Carbs. provide energy-simple sugars like glucose Fats provide energy + insulation, energy store -fatty acids + glycerol Protein growth + repair-amino acids Vitamins various functions (e.g. Vit.C prevents scurvy) Minerals various functions (e.g. iron to make haemoglobin) Water constant supply needed to replace water lost Energy and Nutrient needs vary in diff. people Age children+teens need more protein for growth old people need more calcium to protect against degenerative bone diseases such as osteoporosis Gender females need more iron to replace that lost in menstrual blood Physical activity active people more protein for muscle development & more carbs. for energy.

2. Healthy Eating

2. Metabolic Rate
Amount of energy you need also depends on resting metabolic rate Energy is needed to fuel chemical reactions in body. Speed at which these reactions occur is called metabolic rate. Metabolic rate varies from person to person. Muscle needs more energy than fatty tissue So people with a higher proportion of muscle to fat in their bodies will have a higher metabolic rate. e.g. men tend to have a higher metabolic rate than woman [metabolic rate can be boosted with regular exercise because it builds muscle] Metabolic rate also affected by amount of physical activity and possibly genetic factors inherited from parents.

The less exercise you do, the less food you need

2.Weight Problems
BMI used as a guide to indicate under/over weight BMI = Body mass (height) In developed countries problem of too much food; Obesity too much sugary/fatty food & too little exercise. or because of underactive thyroid gland (uncommon) Increases risk of diabetes, arthritis, high BP, coronary heart disease Losing weight Reduce energy intake (cut back on amount of food) Increase amount of energy you use up (more exercise) Doing both is best way to lose weight effectively Slimming groups the wish to make a profit may lead to exaggerated claims for the method or product. look for scientific evidencemust not contain bias from experimenter [see p33 CGP health claims]

2. Weight Problems
In developing countries there may be a lack of food; Starvation can become v.thin + muscles waste away weak immune system; reduced resistance to infection females; irregular/completely stopped periods

Same symptoms can be seen with people with anorexia nervosa

2.Cholesterol Made in liver, transported in blood Needed to make cell membranes & sex + stress hormones High cholesterol level = increased risk of heart disease. because blood vessels get clogged with fatty cholesterol deposits (can even block them entirely heart attack) Liver (controls amount of cholesterol in blood) makes new cholesterol and removes it from blood The amount liver makes depends on amount of fat in your diet (and inherited factors that cant be changed) Cholesterol is carried around the body attached to proteins. Combination of cholesterol and protein called lipoprotein. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) carry fat to cells: bad cholesterol; raised levels of LDLs increase risk of heart disease bcoz excess LDLs can cause build up of C in arteries High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) carry cholesterol to liver for removal from the body: good cholesterol Balance of HDLs to LDLs is v.important

2.Cholesterol Level of cholesterol in body affected by amount and type of fat in diet; Saturated Fats- raise blood cholesterol levels. Found in animal fats; meat, butter, cheese Mono-unsaturated Fats- seem to reduce overall blood cholesterol + improve balance between HDLs and LDLs. Found in olive oil, olives, peanuts, many margarines Polyunsaturated Fats- seem to be even better at reducing overall blood cholesterol + improving balance between HDLs and LDLs (than mono-unsaturates). Found in corn oil, sunflower oil, many margarines and oily fish

2. SALT Too much salt can cause high BP Particular problem for about 30% of the UK population who need to carefully monitor how much salt they eat High BP can damage heart and kidney, and can crease risk of heart disease or a stroke Processed foods often contain a high proportion of fat + salt

3. STATINS
Evidence that drugs called statins lower blood cholesterol and significantly lower the risk of heart disease in diabetic patients Original research done by government scientists with no connection to manufacturers. Sample was v.big 6000 patients Compared 2 groups of patients (those who had statins, those who hadnt). Other studies have backed up these findings. so control groups were used + results were reproducible

3. Drugs
Drugs alter the chemical reactions in the body so people may become dependant or addicted to them and suffer withdrawal symptoms without them Drugs can be medically useful (e.g. antibiotics penicillin) Many drugs derived from natural substances have been known to indigenous peoples for many years Tolerance develops with some drugs; the body gets used to having it and so you need a higher dose to give the same effect. (this can happen with legal and illegal drugs) Alcohol, tobacco (nicotine) and illegal drugs may harm your body. Smoking cannabis may cause psychological problems Hard drugs such as cocaine and heroin are v.addictive and can cause serious health problems (some from the drug itself, but others from the lifestyle may turn to crime, not eat properly, STDs & HIV/AIDS)

3. Drugs Which class a drug is in depends on how dangerous it is; CLASS A Heroin, LSD, ecstasy, cocaine CLASS B Amphetamines (but class A if prepared for injection), cannabis CLASS C Anabolic steroids, tranquilisers

CANNABIS Many scientists have looked at whether cannabis causes brain damage and mental health probs. or leads to further drug taking. The results vary and are sometime open to diff. interpretations. Until more evidence is foundno ones sure.

The overall impact of legal drugs on health is much greater than the impact of illegal drugs bcoz more ppl use them

3. How drugs affect you Many drugs affect nervous system; this can affect behaviour which can be potentially dangerous (either for druggie or others) E.g. driving or operation machinery Some drugs can affect people judgement losing their inhibitions = relaxing more / taking more risks Drug abuse can affect immune system- increase risk infection Depressants [e.g. alcohol, barbiturates, solvents] ; decrease the activity of the brain. This slows down the response of the N.S. causing slow reactions + poor judgement of speed and distance. Stimulants [nicotine, ecstasy, caffeine]; increase activity of brain. Make you feel alert and awake. Some people use recreational drugs (like caffeine, nicotine, alcohol) to help them cope with everyday life. Other people might use other recreational drugs for excitement or escape. Some drugs are taken to enhance performance in sport

3. Alcohol
Absorbed through the gut and into your bloodstream carried to the brain from there it affects the N.S. Reduces activity of the N.S.- slowing your reactions. Can make you fee less inhibited- helps you socialise and relax Too much leads to impaired judgement, poor balance + coordination, lack of self control, unconsciousness Alcohol in excess causes dehydration, which damages brain cells, a noticeable drop in brain function. And too much drinking causes severe damage to the liver liver disease. Alcohol abuse over many years (alcoholics) can cirrhosis of liver (destroys liver tissue) they can also get liver cancer. Social costs; linked to violent crime, domestic assaults etc. Costs to NHS are huge, but v.small related to crime (police time, damages) and the economy (lost working days) that may be caused by alcohol.

3.Smoking See p 55 smoking and pregnant. Tobacco smoke contains carbon monoxide- this combines irreversibly with haemoglobin so the blood carries less oxygen. Pregnant women; can deprive foetus of oxygen born underweight/stillborn/premature Tobacco smoke contains carcinogens (e.g. tar); chemicals that can lead to cancer. Lung cancer more common in smokers than non-smoker Incidence rate and mortality rate of lung cancer are similar; means lung cancer kills most who get it Smoking can cause heart disease (+ diseased blood vessels) [leading to heart attacks+strokes], damage to lungs [leading to emphysema + bronchitis Tar in cigarettes damages cilia in your lungs and windpipes (the cilia and mucus catch dust and bacteria before it reaches the lungs) chest infections are more likely Tar builds up in lungs (makes it more likely for people to get bronchitis) also the build up can lead 2 delicate air sacs in the lung breaking down emphysema. Tobacco contains nicotine with is v.addictive

3.Lung Cancer & Smoking In the first half of the 20th century it was noticed that lung cancer and the popularity of smoking increased together. And studies found that far more smokers than non-smokers got lung cancer But it was just a statistical correlation at that time it didnt prove that smoking caused lung cancer. Some people argued that there was some other factor (e.g. a persons genes) with both caused lung cancer and also made them more likely to smoke. Later research eventually disproved these claims now even the tobacco industry had had to admit that smoking does increase the risk of lung cancer

3. Drug testing When new medicines are developed they have to be tested and trialled extensively before being used. Drugs are tested to see if they are effective, safe (must not be toxic or have unexpected side effects), stable (medicine can be used in normal conditions and stored), and successfully taken into and removed from your body (body must be able to remove the medicine once it has done its work). Thorough testing procedure; Computer models simulate human response to a drug. Identifies promising drugs to be tested @ next stage (not accurate because not live organism) Then drugs are tested on human tissue in the lab. Next step is to test on live animals (Brit. Law 2 dif. live mammals) After drug has been tested on animals its tested on human volunteers in a clinical trial to help determine if there are any side effects.

3.Clinical Trials
Involve 2 groups; One group given new drug, other group given a placebo. So that scientists can see the difference the drug makes and allows them to see the placebo effect Clinical trials are blind; patient doesnt know what theyre getting Or they are double blind; neither doctor nor patient knows. Developing new drugs is expensive; New drugs can take many years to develop and test before they are at a stage where they can be put to use Most potential drugs are rejected during trials All of this adds to the cost of coming up with a new drug that can be used safely on humans

Pathogens Micro-organisms that cause disease are known as pathogens.

SORRY, THIS IS AS FAR AS I HAVE GOT. WHEN I DO MORE I WILL DELETE THIS ONE AND UPLOAD THAT VERSION Hope what I have done is useful