Kate Bell 051040060

‘How important is the consideration of traditional uses of wildlife by

indigenous human populations when conserving tropical habitats?’

Tropical systems contain much of the world’s biodiversity; tropical forests

for example are estimated to possibly contain over half of the world’s species
(Green et al 1997). There are many factors that are threatening tropical areas,
such as deforestation, expanding agriculture, impacts from disturbance, global
climate change, over hunting, habitat fragmentation and invasive species. Global
extinction rates are increasing and are thought to be 2-3 orders higher than the
average calculated over geological time (Bignell 2007). Conservation resources
are not able to meet the number of species that are currently threatened with
extinction (Myers et al 2000). It is therefore important to prioritise areas where
the most number of species are able to be protected, with the least cost; areas of
high biodiversity tend to be referred to as biodiversity hotspots. As many as 25
different hotspots exist in tropical regions (Bignell 2007 and Myers at al 2000),
for example in South East Asia and South America. Identification of these
biodiversity hotspots and understanding worldwide biodiversity is a complex and
continuing task, and forms a large part of current conservation work. Tropical
areas are of particular interest to many scientists, both because of how highly
speciose they are (Gaston 2000) and because of the biodiversity hotspots that
they contain.
Many areas protected for conservation (85%) are inhabited by indigenous
people (Colchester 2001). In the Amazon recognised Indian reserves span over
100 million hectares of primary rainforest, a valuable area for conservationists
(Zimmerman 2001). Rural communities rely on the land for shelter, food, income
and medicine; these uses may have negative consequences if not managed
sustainably. Where once traditional techniques were used to collect these
resources, new availability of technology and increased demand for products are
causing a change in the methods being used. Some indigenous people have
been driven to exploiting land in order to maintain an income, for example some
of the Kayapo of the Amazon have become involved in selling rights to land for
illegal logging (Zimmerman 2001). Complete bans on hunting and farming may
leave rural areas short of food, how would governments and the people respond
to this? It would also leave people without an income, perhaps causing more
communities to turn to illegal exploitation of habitats.
The long history of using the land has led to indigenous people having a
very strong knowledge of local wildlife and plants, how this knowledge could be
used to aid conservation efforts is an important consideration. It appears that
conservation is intertwined with the use of land by indigenous people, how
should biologists balance these two aspects?

As described above many local communities rely on the resources that

tropical habitats provide. Land is used as a main food source, both through
hunting and farming. In 1996 small scale farmers were estimated as accounting
for around 60% of deforestation in tropical environments (Sanchez 1996) with
around 10 million hectares of rainforest being lost each year. Changes in farming
techniques such as the increased availability of fertilisers, pesticides and
machinery, has led to an intensification of land use. This increase in
intensification, as well as the increased demand to provide food for growing
communities may make it much more difficult for people to use the land in a
sustainable way. This may cause further deforestation leading to a lack of
resources for communities and damage to local biodiversity.
Hunting of wildlife provides a key source of protein for numerous people
living in rural locations, in nearly all tropical habitats this resource is already
becoming depleted and vulnerable. Hunting is currently at unsustainable levels
across huge areas of the tropics, with massive increases in the amount of wildlife
being harvested (Milner-Gulland & Bennett 2003). There are several reasons why
hunting may have increased in such a dramatic way; loss of forest linked with an
increase in human populations has made animals more accessible than
previously. Also an increase in road building has led to there being accessibility
to areas that were once almost unreachable, lastly modern hunting techniques
are much more efficient than traditional techniques tend to be (Milner-Gulland &
Bennett 2003), increasing the number of animals that can be caught on a single
hunting trip. This loss of wildlife will not only cause food shortages for local
communities but it is also a huge loss for biodiversity. Hunting has historically
played a key role in extinctions, of species such as the moa and dodo for
example, so the risk of over hunting should be clear.
Another important use of habitat resources is for traditional medicine. The
cultural importance and the lack of western medicine mean that traditional
indigenous medicine is an essential aspect of everyday life, with up to 88% of
people in developing countries using it (Anyinam 1995). Industrially produced
drugs may be too expensive for people to afford and have low availability in
many areas so are not a valid alternative. Both plants and animals are harvested
for use as medicinal ingredients. Information regarding medicinal practices is
passed down from generation to generation and isolated groups may each have
specialised methods, the way in which this information is learnt makes it very
difficult for biologists to have a full understanding of how the land is used by
different groups. Medicinal plants in some areas may be one of the most used
resources from forests (Begossi 2002). As well as medicinal uses these products
may be used in cultural and religious practices (Anyinam 1995 & Begossi 2002).

It is clear that scientists need to understand the complex and vital uses of
tropical habitats by the indigenous people that live there. Animals and plants not
only provide food, income, shelter and health but they are a fundamental
component of culture and religion. As forests shrink and rural communities come
into closer contact with outsiders there is a huge risk that these traditional
practices will be forgotten, so not only is the preservation of biodiversity
important but also the protection of the people that live in these areas.
Conservation that does not consider the rights of people will likely lead to social
disruption and ineffective implementation of management plans as governments
are unlikely to choose nature over their people. If biologists can propose plans
that are able to both help people as well wildlife they are much more likely to be
successful in receiving funding as well as gaining the trust and help of local
people in implementing conservation plans. The management of a resources
involves the management of how that resource is used, and therefore scientists
need to be aware of who uses it and how (Johannes 1984). When certain
practices are damaging habitats how can conservation needs and the needs of
local people be met?
The effects of land clearing are having a very dramatic effect on habitats;
deforestation is one of the biggest problems facing rainforests. Of course
deforestation has a number of causes, not just the use of land by small farmers,
logging, clearing for roads and urbanisation also have a large influence
(Laurance 1999). Not only does deforestation cause decreases in available
habitat but there is growing evidence that tropical deforestation and biomass
burning is contributing to increases in CO2 levels, perhaps 20% of total terrestrial
carbon emissions (Bignell 2007 and Davis & Wali 1994). Traditional farming
usually involves shifting cultivation, where groups move depending on the
availability of resources and fertility of land (Bignell 2007). A commonly used
technique is called slash and burn farming, where land is cleared and then the
vegetation is burnt- burning helps to release nutrients into the soil, but releases
a lot of CO2 and damages the organic material in the top layer of the soil. Much
of this material contains invertebrates that play key roles in ecosystem function
and are essential in maintaining prolonged fertility (Bignell 2007). Because of the
damage done to the fertility of the soil, it is necessary to move sites every 2-3
years, leaving behind areas of land that may be colonised by invasive species
and are unlikely to be comparable to the habitat that previously existed on the
site. This method of farming is a way of life for 300-500 million people, most of
who live in the tropics (Brady 1996). It is estimated that shifting cultivation
across the world has led to millions of hectares of land being lost (Riswan &
Haranti 1995), it has also been described as a having low productivity (Toledo
2003). One way to try and maintain nutrients for longer is to encourage mixed
crop rotation (Brady1996), rather than just having the same crop being grown
year on year.
Hunting of wildlife again presents a complex issue, if hunting is just carried
out for small populations it is relatively sustainable but when it is done in order
to sell the products it becomes very damaging (Riswan & Hartanti 1995).
Bushmeat, a phrase commonly used to refer to the hunting of wildlife in Africa, is
now a multimillion dollar trade (Brashares 2004), leading to a huge increase in
the levels of hunting compared to what would be carried out were bushmeat just
being used to sustain local communities. In Africa (as well as possible in other
areas) the increase in bushmeat may be linked to a decline in fish stocks over a
number of years; there is a direct link between poor fish supply and increased
demand for bush meat in local villages and there has been a decline in 41
wildlife species (Brashares 2004). Bush meat is a vital source of protein for many
communities, finding a cheap and easily available replacement for protein in the
diet may help in reducing the immediate need for meat (Brashares 2004).
Eradicating hunting completely would be irresponsible and ignore the needs of
local communities, but to allow a free reign over hunting would be devastating
for wildlife. Many of the large vertebrates in tropical environments are slow to
reproduce so are hard pressed to respond to increasing hunting levels on the
population (Robinson & Bennett 2004). Management plans need to consider how
sustainable levels of hunting can be maintained, tropical environments are very
heterogeneous; so a sustainable level in one area may not be appropriate for
another (Robinson and Bennett 2004). Some areas may not be able to sustain
any level of hunting at all.
Wild animals and their products, in conjunction with plants are essential
ingredients in traditional medicine as well as ceremonial and religious practices
(Soewu 2008). Traditional medicine is seen as the most appropriate treatment in
many communities; in Africa the number of traditional healers practicing is much
higher than the number of western doctors, so availability of traditional medicine
is much higher (Soewu 2008). As with hunting not only is the survival of wildlife
important in conservation it is also a huge part of life for many communities, one
which they rely on. The effect that ethnomedicine has on habitats will likely vary
greatly in different areas, for example a study carried out in the Atlantic forest in
Brazil found that many plants used for medicinal purposes were collected from
disturbed areas of forest and had little effect on the habitats from which they
were taken (Begossi 2002). Again, as with hunting, a blanket policy restricting
collection of materials for ethnomedicine would be inappropriate, both for wildlife
and as a social policy. It is important however that action is taking as it is already
being reported by local people that wild resources are declining in spread and
population, in most cases very severely (Soewu 2008). Documentation of how
wild animals and plants are being used in different areas would be helpful in
order to analyse the sustainability of certain practices in different areas (Soewu
2008).
Products from tropical habitats are becoming very valuable worldwide, for
example if people sell logging concessions a large income can be made. The
illegal pet trade is another area where large amounts of money are available. It is
important to give people a sustainable alternative to these illegal options
(Zimmerman 2001). Zimmerman et al suggest some conservation and
development enterprises that could be used, made up of a mixture of non timber
crops, for example brazil nuts or copaiba oil, where markets for these products
already exist. They also mention other possibilities that could provide a good
income, such as ecotourism, sport fishing, research and education.

Not only is the consideration of the needs of indigenous people important,

but also how scientists can work alongside indigenous people. The management
of tropical habitat resources involves understanding the knowledge and
traditional uses by local people (Johannes 1984). The people who have traditional
used these resources have a knowledge of the local environment that will likely
be unmatched by any scientist who is visiting the area and is of considerable
value to people trying to understand the habitat (Johannes 1984). There have
been great additions to scientific knowledge by working with indigenous people,
for example 9 species of non stinging bees have been discovered with the help
of the Kayapo Indians in the Amazon (Mourao, Helder & Almeida 2006). Another
example is where fisherman from pacific islands have increased understanding of
lunar reproductive cycles in fish (Mourao, Helder & Almeida 2006).
Not only can scientists benefit from the knowledge of indigenous people, it
is also important to consider them as a valuable resource who can be trained to
help scientists collect data. Research collaborations between biologists and local
people enable research to be ‘scaled up’ in a cost effective way (Sheil 2004);
local people already have a large knowledge of local habitats so training is
limited. The benefits of working with local people go further than just being cost
effective; they help to engage local communities in conservation work and can
also be a good source of income, perhaps easing the pressure to exploit local
resources beyond what is sustainable. Local people can be trained as effective
parataxonomists; which can greatly help when carrying out biodiversity surveys
(Sheil 2004 & Basset et al 2003). These surveys can be a useful tool in assessing
differences between various sites, as mentioned previously this is important
when calculating what level of harvest is sustainable. Traditional training of
biologists in the west is time consuming and costly, so the use of indigenous
people may be an excellent solution to shortages in taxonomists.

In conclusion, the consideration of traditional land use is a central factor

for conservation scientists working in the tropics. There is a great deal of
evidence showing a decline in many tropical species, changes in traditional
practices are likely having an influence on this decline. Indigenous people have
legal and /or moral rights to much of the tropical areas that are under threat, it is
much better to work with local people rather than try and remove them, or
restrict them dramatically in their home lands, which may lead to social conflict
and possible political instability (Colchester 2001). However, if hunting, shifting
agriculture and medicinal ingredient collection were to continue with no control
the effects on wildlife could be devastating, resulting in not only a terrible loss of
biodiversity but also a loss of resources for communities. So control does not
only protect biodiversity and wildlife it also helps to protect resources so that
they can be used sustainably for people in the future. A complete restriction on
traditional use of wildlife would also be irresponsible, denying people of their
rights to local resources. Reaching the balance between these two needs is
extremely difficult; a shift too far in either direction could have very negative
results. Tropical habitats are very heterogeneous so research needs to be carried
out in various tropical habitats to understand the levels of use that are
sustainable, some papers have already begun to do this, for example in research
by Bennett and Robinson 2004 where they discuss the different capacities of
various tropical habitats.
Working alongside local people is a valuable new resources that I think
scientists should take advantage of, not only does it provide a new,
environmental friendly and sustainable income for local people but it has proven
to be cost effect and efficient in helping scientists with their work. Involving
communities in conservation work can lead to conservation orientated interests
(Sheil 2004). In many indigenous cultures, god and nature are linked and so the
preservation of nature is not an unfamiliar concept, nor are restrictions on
hunting and fishing (Anyinam 1995).
Overall the management of resources is absolutely essential both for the
welfare of local people and for the protection of wildlife. Only with cooperation of
local people can plans be practically achieved.

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