Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 109

X

Grid Integration of RenewabIe Energy Systems

AlhuIa Rajapakse
1
, Dharshana Mulhununi
2
and Nuvan Ierera
1

Unitcrsi|q cf Mani|c|a
1

Mani|c|a HVDC Rcscarcn Ccn|rc
2

Mani|c|a, Canaa

1. Introduction

Inlegralion of renevalIe energy inlo lhe uliIily grid can le al eilher lhe lransnission IeveI or
lhe dislrilulion IeveI, depending on lhe scaIe of generalion. Large renevalIe energy
generalion such as vind farns are direclIy inlerconnecled lo lhe lransnission syslen. SnaII
scaIe dislriluled generalion is generaIIy inlerconnecled lo lhe nediun or Iov voIlage
dislrilulion syslens. olh lypes of inlerconneclions presenl differenl chaIIenges lhal nusl
le carefuIIy anaIysed lefore syslens are designed. This chapler oulIines and discusses lhe
nosl connon issues encounlered during grid inlegralion of differenl lypes of renevalIe
energy syslens. The appIicalion of delaiIed sinuIalion nelhods lo idenlify prolIens and lo
find suilalIe soIulions is aIso highIighled. Iev case sludies and sinuIalion exanpIes are
presenled lo reinforce lhe concepls presenled in lhe chapler.

2. Integration of smaII scaIe generation into distribution grids

LIeclricily generalion using renevalIe energy resources is oflen laking pIace in snaII scaIe
due lo disperse nalure of lhe resources. Cood exanpIes are snaII hydro, soIar pholovoIlaics,
liogas, lionass and snaII vind lurline lased eIeclricily generalion syslens. The size of
lhese generalors lypicaIIy varies fron a fev hundreds of kiIovalls lo severaI negavalls.
These snaII scaIe eIeclricily generalors are generaIIy connecled lo lhe grid al lhe prinary or
secondary dislrilulion IeveI and are considered dislriluled generalion (DC) or dislriluled
resources (DR). Dislriluled resources incIude lolh renevalIe and non-renevalIe snaII
scaIe generalion as veII as energy slorage.

2.1 Different types of grid interfaces
Oflen, lhe snaII scaIe renevalIe generalors are nol direclIy connecled lo lhe grid. The
generalion lechnoIogy or lhe operalionaI characlerislics requires lhe use of sone inlerface
lelveen lhe generalor and lhe uliIily dislrilulion grid. Ior exanpIe, soIar pholovoIlaics
(IV) paneIs generale dc eIeclricily and lherefore, a pover eIeclronics lased dc-lo-ac
converler is required lelveen lhe grid and lhe generalor. Sone lechnoIogies such as
induclion generalor lased snaII hydro or vind can le direclIy connecled lo lhe ac grid.
Hovever, concerns such as slarling lransienls, energy conversion efficiency and pover
7
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Renewable Energy 110

quaIily issues nake connecling lhen lhrough a pover eIeclronics inlerface a leller choice.
TalIe-1 sunnarizes sone of lhe connon lypes of generalion and lheir preferred inlerfacing
lechnoIogies.

Typc IntcrfacIng tcchnn!ngy
IueI ceIIs Iover eIeclronic converler
Wind Induclion generalor/pover eIeclronic converler
d
IholovoIlaics Iover eIeclronic converler
SnaII hydro
Synchronous or induclion generalor, pover
eIeclronic converler
TalIe 1. Inlerfacing lechnoIogies

2.2 Issues reIated to grid integration of smaII scaIe generation
Mosl eIeclric dislrilulion syslens are designed, operaled and prolecled on lhe prenise of
lhere leing a singIe voIlage source on each dislrilulion feeder. Inlerconneclion of snaII
scaIe renevalIe generalion lo lhe dislrilulion grid vioIales lhis fundanenlaI assunplion.
Therefore, cerlain speciaI requirenenls need lo le salisfied vhen inlerconnecling
dislriluled generalion lo lhe grid in order lo ensure safe and reIialIe operalion. IauIl
cIearing, recIosing and inadverlenl isIanded operalion are najor proleclion reIaled concerns
|ILLL, 2OO4j. In nany cases, lhe grid-DC inlerface is lased on pover eIeclronics inverlers or
asynchronous generalors. The uliIilies are concerned aloul lheir inpacl on pover quaIily.
The inpacls incIude harnonics, voIlage dips, overvoIlages, and voIlage fIicker |ILLL, 2OO3j.
SeveraI sludies |AIdferfer el aI, 2OOO, Dugan & McDernoll, 2OO2j have idenlified lhal lhe
lechnicaI requirenenls inposed ly uliIilies lo address lhese concerns as a najor lechnicaI
larrier for grid inlegralion of DC. The slandards such as ILLL I1547 |ILLL, 2OO3j provide
guideIines for deveIoping lhe generaI lechnicaI requirenenls for inlerconneclion of snaII
scaIe generalion.

2.2.1 Protection issues
Iroleclion is one of lhe nosl prolIenalic issues reIaled lo lhe inlerconneclion of dislriluled
generalion. RadiaI syslens are lhe nosl connon forn of dislrilulion nelvork
configuralion. They are usuaIIy prolecled using line graded overcurrenl proleclion
schenes. Inlerconneclion of DCs nay aIler lhe coordinalion of lhe exisling proleclion
schenes. If nol carefuIIy addressed, lhis can Iead lo naIfunclion of proleclion equipnenl.
The nain proleclion issues reIaled lo lhe inlerconneclion of DC are lriefIy discussed leIov.

(a) Change of Shorl Circuil LeveIs
Shorl circuil IeveI is one of lhe nain paranelers used in lhe seIeclion of circuil lreakers,
recIosers, fuses and currenl lransforners (CTs), and lhe coordinalion lelveen overcurrenl
reIays. Shorl circuil IeveI is characlerized ly lhe equivaIenl syslen inpedance al lhe fauIl
poinl and indicales lhe expecled IeveI of lhe fauIl currenl. Tine varialion of lhe fauIl currenl
is infIuenced ly lhe characlerislics of lhe rolaling nachinery in lhe vicinily. Mosl
dislrilulion syslens are iniliaIIy designed as passive nelvorks vilhoul DC. Hovever, vilh
lhe conneclion of DC, equivaIenl nelvork inpedance can decrease, resuIling in an increase
in lhe fauIl IeveI. Thus, in case of a fauIl, lhere can le unexpecledIy high fauIl currenls
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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 111

vhich nay exceed lhe inlerrupling capacily of exisling circuil lreakers. High fauIl currenls
can aIso Iead lo CT saluralion. AIso, lhe changed fauIl IeveIs can disrupl lhe coordinalion
lelveen overcurrenl reIays Ieading lo unsalisfaclory operalion of proleclion syslens.
To iIIuslrale lhe concerns, consider lhe dislrilulion syslen in Iigure 1. When lhe DC is nol
presenl, lhe fauIl currenls seen ly lhe feeder lreaker K and lhe recIoser RC are
approxinaleIy equaI lo lhe fauIl currenl I
f
(I
s
| I
r
| I
f
). Hovever, vhen lhe DC is connecled,
I
r
= I
s
+I
dg
, and I
r
> I
s
. This is a condilion nornaIIy nol olserved in passive radiaI nelvorks.
This doesnl cause a prolIen if lhe recIoser inlerrupling capacily is sufficienl lo handIe lhe
increased fauIl currenl. Hovever, il is IikeIy lhal coordinalion lelveen lhe recIoser and any
dovnslrean fuses (for exanpIe lelveen RC and IS
1
) is Iosl. ecause lolh lhe recIoser and
fuses operale fasler al higher fauIl currenls, lhe required nargins lelveen lhe recIoser fasl
curve and lhe fuse nininun neIl curve couId le reduced lo an exlenl lhal lhe coordinalion
is Iosl.








Iig. 1. Change of fauIl currenls due lo DC inlerconneclion

(l) Reverse Iover IIov
In radiaI dislrilulion syslens, lhe pover fIovs are unidireclionaI. Iroleclion schenes are
iniliaIIy designed lased on lhese pover fIovs. When a DC is connecled, lhe pover fIovs
nay le reversed |Lopes, 2OO2j. This couId aIso aIler lhe coordinalion of proleclion reIays.

(c) Lack of Suslained IauIl Currenl
In order for lhe proleclion reIays lo reIialIy delecl and discrininale fauIl currenls fron lhe
nornaI Ioad currenls, lhe fauIls nusl cause a significanl and suslained increase in lhe currenls
neasured ly lhe reIays. If lhe fauIl currenl conlrilulion fron a DC is Iiniled, il lecones
difficuIl for lhe overcurrenl lased proleclion reIays lo effecliveIy delecl fauIls. RenevalIe
energy lased generalion oflen enpIoys induclion generalors, snaII synchronous generalors or
pover eIeclronic converlers. Induclion generalors cannol suppIy suslained fauIl currenls lo
lhree-phase fauIls and nake onIy a Iiniled fauIl currenl conlrilulion lo asynnelricaI fauIls.
SnaII synchronous generalors are usuaIIy nol alIe lo suppIy suslained fauIl currenls lhal are
significanlIy grealer lhan lhe raled currenl. Iover seniconduclor devices cannol vilhsland
significanl overcurrenl for suslained periods and lherefore pover eIeclronic converlers are
designed lo inlernaIIy Iinil lhe oulpul currenl. The Iack of suslained fauIl currenl
conpronises lhe aliIily of reIays lo delecl fauIls. |arker & de MeIIo, 2OOOj.

(d) IsIanding
IsIanding is lhe silualion vhere a parl of lhe uliIily nelvork is disconnecled fron lhe nain
grid and operales as an independenl syslen suppIied vilh one or nore generalors.
IsIanding resuIls in alnornaI varialions of frequency and voIlage in lhe 'isIand. Opening of
an aulo recIoser during a fauIl nay Iead lo lhe fornalion of lvo independenl syslens lhal
C
l

l
S

uC
l

l
lS

8C 8k
lS

lS

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Renewable Energy 112

operale al lvo differenl frequencies |}enkins el aI, 2OOOj. RecIosing of lhe aulo recIoser vhiIe
lhe lvo syslens are oul of phase couId lring disaslrous resuIls. |orleIy & Kreider, 2OOOj.
Iurlher, isIanding operalion nay creale an ungrounded syslen depending on lhe
lransforner conneclion. An unidenlified isIand vouId le hazardous for lhe repair crevs.
Due lo lhe alove reasons, isIanding is recognized as an unsafe silualion and innediale
disconneclion of lhe DCs fron lhe grid is reconnended upon fornalion of an isIand |ILLL,
2OO3j.

2.2.2 VoItage controI
Inlerconneclion of DC resuIls in changes in pover fIovs and lhe voIlage profiIe of lhe
feeder, and generaIIy resuIls in overvoIlages under Iov Ioad or high (DC) produclion
condilions. In veak nelvorks, lhe DC capacily is generaIIy delernined ly lhe voIlage Iinils.
Iurlhernore, lhe conneclion slalus of a DC is nol conlroIIed ly lhe uliIily. Disconneclion of
a DC during lhe high Ioad can cause undervoIlages, vhiIe re-conneclion of a DC under Iov
Ioad condilions nay cause overvoIlages. This nay Iead lo poor pover quaIily silualion and
nay resuIl in operalion of under/over voIlage reIays.
SeIeclion of appropriale lap sellings for lhe dislrilulion lransforners lecones difficuIl vilh
lhe increased penelralion of DC. This is speciaIIy difficuIl vhen lhe DCs are nol equaIIy
dislriluled anong lhe feeders suppIied ly lhe sane lransforner |Uchida el aI, 2OO6j. Such a
silualion is iIIuslraled in Iigure 2 vhere lhere are lvo feeders suppIied ly lhe sane
lransforner, lul DCs are concenlraled on onIy one of lhen. CeneraIIy, vhen lhe DCs are
connecled, lhe nel currenl fIov lhrough lhe lransforner is reduced lecause lhe DCs provide
lhe pover lo lhe nearly Ioads. ConsequenlIy, lhe lransforner lap needs lo le changed lo lhe
Iighl Ioad selling. The resuIling decIine of lhe sending voIlage can cause a voIlage vioIalion
al lhe far end of lhe feeder vilhoul DCs as shovn in Iigure 2. Leaving lhe lransforner lap
al lhe heavy Ioad selling risks overvoIlages on lhe feeder vilh DCs. Svilched capacilors and
slalic VAr conpensalors can le used lo conlroI lhe feeder voIlages, lul lhese soIulions are
oflen loo coslIy.

















Iig. 2. IossilIe DC inlerconneclion configuralions
C
uC
uC
v

P
u
v

L
v

l uC
l uC
l uC
l uC
v

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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 113

Anolher issue lhal affecls lhe operalion of DCs al dislrilulion IeveI is lhe unlaIanced
voIlage profiIe. As shovn in Iigure 3, lolh lhe Ioads as veII as DCs can le eilher lhree-
phase or singIe-phase. Inlerconneclion of singIe phase sources viII increase lhe syslen
unlaIance. On lhe olher hand, inherenlIy unlaIanced dislrilulion syslens can pose
prolIens for lhe lhree-phase DCs connecled lo il: lhe resuIling unlaIance currenls in lhe
DC can cause overhealing and frequenl shuldovns.














Iig. 3. IossilIe DC inlerconneclion configuralions

2.2.3 Harmonics and fIicker
The quaIily of pover suppIied lo lhe cusloners is one of lhe najor concerns of service
providers. The najorily of lhe DCs are inlerfaced using pover eIeclronic converlers. Iover
eIeclronic devices injecl harnonics inlo lhe syslen resuIling in a poor pover quaIily for lhe
consuners. This can le overcone ly using harnonic fiIlers. Harnonic fiIlers nay le aclive,
passive or hylrid and nusl le seIecled approprialeIy according lo lhe requirenenl. In
addilion lhe slarling of direclIy connecled induclion generalors nay cause voIlage fIicker.
The sofl-slaring nechanisns are sonelines usefuI in reducing lhese voIlage fIuclualions.
Wind generalors can aIso inlroduce periodic fIuclualions in lhe voIlages due lo lover
shadov effecl |Iadaeinedjad el aI, 2OO9j.

2.2.4 Interconnection standards and exampIes of grid codes
In order lo address proleclion and safely issues, DC inlerconneclion slandards and
guideIines have leen inlroduced. The nosl videIy appIied slandard is lhe ILLL Sld. 1547-
2OO3, "ILLL Slandards for Inlerconnecling Dislriluled Recourses (DR) vilh LIeclric Iover
Syslens 2OO3" |ILLL, 2OO3j. Mosl uliIilies have adopled lhe ILLL Sld. 1547-2OO3 in
fornuIaling guideIines/ ruIes for inlerconnecling DC lo lheir nelvorks. A lrief descriplion
of lhe saIienl fealures of ILLL Sld. 1547-2OO3 is given leIov.
ILLL Sld. 1547-2OO3 reconnends disconneclion of dislriluled energy resources vhen lhe
voIlage and/or frequency al lhe poinl of inlerconneclion deviale fron lheir lase vaIues due
lo fauIls and olher dislurlances. The aIIovalIe devialions are defined in TalIes 2 and 3.
AIso, for an uninlenlionaI isIand in vhich lhe DC energizes a porlion of lhe nelvork, lhe
uC uC
uC
L
CC
CC
CC
CC
L
L
A
8
C
C
u

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Renewable Energy 114

DC inlerconneclion syslen nusl delecl lhe isIand and disconnecl lhe DC vilhin lvo
seconds of lhe fornalion of an isIand |ILLL, 2OO3j.
Vn!tagc rangc (% nf basc vn!tagc
a
)
C!carIng tImc(s)
b

V < 5O O.16
5O d V < 88 2.OO
11O d V < 12O 1.OO
V t 12O O.16
a
ase voIlages are lhe noninaI syslen voIlages slaled in ANSI C84.1-1995.
l
DR < 3O kW, naxinun cIearing lines, DR > 3OkW, defauIl cIearing lines.
TalIe 2. Inlerconneclion Syslen Response lo AlnornaI VoIlages |ILLL, 2OO3j
DR sIzc Frcqucncy rangc(Hz) C!carIng tImc(s)
a

d 3OkW
> 6O.5 O.16
< 59.3 O.16
> 3OkW
> 6O.5 O.16
< |59.8-57.O
(adjuslalIe sel poinl)
O.16 lo 3OO
(adjuslalIe)
< 57.O O.16
a
DR < 3O kW, naxinun cIearing lines, DR > 3OkW, defauIl cIearing lines.
TalIe 3. Inlerconneclion Syslen Response lo AlnornaI Irequencies |ILLL, 2OO3j

2.3 IsIanding and anti-isIanding protection methods
As discussed earIier, fornalion of uninlenlionaI pover isIands is unsafe an undesiralIe.
Therefore, fornalion of isIands nusl le sviflIy delecled and lhe generalors energizing lhe
isIand nusl le disconnecled. This is connonIy knovn as lhe anli-isIanding proleclion or
lhe Ioss-of-nain proleclion. There are severaI nelhods lhal provide anli-isIanding
proleclion. They can le lroadIy calegorized inlo lhree groups: aclive nelhods, passive
nelhods and leIeconnunicalion lased nelhods.

2.3.1 Passive methods
The passive isIanding deleclion nelhods nake decisions lased on neasured eIeclricaI
quanlilies such as voIlage and frequency. VoIlage reIay is one of lhe sinpIesl passive
nelhods used lo delecl isIands. The reaclive pover inlaIance lelveen produclion and
consunplion, vhich occurs afler lhe Ioss of nains, Ieads lo a change in lhe voIlage IeveI.
Thus, lhe voIlage nagnilude neasured al lhe DC can le used lo delecl lhe isIand. Trip
signaIs are generaled if lhe neasured voIlage shovs alnornaI varialion over a predefined
period of line. NornaIIy, voIlage reIays respond lo lolh under-voIlage and over-voIlage
silualions. Hovever, voIlage coIIapse is a sIov process and deleclion of isIands using
voIlage reIays couId le very sIov.
VoIlage Surge reIay (aIso knovn as VoIlage Veclor Shifl reIay or VoIlage Ihase }unp reIay)
is one of lhe nelhods used for fasl deleclion of isIands. The Ioss of grid conneclion resuIls in
a sudden change in Ioad and lhus, a sudden change in cycIe Ienglh of lhe lerninaI voIlage
vaveforn. The cycIe duralion lecones eilher shorler or Ionger, depending on if lhere is an
excess or a deficil of aclive pover in lhe isIanded syslen. The Veclor Shifl reIay neasures
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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 115

lhe Ienglh of each cycIe of lhe voIlage vaveforn. The cycIe duralion of lhe vaveforn is
conpared vilh lhe duralion of lhe previous cycIe. If lhe difference in lhe cycIe duralion
exceeds lhe reIay selling, a lrip signaI is issued. UsuaIIy lhese reIays are provided vilh Iov
voIlage lIocking faciIily lo lIock lhe lrip signaI if lhe lerninaI voIlage drops leIov a
lhreshoId IeveI lo avoid faIse operalions |Ireilas el aI, 2OO5j.
Irequency reIay is anolher exanpIe of passive deleclion nelhods. Under-frequency can
occur if lhe grid conneclion is Iosl al a silualion vhere lhe IocaI Ioad exceeds lhe produclion
of lhe generalor, vhereas over-frequency silualions can arise if lhere is a surpIus produclion
al lhe line of grid disconneclion. Thus, lhe frequency reIays can lake decisions lased on lhe
frequency of lhe voIlage al lhe DC. The over-frequency or under-frequency eIenenls are
used lo lrip lhe generalor fron lhe syslen. If lhe reaI pover in lhe isIand is aInosl laIanced,
lhe change of frequency of lhe isIanded seclion viII le Iov, naking lhe reIay ineffeclive.
Rale of change of frequency (ROCOI), vhich is lhe line derivalive of lhe frequency, is aIso
frequenlIy used lo delecl pover isIands. ROCOI reIays are popuIar as lhey response nuch
fasler lhan lhe frequency reIays.

2.3.2 Active methods
In lhe aclive deleclion nelhods, dislurlances are injecled inlo lhe nelvork and isIands are
delecled lased on syslen responses lo lhe injecled dislurlance |Ireilas el aI, 2OO5j. Reaclive
error exporl, fauIl IeveI noniloring, syslen inpedance noniloring and frequency-drifl are
sone of lhe aclive isIand deleclion nelhods.
The reaclive error exporl nelhod conlroIs lhe DC excilalion currenl lo generale a knovn
vaIue of reaclive currenl. This cannol le supporled vhen lhe DC is nol connecled lo lhe
grid. The change in lhe reaclive pover neasured during lhe fornalion of pover isIand is
used lo delecl lhe silualion |Redfern el aI, 1993, Kane & Iox, 1997j. The fauIl IeveI
noniloring nelhod uses a poinl-on-vave svilched lhyrislor in series vilh a shunl induclor.
The lhyrislor is lriggered al a poinl cIose lo lhe voIlage zero crossing and lhe currenl
lhrough lhe shunl induclor is neasured. Il is possilIe lo eslinale lhe syslen inpedance and
lhe fauIl IeveI using lhe neasured currenl puIse. The facl lhal lhe fauIl IeveI drops vhen lhe
grid conneclion is Iosl, is used lo delecl lhe isIanding. UsuaIIy lhe eslinalion of fauIl IeveI is
repealed al every haIf cycIe |Redfern el aI, 1993, Kane & Iox, 1997j. Syslen inpedance
noniloring as ils nane inpIies, is a nelhod lhal delecls Ioss of nains (LOM) ly acliveIy
noniloring lhe syslen inpedance. A high frequency (HI) source is connecled via a
coupIing capacilor al lhe poinl of inlerconneclion (ICC). The capacilor is in series vilh lhe
equivaIenl nelvork inpedance. Wilh lhe presence of conneclion lo lhe uliIily grid, lhe
equivaIenl inpedance al lhe ICC is Iov, lherefore lhe HI-rippIe al coupIing poinl is
negIigilIe. Hovever, afler isIanding, lhe equivaIenl inpedance al lhe ICC increases
dranalicaIIy and lhe divided HI-signaI is cIearIy deleclalIe |Redfern el aI, 1993, Kane &
Iox, 1997j.
The frequency drifl LOM deleclion nelhod is specificaIIy used in inverler inlerfaced DCs.
The oulpul currenl of lhe converler is conlroIIed lo a frequency vhich is sIighlIy differenl lo
lhe noninaI frequency of lhe syslen. Under nornaI condilions, lhe lerninaI frequency is
diclaled ly lhe poverfuI luIk suppIy. If lhe nains suppIy is Iosl, frequency viII drifl unliI a
cerlain shuldovn IeveI is exceeded |Ropp el aI, 1999, Hung el aI, 2OO3j.

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Renewable Energy 116

2.3.3 TeIecommunication-based Methods
The leIeconnunicalion-lased nelhods use connunicaled circuil lreaker slalus signaIs lo
aIerl and lrip DCs vhen isIands are forned. Their perfornance is independenl of lhe lype of
dislriluled energy resources invoIved. TeIeconnunicalion lased syslens can le
inpIenenled in conjunclion vilh SCADA syslens. In lhis approach, lhe slales of lhe circuil
lreakers in lhe grid are conlinuousIy lracked. The circuil lreaker slale infornalion can le
used lo delernine vhelher a parl of lhe syslen has lecone an isIand, using predelernined
Iogic. Transfer lripping schenes can le considered as a decenlraIized version of lhe SCADA
lased syslen descriled alove. In lransfer lrip schenes, a Iogic circuil uses infornalion of
circuil lreaker slales lo delernine if a parl of lhe grid has leen isIanded.
Conparison of rale of change of frequency (COROCOI) al lhe sulslalion and lhe DC
Iocalion is anolher leIeconnunicalion-lased nelhod. The rale of change of frequency is
neasured al lhe sulslalion and if il exceeds a cerlain Iinil, a lIock signaI is senl lo lhe DC
end. If lhe rale of change of frequency al DC is grealer lhan a sel poinl, and if lhere is no
lIock signaI received fron lhe sulslalion end, lhe DC viII le lripped.
Oul of lhe alove descriled nelhods under/over voIlage, under/over frequency, rale of
change of frequency (ROCOI) and voIlage veclor surge (VVS) reIays are lhe nosl videIy
used nelhods for anli-isIanding proleclion. One of lhe nain disadvanlages of lhese nelhods
is lhe possiliIily of nuisance lripping of DCs during olher syslen dislurlances such as Ioad
svilching, fauIls, elc.

2.3.4 IntentionaI isIanding and Microgrids
AIlhough isIanded operalion of DC has recognized as hazardous silualion, a generalor or
cIusler of generalors operaling as an isIand (nicrogrid) nay le alIe lo suppIy a parl of lhe
IocaI Ioad vhen grid suppIy is nol avaiIalIe. This lype of operalion is connonIy knovn as
inlenlionaI isIanding. Nunerous lechnicaI issues have lo le addressed lo nake inlenlionaI
isIanded operalion a reaIily |Ireilas el aI, 2OO5j. The Iover laIance needs lo le nainlained
lelveen produclion and consunplion. An effeclive proleclion coordinalion nusl le
nainlained under lolh grid connecled and isIanded nodes. In order lo reach such a high
IeveI of IocaI aulonony, il requires soIving advanced conlroI and proleclion funclions.

3. Interconnection studies

When inlerconnecling a renevalIe energy lased generalor, lhe grid inlerface needs lo le
designed lo neel appIicalIe reguIalory requirenenls sel ly lhe IocaI uliIily. In order lo
verify lhe requirenenls perlaining lo proleclion, conlroI and pover quaIily, delaiIed
sinuIalion sludies need lo le perforned. Tine donain sinuIalion using LIeclronagnelic
Transienl (LMT) prograns is a poverfuI nelhod lhal can le used for sludies invoIving
conlroIIer luning, proleclion selling, pover quaIily invesligalions and syslen vaIidalions.
LMT prograns lypicaIIy cone vilh a luiIl-in Iilrary lhal incIude delaiIed rolaling nachine
nodeIs (synchronous, induclion, pernanenl nagnel, elc.), lransforners nodeIs (incIuding
iron core saluralion), frequency dependenl lransnission Iine and calIe nodeIs,
neasurenenl lransforner (CT, VT and CCVT) nodeIs fron vhich reaIislic secondary
vaveforns can le derived for proleclion syslen vaIidalion. In addilion lo eIeclricaI
conponenls, faciIilies exisl for sinuIaling conpIex conlroI syslens. These conpuler
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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 117

prograns aIso offer lhe aliIily of nodeIing of pover eIeclronic syslens in delaiI. Thus, lhey
can le used for sludying aII lype of DC inlerfaces:
x direclIy connecled synchronous/induclion generalors,
x converler connecled DC sources (fueI ceII, IV),
x doulIy fed induclion generalors (DIIC), and
x converler connecled varialIe frequency synchronous generalors.
Iev sinuIalion sludies lhal denonslrale differenl inlerconneclions inlerfaces and issues are
discussed in lhe foIIoving seclions. The sinuIalions vere carried oul using lhe induslry
slandard ISCAD/LMTDC soflvare progran.

3.1 Soft-starting of fixed speed induction generator wind turbines
The firsl exanpIe is a fixed speed vind generalor inlerconnecled lo a nediun voIlage (MV)
dislrilulion syslen. The dislrilulion syslen shovn in Iigure 4 is adopled fron a
lenchnark MV dislrilulion syslen proposed ly CICRL for DC inlegralion sludies |Rudion,
2OO5j. The nelvork is nornaIIy operaled as a radiaI syslen, aIlhough lvo disconnecl
svilches (S2 and S3) are avaiIalIe for nelvork reconfiguralion.


Iig. 4. Mediun voIlage dislrilulion syslen
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Renewable Energy 118

In delaiIed sinuIalion sludies, il is cuslonary lo use a reduced nodeI of lhe nelvork. In lhe
sinpIified dislrilulion nelvork shovn in Iigure 5, a seclion of lhe nelvork (upslrean of
lus 8) is repIaced ly ils Thevenins equivaIenl circuil. Iarls of lhe nelvork lhal are of
inleresl for lhe sludy are represenled in delaiI. In lhis exanpIe, il is assuned lhal lus 11 is
suppIying a crilicaI Ioad sensilive lo pover quaIily prolIens. Therefore, lhe feeder seclion
fron lus 8 lo lus 11 is represenled in delaiI. The direcl coupIed vind generalor is
represenled using a delaiIed induclion nachine nodeI. AIlhough il is nol crilicaI for lhis
sludy, a delaiIed vind lurline nodeI vilh pilch conlroI is aIso used.


Iig. 5. SinpIified dislrilulion syslen

Time(s)
1.0 2.0 3.0



0.0
3.0
6.0
9.0
12.0
15.0
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
k
V
)
TERMNAL VOLTAGE

Iig. 6. VoIlage al lus 11 during lhe vind generalor slarl-up.

Time(s)
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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 119

=
Time(s)
1.0 2.0 3.0



-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)
REAL POWERGEN
-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
R
e
a
c
.

P
o
w
e
r

(
M
V
A
R
)
REACTVEPOWERGEN

Iig. 7. Wind generalor reaI and reaclive pover oulpul during lhe slarl-up.

The usuaI slarling procedure is lo Iel lhe vind lurline acceIerale lhe generalor lo a specific
predelernined speed (cIose lo lhe synchronous speed ) and lhen connecl lhe generalor
lerninaI lo lhe grid suppIy. The nachined speeds up, (in noloring node), draving lolh
reaI and reaclive pover fron lhe grid. This slarling procedure has caused a Iarge voIlage
dip al lus 11 as can le seen in Iigure 6. This is a resuIl of lhe nachine iniliaIIy darving a
significal anounl of slarling currenl fron lhe syslen. The reaI and reaclive pover exchange
lelveen lhe induclion generalor and lhe grid during lhis period is shovn in Iigure 7. One
Iov cosl soIulion lo lhis prolIen is lhe use of a lhyrisler lased sofl slarler |Ielers el aI,
2OO6j. The varialion of lus 11 voIlage vilh lhe sofl slarler is shovn in Iigure 8. As evidenl
fron lhe sinuIaion resuIls, lhe sofl slarler can significanlIy reduce lhe voIlage dip. The reaI
and reaclive pover exchanges vilh lhe sofl slarler is shovn in Iigure 9.

Time(s)
1.0 2.0 3.0



0.0
3.0
6.0
9.0
12.0
15.0
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
k
V
)
TERMNAL VOLTAGE

Iig. 8. VoIlage al lus 11 during sofl slarling of lhe vind generalor.



Time(s)
Time(s)
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Renewable Energy 120

=
Time(s)
1.0 2.0 3.0



-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)
REAL POWERGEN
-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
R
e
a
c
.

P
o
w
e
r

(
M
V
A
R
)
REACTVEPOWERGEN

Iig. 9. Wind generalor reaI and reaclive pover oulpul vilh sofl slarling

3.2 FauIt current contribution of different generators
The nalure of fauIl currenl conlrilulion of differenl DC inlerface lechnoIogy can le
accuraleIy anaIysed lhrough delaIied eIeclronagnelic lransienl sinuIalions. The oulpul
currenl produced ly a synchronous generalor connecled lo lus 7, during a lhree-phase
shorl circuil al lus 8 is shovn in Iigure 1O. The oulpul currenls of (i) a direcl coupIed
induclion generalor, (ii) a direcl coupIed induclion generalor vilh exlernaI rolor resislance,
and (iii) a dolIy fed induclion generalor (DIIC) for lhe sane fauIl are shovn in Iigs. 11, 12,
and 13 respecliveIy. The Iack of suslained fauIl currenl in lhe Ialler lhree cases is cIearIy
vissilIe. Il shouId le noled lhal vilh pover eIeclronic inlrefacing (e.g. DIIC, IV), lhe shape
of lhe fauIl currenl is infIuenced ly lhe converler porleclion and conlroI slralergy.

Time(s)
10.000 10.050 10.100 10.150



-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
k
A
)
THREEPHASECURRENT

Iig. 1O. IauIl currenl conlrilulion fron a syncronous generalor



Time(s)
Time(s)
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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 121

Time ...
10.000 10.050 10.100 10.150


-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
k
A
)
THREEPHASECURRENT

Iig. 11. IauIl currenl conlrilulion fron an induclion generalor

Time ...
10.000 10.050 10.100 10.150


-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
k
A
)
THREEPHASECURRENT

Iig. 12. IauIl currenl conlrilulion fron an induclion generalor vilh exlernaI rolor
resislance. Nole lhe fasler decay lhan in lhe nornaI induclion generalor case in Iigure 11.

Time(s)
10.000 10.050 10.100 10.150


-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
k
A
)
THREEPHASECURRENT

Iig. 13. IauIl currenl conlrilulion fron a doulIy fed induclion generalor (crov lar
operalion is nol sinuIaled).




Time(s)
Time(s)
Time(s)
www.intechopen.com
Renewable Energy 122

3.3 PV grid integration
Inlerconneclion of a 25O kW pholovoIlaic (IV) pover syslen in pIace of lhe vind lurline is
considered in lhis exanpIe. DelaiIed nodeIs of lhe IV array, pover converler and ils
conlroIIer vilh naxinun pover poinl lracking (MIIT) are used in lhe sinuIalion. The
syslen lehaviour under rapidIy changing soIar radialion inlensily is exanined. The
schenalic of lhe IV syslen in ISCAD/LMTDC is shovn in Iigure 14. Iigure 15 shovs lhe
varialion of lhe soIar radialion inlensily. The voIlage al lus 14 under lhe sinuIaled soIar
radialion varialion is shovn in Iigure 16. The reaI and reaclive pover oulpul of lhe IV
inverler is shovn in Iigure 17. The inverler oulpul currenl shovn in Iigure 18 is highIy
dislorled, and ils harnonic speclrun is shovn in Iigure 19. This dislorled currenl causes
voIlage dislorlion. The harnonics speclrun of lhe voIlage al lus 14 is shovn in Iigure 2O. If
lhe harnonic dislorlion is unacceplalIe, il is necessary lo inslaII a fiIler al lhe ICC of lhe IV
pover syslen.

gt1
gt2
gt3
gt4
gt5
gt6
1
Eab
Ebc
dc
3 5
2 6 4
1 3 5
2 6 4
a_grid
dcVltg
#1 #2
P = 0.2036
Q = -0.01998
V= 11
V
A
2e-4
8
0
0
0
0
5
1
0
0
0
0
5
T1
Vpv
con
0.01 [H]
V+
G
Tcell
V-
SolRad
CellTemp
pv


Iig. 14. Schenalic of lhe grid connecled IV syslen sinuIalion (for lhe sinpIicily, lhe ac
syslen is shovn as an equivaIenl source).

Time(s)
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0



0.4k
0.5k
0.6k
0.7k
0.8k
0.9k
1.0k
R
a
d
i
a
t
i
o
n
(
W
/
m
*
m
)
RADATON

Iig. 15. Varialion of lhe soIar radialin inlensily

Time(s)
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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 123


2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0



0.0
3.0
6.0
9.0
12.0
15.0
V
o
l
t
a
g
e


(
k
V
)
Vrms

Iig. 16. Varialion of lhe voIlage al lus 7
Time(s)
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0



0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
P
o
w
e
r

(
M
W
)
P
-0.100
-0.080
-0.060
-0.040
-0.020
0.000
R
e
a
c
t
i
v
e

P
o
w
e
r

(
M
V
A
r
)
Q

Iig. 17. ReaI and reaclive pover oulpul of lhe inverler
Time(s)
7.490 7.500 7.510 7.520 7.530 7.540 7.550 7.560 7.570



-0.0100
-0.0050
0.0000
0.0050
0.0100
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
k
A
)
THREEPHASECURRENT

Iig. 18. Inverler oulpul currenl
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Harmonic number
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
(
k
A
)

Iig. 19. Harnonic speclrun of lhe inverler currenl (IundanenlaI O.28 kA)




Time(s)
Time(s)
Time(s)
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Renewable Energy 124

0
0.004
0.008
0.012
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Harmonic number
V
o
I
t
a
g
e
(
k
V
)

Iig. 2O. Harnonic speclrun of lhe voIlage al lus 7 (IundanenlaI 7.43kV)

4. Integration of Iarge scaIe renewabIe energy generation

Large scaIe renevalIe energy lased generalion such as convenlionaI hydro, slean lurlines
operaled vilh lionass or geolhernaI energy use convenlionaI lechnoIogy lased on
synchronous generalors. UliIilies are veII experienced vilh lhis eslalIished lechnoIogy.
Hovever, inlerconneclion of Iarge scaIe vind farns poses enlireIy differenl sel of
chaIIenges, nainIy due lo lhe inlernillenl nalure of lhe vind and lhe desiraliIily for
varialIe speed operalion of lhe generalors.

4.1 Issues reIated to grid integration of Iarge wind farms
Recenl rapid grovlh of vind energy generalion has resuIled in lhe deveIopnenl of Iarge
vind farns vilh capacilies in excess of 1OO MW. Such Iarge scaIe vind farns are generaIIy
inlerconnecled lo lhe lransnission grid. In sone counlries Iike Cernany and Spain, lhe
inslaIIed vind generalion capacily has reached severaI lhousand negavalls and lhe
inslaIIed vind capacily is conlinuousIy increasing. Hovever, pover oulpul of lhe vind
generalors cannol le dispalched. Despile lhe advances in shorl-lern (and Iong-lern) vind
forecasling lechnoIogy, accurale forecasling of vind speed is difficuIl. Therefore, a
significanl spinning reserve and sland ly capacily is required lo cover lhe fIuclualions in
vind farn produclion. AIlhough lhe dislrilulion of vind farns over a vide geographic
area provides sone cushioning effecl, lhe possiliIily of sinuIlaneous Iov produclion fron
aII vind farns cannol le enlireIy ruIed oul.
During a dislurlance such as a shorl duralion voIlage dip caused ly a shorl circuil in lhe
high voIlage lransnission nelvork, severaI lhousand negavalls of vind generalion can gel
disconnecled depriving reaI pover lo lhe grid. Such a condilion can resuIl in serious
slaliIily prolIens vilhin lhe pover syslen. Thus, nev conneclion requirenenls for Iarge
vind farns have leen inlroduced ly nany syslen operalors. These nev conneclion
reguIalions such as fauIl ride lhrough capaliIilies conpeI vind lurlines lo have a
supporling effecl on grid operalion.
A lypicaI fauIl ride lhrough capaliIily requirenenl, expecled fron Iarge, nodern vind
farns is shovn in Iigure 21. Il specifies lhe line duralion lhal lhe vind farn is required lo
slay connecled, for differenl IeveIs of voIlage depressions. This is an allenpl lo ensure lhal
lhe vind farn is capalIe and ready lo suppIy pover lo lhe syslen innedialeIy afler
cIearing lhe fauIl lo nainlain syslen slaliIily.

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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 125













Iig. 21. TypicaI fauIl ride lhrough requirenenls. The acluaI fauIl ride lhrough curve can
vary depending on lhe lransnission operalor.

The 'slricl fauIl ride lhrough slandards presenls serious chaIIenges lo lhe vind lurline
syslen designer.

x During lhe fauIl, lhe pover lransfer capaliIily of lhe vind lurline generalor
(WTC) is dininished. This viII resuIl in nechanicaI over speeding of lhe nachine
and lhe lurline lIades. This viII pIace nechanicaI slress on lIades and lhe olher
rolaling parls.
x During lhe fauIl recovery period, depending on lhe generalor lechnoIogy
enpIoyed, lhe WTC nay drav increased anounls of reaclive pover fron lhe
syslen. This viII resuIl in a poor fauIl recovery response.
x The nalure and lhe nagnilude of lhe fauIl currenl conlrilulion fron lhe vind farn
depend on lhe WTC lechnoIogy. A good underslanding of lhis is necessary lo
design equipnenl ralings and for proleclion and conlroI sellings.
x Turline lIade pilch conlroI nusl le capalIe of reguIaling lhe inpul nechanicaI
pover. During fauIls, fasl pilch conlroI of lIades viII Iinil lhe nechanicaI over
speeding of rolaling eIenenls.
x AppIicalion of appropriale IACTS lased reaclive pover conpensalion devices can
heIp inprove lhe overaII perfornance of lhe vind farn.

The requirenenl of reaclive pover for voIlage supporl is one of lhe key issues reIaled lo
vind pover generalion. Mosl vind generalion syslens use induclion generalors. UnIike
synchronous nachines, induclion nachines do nol have reaclive pover conlroI capaliIily.
Inlerconneclion reguIalions require lhe vind farns lo nainlain lhe pover faclor vilhin a
narrov range, usuaIIy vilhin rO.95. If lhe vind generalors are nol capalIe of neeling lhis
requirenenl, dynanic reaclive supporl nusl le provided. UsuaIIy lhe reaclive pover
supporl is provided using a conlinalion of a capacilor lank and slalic var conpensalors
(SVCs)/STATCOM. The sudden disconneclion of lhe vind lurline generalors vhiIe lhe
capacilor lank is sliII connecled can resuIl in overvoIlage al lhe generalor lerninaIs. This is
a najor proleclion prolIen reIaled lo lhe Iarge vind farns.
The lype of reaclive pover conpensalion nelhod and devices used al a vind farn aIso
pIays an inporlanl roIe in lhe perfornance of lhe vind farn during lhe period innedialeIy
foIIoving lhe cIearance of a syslen fauIl. Reaclive pover capaliIily of a capacilor lank (and
vv
1






td'

td'

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Renewable Energy 126

SVCs) is direclIy reIaled lo lhe 'avaiIalIe lerninaI voIlage. Due lo lhis reason, capacilor
lanks have a degraded reaclive pover capaliIily during fauIl recovery vhen in facl, lheir
reaclive pover capaliIily is nosl needed. IACTS lased voIlage source converlers (e.g
STATCOM) does nol have lhis inherenl dravlack and is generaIIy lhe superior oplion,
pureIy fron a reaclive pover capaliIily poinl of viev. The seIeclion of lhe reaclive pover
conpensalion schene and ils conlroI slralegy nusl le carefuIIy evaIualed.
Synchronous condensers are anolher reaclive pover conpensalion oplion for Iarge vind
farns. They have a sIover response conpared lo a STATCOM, lul do provide inerlia lo lhe
syslen. This nay have advanlages, especiaIIy vhen inlerconnecling lo veak ac syslens
vilh dynanic slaliIily concerns.
Olher possilIe chaIIenges lhal require delaiIed invesligalion nay incIude:

x Turline pover eIeclronic design and conlroIIer oplinizalion
x The design of fiIlers and proleclion syslens
x Inleraclions lelveen nunerous lurlines
x IrolIens of vind farns connecled inlo series conpensaled syslens
x Iover quaIily issues incIuding voIlage fIicker
x Slarling and synchronizing of vind farns lo lhe grid.
x Sul synchronous resonance issues due lo inleraclion of lhe eIeclric nelvork and lhe
conpIex shafl/gear syslen of lhe vind lurline.

DelaiIed sludies, lased on eIeclronagnelic lransienl prograns is essenliaI lo idenlify
possilIe inlerconneclion issues and lo find oplinun soIulions.

4.2 ModeIing and simuIation requirements

4.2.1 Turbine characteristics
The pover lransferred ly lhe lurline lIades is given ly (1)

w p r mech
J C A p E O U (1)
w
r r
J
r :
O (2)
vhere C
p
is lhe pover coefficienl, is lhe pilch angIe, is lhe lip speed ralio, V
u
is lhe vind
speed,
r
is lhe rolor speed (on lhe Iov-speed side of lhe gearlox), r
r
is lhe rolor-pIane
radius, is lhe air densily and A
r
is lhe area svepl ly lhe rolor. The pover coefficienl, C
p
,
represenls lhe aerodynanic characlerislics of lhe lIade. Nole lhal in Iigure 22, C
p
is pIolled
as a funclion of lhe 'lip speed ralio. Tip speed ralio is a neasure of lhe reIalive speed of
vind conpared lo lhe rolalionaI speed of lhe lIades. The C
p
characlerislics can le aIlered
lhrough lIade pilch angIe (E) conlroI, lherely conlroIIing lhe anounl of nechanicaI pover
avaiIalIe lo lhe generalor for pover conversion. The exacl characlerislic of C
p
depends on
lhe parlicuIar design of lhe lIade. The funclion C
p
(,) can le approxinaled using anaIylicaI
equalions or delernined ly lesls.



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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 127












Iig. 22. TypicaI varialion of C
p
vilh vind speed

4.2.2 Turbine pitch controI
The conlroI syslen lhal orders lhe pilch angIe () and lhe response of lhe aclualors and
olher nechanicaI parls nay need lo le adequaleIy represenled in lhe sinuIalion sludy. Il
shouId le noled lhal due lo lhe Iarge inerlias invoIved (lurline lIades), lhe overaII response
of pilch conlroI is 'sIov and is in lhe order of a fev seconds.

4.2.3 Wind generator technoIogy
Mosl vind lurline generalors al presenl are lased on asynchronous generalors. Il is
advanlageous lo operale lhese nachines al varialIe speeds during Iov vind speed
condilions. To produce conslanl voIlage and frequency fron lhese asynchronous generalors
operaling al varialIe speed, lhey are oflen inlerfaced vilh lhe grid using various selups of
pover eIeclronics and conlroIs. The pover eIeclronic inlerface aIso aIIovs for olher
desiralIe fealures. The conlroIs are sophislicaled and conpIex.
Ior exanpIe lhey possess lhe capaliIily of conlroIIing lhe voIlage, reaI and reaclive pover
oulpul of lhe nachine vilhin sone design range, vhiIe neeling olher conslrainls such as
Iiniling lhe posilive pover ranp rale of lhe nachine. ConlroIIer design and sellings nusl
ensure Iov-voIlage ride-lhrough conpIiance. In lhe fulure, il is expecled lhal vind lurlines
vouId le alIe lo provide nore funclionaIilies such as advanced governor funclions and
conlroIIed ranp dovn during high vind speed evenls.
There are severaI vind generalor lechnoIogies vilh lhe nore connon WTC schenes leing,

x Induclion nachines direclIy connecled lo lhe grid vilh exlernaI reaclive pover
conpensalion
x Wound rolor induclion nachines vilh an exlernaI varialIe resislor in lhe rolor
circuil lo conlroI sIip (speed)
x DoulIy-fed induclion nachines, vhich enpIoy an ac-dc-ac converler lelveen lhe
slalor and rolor circuils
x ConvenlionaI or pernanenl nagnel synchronous nachines connecled lo lhe grid
lhrough a fuIIy-raled ac-dc-ac converler.

DelaiIed, high land vidlh nodeIs of nachines lhal does nol negIecl lhe slalor fIux
lransienls are required for delaiIed anaIysis of such evenls as
x slarling and synchronizalion vind generalors,
8 L C
1
O






E

E
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Renewable Energy 128

x accurale fauIl ride lhrough anaIysis
x DIIC conlroI and proleclion (crov lar elc.)
x VSC lased lack lo lack ac-dc-ac converler design incIuding dc Iine/calIe
resonance issues.

4.2.4 Power system modeI
LIeclronagnelic lransienl sinuIalions aIIov for accurale represenlalion of pover syslen
equipnenl. This nay incIude nonIinear core nodeIs of lransforners and reaclors, induclion
nolor and olher dynanic Ioads, overhead Iines and calIes considering inler-conduclor
nuluaI effecls, accurale represenlalion of pover eIeclronic svilching devices, IACTS
devices and aIso conlroI syslens.
In generaI, grid inlegralion requires underslanding lhe needs of lhe pover syslen,
knovIedge of nachine capaliIilies, and appIicalion knovIedge of lhe pover converler and
conlroI capaliIily lo pul lhe enlire piclure logelher. Thus a lypicaI sludy needs nodeIIing of
lhe grid, vind resource, vind lurline, generalor, pover eIeclronics, conlroIIers and
proleclion.

4.3 SimuIation exampIe
In lhis exanpIe, lhe appIicalion of an SVC lo enhance voIlage conlroI and syslen slaliIily is
denonslraled. The singIe Iine diagran of lhe high voIlage lransnission syslen used for lhe
sludy is shovn in Iigure23 |}iang el aI, 2OO5j.




















Iig. 23. High voIlage lransnission syslen nodeI.

A vind farn is connecled lo us 12. Ior lhis sludy, aII generalors in lhe vind farn are
represenled ly a singIe equivaIenl generalor. In order lo provide voIlage supporl, an SVC is
connecled al lus 6. A fauIl is appIied on lhe 23O kV lransnission Iine connecling us 1 and

G 1
G 2
G 4
G 3











SV
Wind
Iarn

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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 129

us 6. The fauIl is cIeared ly opening lhe Iine lreakers afler 9 cycIes. The response of lhe
vind generalors vilh and vilhoul lhe SVC in operalion is shovn in Iigs. 24 and 25. Il is
cIear lhal lhe vind farn is unslalIe for lhis fauIl if nol for lhe voIlage supporl fron lhe SVC.


3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0



0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
S
p
e
e
d

(
p
u
)
w

Iig. 24. Wilh lhe SVC in operalion, lhe generalor speed reaches a slalIe sleady slale upon
lhe renovaI of lhe fauIl


3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0



0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
S
p
e
e
d

(
p
u
)
w

Iig. 25. Wilhoul lhe SVC in operalion, lhe vind generalor is unslalIe.

5. ConcIusion

Various issues and chaIIenges lhal need lo le addressed in grid inlegralion of renevalIe
energy syslens are discussed. The najor concerns in inlerconneclion of lhe snaII scaIe
renevalIe energy generalion al lhe dislrilulion IeveI are reIaled lo proleclion, voIlage
conlroI and pover quaIily. The reserve requirenenls, reaclive pover requirenenls and lhe
grid supporl during lhe dislurlances are anong lhe najor issues lo le considered in grid
inlerconneclion of lhe Iarge vind farns. The inporlance of lhe sinuIalion looIs in grid
inlegralion sludies is denonslraled lhrough severaI case sludies.


Time(s)
Time(s)
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Renewable Energy 130

6. References

AIderfer, R. ., LIdridge, M. M. and Slarrs, T. }. (2OOO), Making Conneclions: Case Sludies of
Inlerconneclion arriers and lheir Inpacl on Dislriluled Iover Irojecls, Reporl
No. NRLL/SR-2OO-28O53, Na|icna| Rcncua||c |ncrgq |a|cra|crq, CoIden, CoIorado,
USA, May 2OOO.
arker, I. & de MeIIo, R.W. (2OOO), Delernining lhe Inpacl of Dislriluled Ceneralion on
Iover Syslens: Iarl 1- RadiaI Iover Syslens, Prcc. |||| Pcucr |ng. Scc. Summcr
Mcc|ing, pp.1645-1658, }uIy 2OOO.
orleIy, A.M. & Kreider, }.I. (2OOO), Dislriluled Ceneralion, Tnc Pcucr Paraigm fcr |nc Ncu
Mi||cnnium, LLC: CRC Iress, 2OOO.
Dugan, . & McDernoll, T. (2OO2) Dislriluled Ceneralion: Operaling ConfIicls for
Dislriluled Ceneralion Inlerconnecled vilh UliIily Dislrilulion Syslen, ||||
|nus|rq App|ica|icns Magazinc, March/ApriI 2OO2, pp: 19-25.
Iadaeinedjad, R., MoschopouIos, C. & MoaIIen, M. (2OO9), The Inpacl of Tover Shadov,
Yav Lrror, and Wind Shears on Iover QuaIily in a Wind-DieseI Syslen, ||||
Transac|icns cn |ncrgq Ccntcrsicn, VoI. 24, No. 1, March 2OO9, pp: 1O2-111.
Ireilas, W., Huang, Z. & Xu W.(2OO5), A IraclicaI Melhod for Assessing lhe Lffecliveness of
Veclor Surge ReIays for Dislriluled Ceneralion AppIicalions, |||| Transac|icns On
Pcucr Dc|itcrq, VoI. 2O, No. 1, }anuary 2OO5, pp: 57-63.
Ireilas, W., WiIsun Xu, Affonso, C.M. & Zhenyu, Huang (2OO5), Conparalive anaIysis
lelveen ROCOI and veclor surge reIays for dislriluled generalion appIicalions,
|||| Transac|icns cn Pcucr Dc|itcrq, ApriI 2OO5. pp: 1315 - 1324.
Hung, Cuo-Kiang., Chang, Chih-Chang & Chen, Chern-Lin (2OO3), Aulonalic Ihase-Shifl
Melhod for IsIanding Deleclion of Crid-Connecled IholovoIlaic Inverlers, ||||
Transac|icns On |ncrgq Ccntcrsicn, VoI. 18, No. 1, March 2OO3, pp: 169-173.
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Syslens, Sld. 1547-2OO3.
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reporl of lhe ILLL, Pcucr Sqs|cm Rc|aq Ccmmi||cc Icr|ing Grcup D3, Augusl 2OO4.
}enkins, N., AIIan, R., CrossIey, I., Kirschen, D. & Slrlac, C. (2OOO), Lnledded Ceneralion,
||| Pcucr an |ncrgq Scrics 13, 2OOO.
}iang, S., Annakkage, U.D. & CoIe, A. M. (2OO5) , A pIalforn for vaIidalion of IACTS
nodeIs, |||| Trans. Pcucr Dc|itcrq, VoI. 2O, No.4, Ocloler 2OO5.
Kane, I.O. & Iox, . (1997), Loss of Mains Deleclion for Lnledded Ceneralion ly Syslen
Inpedance Moniloring DeveIopnenls in Iover Syslen Iroleclion, ||| Ccnfcrcncc
Pu||ica|icn Nc. 434, 25-27lh March 1997, pp: 95-98.
Lopes, }.A.I. (2OO2), Inlegralion of dispersed generalion on dislrilulion nelvorks inpacl
sludies, |||| Pcucr |nginccring Sccic|q Iin|cr Mcc|ing, VoI. 1, pages 323328, 2OO2.
Mozina, C.}. (2OO1), Inlerconneclion proleclion of III generalors al connerciaI/induslriaI
faciIilies, |||| Transac|icns cn |nus|rq App|ica|icns, pp 681-688, 2OO1.
Ielers, R.R., Mulhununi, D., arleI, T., SaIehfar, H. & Mann, M. (2OO6), Dynanic nodeI
deveIopnenl of a fixed speed slaII conlroI vind lurline al slarl-up, |||| Pcucr
|nginccring Sccic|q Gcncra| Mcc|ing, pp: }une 2OO6, pp: 1-7.
Redfern, M. A., Usla, O. & IieIding, C. (1993), Iroleclion Againsl Loss Of UliIily Crid
SuppIy Ior A Dispersed Slorage And Ceneralion Unil, |||| Transac|icns cn Pcucr
Dc|itcrq, VoI. 8, No. 3, }uIy 1993, pp: 948-954.
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Grid ntegration of Renewable Energy Systems 131

Ropp, M. L. , egovic, M. & Rohalgi, A. (1999), AnaIysis and Ierfornance Assessnenl of lhe
Aclive Irequency Drifl Melhod of IsIanding Irevenlion, |||| Transac|icns cn
|ncrgq Ccntcrsicn, VoI. 14, No. 3, Seplenler 1999, pp: 81O-816.
Rudion, K., Orlhs, A., Slyczynski, Z. & Slrunz K.,(2OO5), Design of lenchnark of nediun
voIlage dislrilulion nelvork for invesligalion of DC inlegralion, Prcc. Ccnfcrcncc cn
|nc |nncta|icns, ConnerciaI AppIicalions and ReguIalory Iranevorks of
Dislriluled Ceneralion. Novenler 3O, Decenler 1-2, 2OO5, oslon, USA.
Uchida, A., Walanale,S. & Ivanolo, S. (2OO6), A VoIlage ConlroI Slralegy for Dislrilulion
Nelvorks vilh Dispersed Ceneralions, Prccccing cf |||| - P|S Gcncra| Mcc|ing,
pp. 1-6, Tanpa, IIorida, USA, }une 2OO7.
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Renewable Energy 132
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Renewable Energy
Edited by T J Hammons
ISBN 978-953-7619-52-7
Hard cover, 580 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 01, December, 2009
Published in print edition December, 2009
InTech Europe
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Renewable Energy is energy generated from natural resources-such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and
geothermal heat-which are naturally replenished. In 2008, about 18% of global final energy consumption came
from renewables, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, such as wood burning. Hydroelectricity was the
next largest renewable source, providing 3% (15% of global electricity generation), followed by solar hot
water/heating, which contributed with 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy, wind power,
solar power, and ocean energy together provided some 0.8% of final energy consumption. The book provides
a forum for dissemination and exchange of up-to-date scientific information on theoretical, generic and
applied areas of knowledge. The topics deal with new devices and circuits for energy systems, photovoltaic
and solar thermal, wind energy systems, tidal and wave energy, fuel cell systems, bio energy and geo-energy,
sustainable energy resources and systems, energy storage systems, energy market management and
economics, off-grid isolated energy systems, energy in transportation systems, energy resources for portable
electronics, intelligent energy power transmission, distribution and inter-connectors, energy efficient utilization,
environmental issues, energy harvesting, nanotechnology in energy, policy issues on renewable energy,
building design, power electronics in energy conversion, new materials for energy resources, and RF and
magnetic field energy devices.
How to reference
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Athula Rajapakse, Dharshana Muthumuni and Nuwan Perera (2009). Grid Integration of Renewable Energy
Systems, Renewable Energy, T J Hammons (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-7619-52-7, InTech, Available from:
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