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By Tom Arnold
Definitions
Pore Pressure - The pressure of the fluids within the pores of a reservoir, usually hydrostatic
pressure, or the pressure exerted by a column of water from the formations depth to sea level.
an abnormal pressure zone that is usually highly mineralized and well cemented with salt, calcite, anhydrite, etc.
Mud Weight -
Is the measure of the density of the drilling fluid which controls the hydrostatic pressure in the bore hole. The drilling fluid is the medium which keeps formation fluids from entering the well bore.
Casing seat - The lowest point at which the casing is set. It is usually the WEAKEST place in
the hole in terms of the pressure needed to fracture the formation.
Overburden Stress -Pressure exerted on a point from the material over lying it. Hydrostatic Pressure - Relates to the pressure exerted by a fluid at a given depth. Swab - Pressure reduction in the well bore Surge - Pressure increase in the well bore
due to pulling the pipe. This can cause formation fluids to be sucked into the well bore starting the well to flow and creating a kick. due to running the pipe into the hole. If the surge is high enough, the fracture pressure can be exceeded and an under-ground blow-out is possible.
Depth (TVD)
Transition Zone
Psuedoplastic Formations
Abnormal pore pressures are generated under rapid deposition because the shale matrix cant support the overburden stress. Trapped water doesnt have enough time to escape under these circumstances and is still helping support the overburden.
Artesian Aquifer
Aquifer recharge is from an elevation higher than the drilling location causing a very high formation pressure encountered at a shallow depth.
Formation Pressure = (Total Vertical Displacement * .465 psi/ft * 19.23 )/ Depth of encounter
3000
7000
10000
Salt dome intrusions create situations where beds pressured at lower depths are pushed higher in the subsurface. Such situations will create underpressured zones. Pressures here are determined in the same manner as those in uplift and erosion discussed earlier.
6000 ft
The Bakken Field of the Williston Basin is a typical example of a locally overpressured oil reservoir. The dense organic shale source rock has a central silty-sand interval that forms a reservoir. Local oil generation creates higher formation pressure and is the reason for the large overpressures of more than 14 ppg. at only 9800 feet. Normal would be 8.33 ppg.
8000 ft
11000 ft
Thick impermeable beds of shale or salt restrict the movement of water. These are called transition zones and should be watched carefully while drilling! Below such beds abnormal pressure may be found.
When crossing a fault it is possible to go from normal pressure to abnormal pressure in a short interval. Faults also will often leak pressures into other formations causing another potential hazard.
Underground Blow-Out
{Fractured Formation}
Here we see a formation charged with high formation pressure from a much deeper formation in an offset well. This is clearly human induced abnormal formation pressure!
Depth
Pressure
Often you will find a delicate balance between balancing the mud weight with the pore pressure and keeping the ECD below the fracture pressure at the casing seat or some other weak formation encountered while drilling.
Connection and trip gas are introduced into the mud by swabbing or just by the reduction in total annulus back pressure when the pump is stopped. Any increase in either of these types of gas should be watched carefully. It may be the result of abnormally high formation pressure. Both gases will show an increasing trend when entering abnormally high formation pressure.
Shale density is one of the most reliable and best of the abnormal pressure detection methods. It is based on the assertion that the fluids and gas trapped between the shale platlets decrease the density of the cutting. Look at the plot below. There is a marked decrease in the density of the
Where: CH = chlorides in ppm T = mud temperature in Deg F from a probe R = mud resistivity from a probe
NaCL = Ch * 1.65
Example for a computer or calculator: Temp = 175 R = .05 71072.3 PPM = ( ( (175 / .05 ^ -1.0185) / 201315.6) ^ (1 / -.971692) * 1.65)
Putting It Together
Here is a typical response of several pressure indicators through a transition zone and into abnormal pressure.
Temperature
Chloride ppm
Total Gas
Pore Pressure
Transition Zone
Pits
Differential Pressure is the difference between wellbore pressure and pore pressure.
Disastrous!
Transition
Trend lines are plotted on semi log paper by increasing depth: 1=100. Divisions are labeled according to the type of measure.
Trend lines are KEY in evaluation of d exponent, Normalized Rate of Penetration, and other prediction methods!
Indicator d Exponent
The theoretical base for the quantitative method for abnormal pressure detection using drill rate and engineering mechanics is:
W R K3 N d b
Where: R = Penetration Rate K = Formation Drilliability N = Rotary Speed W = Weight on Bit b = Bit Diameter d = Weight on Bit Exponent (d-exponent)
Indicator d Exponent
R log 60 N d log 12W 6 10 D R ft/hr N rpm d d exponent W Bit Weight , lbf D Bit Diameter, in
The d-exponent normalizes R for any variations in W, db and N Under normal compaction, R should decrease with depth. This would cause d to increase with depth. Any deviation from the trend could be caused by abnormal pressure. Mud weight also affects R.. An adjustment to d may be made: d c = d ( r n / r c) where dc = exponent corrected for mud density rn = normal pore pressure gradient rc = effective mud density in use
Indicator d Exponent
Example
While drilling in a Gulf Coast shale, R = 50 ft/hr W = 20,000 lb N = 100 RPM ECD = 10.1 ppg
(ECD)
D = 8.5 in
Calculate d and dc
Indicator d Exponent
Plotted example of d exponent data in the table.
Normal dx Trend Line
Notice how the dx breaks left from the normal trend line indicating the transition zone.
Indicator d Exponent
How to determine the Pore Pressure from the dx trend line shift.
Normal hard rock gradient = .465 psi./ft. Normal dx trend = 1.18 Observed dx = .95 gp = gn (dcn/dco) gp = 0.465 * (1.18/.95) 0.95 1.18
gp = 0.578 psi/ft
rp = 0.578/0.052
rp = 11.1 ppg
Indicator d Exponent
This is a pore pressure overlay. A copy is available for download from the PML training web site. When creating a pore pressure plot be carful that the scale is correct for the graph paper being used. Plot using 1=1000. Be sure the slope is correct for normal trends. You must also be sure that the overlay is correct for the formation.
Indicator d Exponent
Improvements in Pore Pressure prediction.
Try to keep the weight and rpm relatively constant when making measurements Use donwhole (MWD) bit weights when these are available. (Friction drag in directional wells can cause LARGE errors. Add geological interpretation when possible. Keep in mind that tooth wear can greatly influence penetration rates. Use common sense and engineering judgment.
PR ~
HHP = M AND AVERAGE VALUES OF DEPTH M 0-90005000 lbs. .6 9000- 11000 0 lbs. PR ~ Sp .6 11000-25000 5000 lbs. .6
Pr = Penetration Rate W = Weight on Bit M = Weight on bit exponent N = Rotary Speed (rpm) PB = Pressure Drop at Bit Q = Flow Rate (gpm) = Rotary Exponent Note: Values subscripted n refer to normal Values Subscripted o refer to actual or observed values.
NROP Example
NORMAL CONDITIONS Wn = 30000 Lbs. Nn = 150 RPM PBn= 1500 psi Qn = 250 gpm OBSERVED CONDITIONS - PRo = 16 FT/HR Wo = 35000 Lbs. No = 175 RPM PBo = 1300 psi Qo = 210 RPM
PRn = 16 X
NROP vs DEPTH
The vertical scale (ordinate) is for depth and should be linear. It should be the same as the depth scale on any correlation logs being utilized.
NOTE: The normalized penetration rate plot is an excellent lithology log and is very useful for geologic correlation. Normalized penetration rates for each interval are plotted, and the points connected to create a continuous curve.
Utilizing the extrapolated dulling trend to determine the penetration rate which would have occurred if the formation pressure had not changed, yields 13.5 ft/hr.
%DECREASE =
X 100
X 100
%DECREASE =
-10.98%
The negative % decrease means drilling is proceeding at a rate faster than would be expected at zero differential pressure. This means drilling is underbalanced. The formation pressure is greater than the ECD.
-160 psi
X 19.23
X 19.23
Plotted Example
Following along with the example plot a deviation from the dulling trend is noted to occur at approximately 10100 ft. This penetration rate is seen to be higher than expected according to the dulling trend, reflecting an increase in formation pressure. The calculation of the magnitude of formation pressure is made at 10200 ft. where an actual penetration rate of 27 ft/hr is observed.
Conclusion
This procedure, with the special considerations discussed, can be utilized to maintain differential pressure at a desired value throughout the drilling of a well. Mud weights can be properly maintained, casing points located, differential sticking and lost circulation minimized, and penetration rates maximized, all without the necessity of prior knowledge of the Geologic section or Geographic area. However, the most attractive aspect of this procedure, in the author's viewpoint, is the large response to relative small increases in formation pressures. There should never again be heard "We got kicked and none of our indicators showed anything - we got no warning at all".