2011

Surface Structure

Surface Structure
Different Types of Surface Structure

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Contents
No. 1. 2. Topics Introduction Characteristics & Types Membrane Structure History & Invention Behavior of Membrane Structure Mathematical Design Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) Membrane Structure Boundary Details Load Resolution in Membrane Structure Surface Model Comparison Plate Structure History & Invention Behavior of Plate Structure Shell Structure History & Invention Behavior of Plate Structure Construction of desired curved surfaces Dynamic features of lattice-type shell structure Vibration attenuating performance Closed and Open Shell Structure Summary of the Report References Page No. 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 14 14 15 15 16 17

3.

4.

5. 6.

BEC 202

Page 1

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Introduction of Surface Structure:

In civil engineering, structures where the dominant loading is usually substantially static are the most common cause of collapse is a buckling failure. Buckling may occur locally in a manner that may or may not trigger collapse of the entire structure, such as outstanding flanges, in flange or web plates compression members, or in the web or compression flange of girders. Surface structure is the structure made from thin materials that have been stretched or curved or folded to gain strength. The structures are means of transferring forces and moments. The structures may be classified as statistically determinate structures and statistically indeterminate structures. When the equations of statistics are enough to determine all the forces acting on the structures, in the structures, then, the structures are known as statistically determinate structures. When the equations of statistical equilibrium are not sufficient to determine all forces acting on the structure and in the structures, then the structures are known as Statistically Indeterminate Structures. Characteristics & Types of Surface Structure: Generally, surface structures consider the nature and tensile or compressive strength of their member since they support load primarily in tension or compression. They are usually shaped like cylinders or folded plates and are basically called thin plates or shells. Membrane or thin structures: these usually referred to structural members made of thin membrane fibers made of fiber glass. Membrane structures carry load primary through tensile stresses. Pre-stressing can be either by compression members, pressurized gases, fluids, foundations or counter-stressing members. Thin elements are typically curved and are assembled to large structures. They are used mostly for roof structures since they are economical and can greatly improve the aesthetics of a building and span over large areas. Shell structures: these are thin rigid, curved & lightweight elements similar to those of thin structures but are made of other materials like steel, wood, concrete etc. These structures have different element types like hyperboloid structures, geodesic domes, etc. Plate Structures: plate structures are also light weight and thin elements that are curved. They are made of thin plate elements that are assembled to form large structures

Shells Structure

Membrane Structure

Plate Structure

BEC 202

Page 2

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Types of Surface Structure 1. Membrane Structure: Membrane structures offer an aesthetic, practical, and cost-effective way to provide roofing to either new or existing areas. These shade supporting structures have been put into use for most part of the twentieth century and have found wide spread applications including, sports facilities, convention centers, concert halls, shade roofs of large commercial buildings, airport roofs, gas stations and terminals, to mention only a few. The membrane part in the structure is pre-stressed and thus enables the structure to maintain its form. Two types of shapes are found in Membrane structures. The first type is the anticlastic structures with two double curvatures in the opposite direction while the second is a synclastic structures with the double curvatures in the same direction. Anticlastic structures can take a variety of shapes and forms including, the arched vault, hyper and cone. Technically speaking a Membrane structure is a combination of elements, which carry only tension and no compression or bending. This is the reason why the use of compression rings or beams, that form the bending or compression elements, is used in most tensile structures.

The semi-translucent nature of fabric structures is what makes them a favorite with engineers and architects looking for roofing systems to cover large areas, such as sports stadia or terminals. Fabric structures help in increasing the sustainability quotient of a building in more ways than one. The fabric allows for entry of natural light, while cutting down the transmission of heat. The high reflectivity of the membrane makes it an ideal alternative to glass as a roof glazing system. Tension membrane structures are usually reinforced using either PVC /Polyester or PTFE based coatings. This makes the fabric structure perform well from the fire performance perspective too. For example, a tension membrane structure with PTFE coating is rated noncombustible as per ASTM 136, making them completely safe. Additionally the inert nature of the fabric aids in self-cleaning, a characteristic which makes them perfectly suited for application over large areas.

BEC 202

Page 3

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

History & Invention of Membrane Structure: This form of construction has only become more rigorously analyzed and widespread in large structures in the latter part of the twentieth century. Tensile structures have long been used in tents, where the guy ropes provide pre-tension to the fabric and allow it to withstand loads. Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov was one of the first to develop practical calculations of stresses and deformations of tensile structures, shells and membranes. Shukhov designed eight tensile structures and thin-shell structures exhibition pavilions for the Nizhny Novgorod Fair of 1896, covering the area of 27,000 square meters. A more recent large-scale use of a membrane-covered tensile structure is the Sidney Myer Music Bowl, constructed in 1958. The concept was later championed by German architect and engineer Frei Otto, whose first use of the idea was in the construction of the German pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. Otto next used the idea for the roof of the Olympic Stadium for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich.

To be considered a true membrane, a structure must satisfy the following conditions, summarized from Ventsel and Krauthammer (2001): 1) The boundaries are free from transverse shear forces and moments. Loads applied to the boundaries must lie in planes tangent to the middle surface. 2) The normal displacements and rotations at the edges are unconstrained: that is, these edges can displace freely in the direction of the normal to the middle surface. 3) A membrane must have a smoothly varying, continuous surface. 4) The components of the surface and edge loads must also be smooth and continuous functions of the coordinates. From these four basic assumptions, we arrive at two (related) characterizations of Membranes, namely: Membranes do not have any flexural rigidity, and therefore cannot resist any bending loads. Membranes can only sustain tensile loads. Their inability to sustain compressive loads leads to the phenomenon known as wrinkling.

BEC 202

Page 4

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Behavior of Membrane Structure: Roofing and Cladding with tension membrane structures, it is possible to have both the roofing and cladding in one single structural element. Typically the seam and curve of the fabric structure that reflects the tension is aesthetically pleasing, while also being important for the structural integrity. Due to the integration of the roofing and cladding, the structures are also easy to clean and maintain, when compared to glaze glass roofing. The roof, in the case of tensile membrane structures is factory welded and therefore easy to install, apart from acting as a weatherproof skin that does not contain expansion joints. All these factors enable rapid construction and coverage of large areas. Span Capabilities an excellent span capability is another factor that puts fabric ahead of other materials. While every other possible roofing material requires rigid intermediate support, it is not the case with fabric structures. The fabric can span from one boundary to another in one unbroken (sweep). This ensures that there are no sealing related issues that need to be addressed. The amazing tensile capacity of fabric helps to reduce the number of components that make up the supporting framework to a minimum, thus enabling a structure that is much more light-weighted when compared to other types of construction. On the flip side though, the structures incorporating the concept need large foundations in order to prevent wind currents lifting the canopy. This factor is offset by the fact that in terms of cost foundations are cheaper to prepare, than the visible above ground construction components that are exposed to the vagaries of weather and therefore, more prone to damage.

BEC 202

Page 5

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Mathematical Design To understand if any differences were introduced into the roof between the original design drawing and the finished structure, two kinds of models are investigated and compared. The first one is the mathematical model, which is drawn by a structural engineer in the design stage. All the details of the structure, including the supporting steelwork and the membrane surface, are enclosed in the drawing file.

Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) The second model is derived by applying terrestrial laser scanning, which allows the rapid collection of millions of precisely sampled 3D points of the object (Gordon et al., 2001), forming the basis of a 3D model. In this project a Leica HDS 2500 terrestrial laser scanner was used to acquire the as-built model of the membrane structure. The scanner, with a quoted single-point accuracy of +/- 6mm, gives a 40 by 40 field of view in the horizontal and vertical directions. To completely cover the membrane surface being tested, it was necessary to scan the roof from five scanner stations beneath the structure.

BEC 202

Page 6

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Surface Model Comparison To make the matching more efficient, a coarse transformation of the mathematical model to the laser scanned model was implemented before being processed in 3D Surf. The four of the two membrane surfaces were selected as common points to compute parameters, and the original mathematical model was transformed accordingly. As there should be no change in scale, the scale factor should be fixed to unity. However, the units in the mathematical model were millimeters but meters in the terrestrial laser scanned model. The scale factor was therefore set as 0.001. Parameters for transformation before running 3D Surf. The transformed mathematical model and laser scanned model were then input into 3D Surf. Once convergence was reached, a total of 12 666 points, evenly distributed across the surface, were used to calculate the residuals Load Resolution in Membrane Structures: Canopies fall into two main types, those that transfer tensile loads into adjoining structures and those containing the tensile loads within their own frame. The first type may generate large lateral loads which may result in the need for additional in existing structures. Likewise a typical lightweight canopy with masts and cable tie backs to the ground level will generally need large concrete foundations or screw anchors to resist the tensile loads. As part of the preliminary design process a provisional load analysis derived from a computer modal will give typical loads directions and size of the design loads. Membrane Structure Boundary Details: The boundary of the membrane is divided into two categories: Curved/scalloped edge- This generally consists of a cable slid through a pocket on the edge of the membrane. In larger canopies webbing belts are added parallel to the edge to take out the shear loads. An alternative detail used for PTFE canopies is to an exposed cable connected to the clamped edge of the membrane by series of stainless steel link plates. Straight edge- The membrane would have a bead/keder edge formed by sealing a flexible PVC rod in a small pocket. This can then be trapped behind an aluminum clamp plate bolted directly onto the structural steel work or slid into an aluminum luff track extrusion. Canopies can be tensioned by hydraulically jacking the mast with the base being housed in a sand pot or the mast can be extended with a telescopic section. Corners can be pulled out with rigging screws, U bolts or by the shortening the perimeter mast ties back cables. Individual scallops can be tensioned by shortening the edge cable where the swaged studs connect onto the membrane plate. A very common detail is to pull panels into parallel luff tracks and tension by drawing out the corner plate that slides inside the luff track.

BEC 202

Page 7

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

2. Plate Structure: Folded-plate roof structures have become widely used in recent years and several acceptable methods for analyzing such structures have been developed. In addition, several experimental studies have been reported which indicate satisfactory agreement between measured and predicted values of strains (and, by inference, stresses) induced in such structures by the presence of transverse applied loads. In general, these theoretical and experimental studies were motivated by a desire to pro- vide information which would enable a practicing engineer to predict the "safe" load-carrying capacity of an arbitrary folded-plate structure based upon its geometry and its support conditions and upon the stress-strain characteristics of the material used in its fabrication. Because information concerning the possibility of local or general instability of transversely loaded, folded-plate structures has hitherto been lacking, it has not ordinarily been possible in the past to attempt a rational analysis of buckling strength in making a prediction of "safe" carrying capacity. Folded structures have a long tradition in construction. A common example for an application is shed roofs for production or stocking buildings. The particularity of folded structures is the additional rigidity due to the inertia introduced by erecting the surfaces. Plate Structure are widely used as a structural system for roofing large floor areas which are to be unobstructed by the presence of interior column supports. Techniques for the analysis of such structures for stress, deformation and carrying capacity are well known; however, information concerning the possibility of local or general buckling of such structures is lacking.

BEC 202

Page 8

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

History & Invention of Plate Structure: In American Revolution time period Euler performing free vibration analyses of plate problems (Euler, 1766). Chladni, a German physicist, performed experiments on horizontal plates to quantify their vibratory modes. He sprinkled sand on the plates, struck them with a hammer, and noted the regular patterns that formed along the nodal lines (Chladni, 1802). Bernoulli then attempted to theoretically justify the experimental results of Chladni using the previously developed Euler-Bernoulli bending beam theory, but his results did not capture the full dynamics (Bernoulli, 1789). The French mathematician Germain developed a plate differential equation that lacked a warping term (Germain, 1826), but one of the reviewers of her work, Lagrange (1828), corrected Germains results; thus, he was the first person to present the general plate equation properly Kirchhoffs hypotheses are fundamental assumptions in the development of linear, elastic, small-deflection theory for the bending of thin plates. These assumptions are restated here from Ventsel and Krauthammer (2001): 1. The material of the plate is elastic, homogenous, and isotropic. 2. The plate is initially flat. 3. The deflection (the normal component of the displacement vector) of the midlines small compared with the thickness of the plate. The slope of the deflected surface is therefore very small and the square of the slope is a negligible quantity in comparison with unity. 4. The straight lines, initially normal to the middle plane before bending, remain straight and normal to the middle surface during the deformation, and the length of such elements is not altered. This means that the vertical shear strains xy and yz are negligible and the normal strain (z) may also be omitted. 5. The stress normal to the middle plane, z, is small compared with the other stress components and may be neglected in the stress-strain relations. 6. Since the displacements of the plate are small, it is assumed that the middle surface remains unstrained after bending. These points, 1 6, are the foundation for plate bending theory that is usually referred to as the classical or Kirchhoffs plate theory.

BEC 202

Page 9

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Behavior of Membrane Structure: As mentioned above, folded structures are not restricted to any particular material. On the other hand, there has been a relatively new product on the market for a little over a decade. Its name has not yet been definitively determined. It is referred to as cross glued timber panels, massif timber panels or massif wood boards. These panels are widely used in timber housing construction. Here they replace traditional 4 x 4 framework constructions. To understand the aim of this simulation was to know and better understand the internal forces at the edges for which the joints and assemblies must be designed and developed. Furthermore, it was important to examine the presumption that the internal forces in the panels surface might be of less importance in the global view of the entire structure. Since the simulation was effected in three dimensions with the idea to calculate exactly the given design, there were theoretically six internal forces into which the results could be divided. A differentiation between the edges and the surface was made, because some items were of less importance at the edge and others of less importance in the surface. In particular, there were three forces at the edges: Fx (axis parallel to the edge) Fy (axis perpendicular to the edge and within its surface) Fz (axis perpendicular to the edge and perpendicular to the surface) And three moments at the edges: Mx (around the above-mentioned x-axis parallel to the edge) My (around the above-mentioned y-axis perpendicular to the edge and within the panels surface) Mz (around the above-mentioned y-axis perpendicular to the edge and perpendicular to the surface) From these six forces actually present, only three were further examined and analysed. The other three forces were considered less interesting further to the following studies that justified not taking them into account: 1. Fx the panels have bearings at all four edges, i.e. the four neighbor panels. Since there is close contact between each element, a movement parallel to the edge will, in the first instance, be blocked by contact before any assemblers are activated. 2. My this type of moment plays an inferior role because of the folding at each edge. It cannot be neglected entirely, because the destruction of the prototype showed that panels moved in a way revolving around their y-axes. 3. Mz this movement is blocked in the same way a movement along the x-axis is blocked. Concerning the form, the architect delivered the design, and two geometries were analysed. The first one is a repetition of ten arcs that form a symmetrical structure with two planes of symmetry.

BEC 202

Page 10

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Since first preliminary calculations and the prototype showed large deflections on the structures extremities, i.e. the non-supported ends at the gables, a second variant was adapted where the panels towards the edges were more inclined, with the intention of augmenting the vertical inertia of the folding. In this case, only half the structure was modeled, because a decision was taken to only apply symmetric loads, whereas a full modeling involves increased work and time without yielding more precise results. For each type, three parameters were varied: 1. The distance between the connectors 2. The thickness of the metal plate 3. The angle between the surfaces The experiments were designed following the method of designed experiments, which guarantees a maximum of information obtained with minimal cost, time and material. The tested joints showed: Bi-directional behavior, i.e. the rigidity differed for the two possible moment directions Plastic deformation behavior Ductile fracture behavior In any particular model test, the reflected lines were initially straight and parallel to one another before load was applied to the specimen. As the load was applied, the reflected lines remained parallel to one another until the buckling load was reached. At the buckling load, the reflected lines began, quite suddenly, to spread apart at the trough of the buckle wave and to move together at the crest. This pattern became more accentuated as the applied load was increased beyond the initial buckling load.

BEC 202

Page 11

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

3. Shells Structure: The shell structures are rigid curved surface structures. They are built of sheets or plates. The shell roof coverings for large building, planes, airplanes, railroads, cars, ship bulls, tanks etc. are the examples of shell structures. For lattice-like structures comprising shell-type frames, use has been made of solid truss, rigid joint structural members and cage structure type steel frames in which steel frame members are removable and fixedly connected to each other at respective intersection points, and necessary portions of these steel frame members are tensioned by fastening rods. These structures must be assembled according to a predetermined configuration, and, like the shell of the truss structure, have basically little freedom in the formation of curved surfaces. Structures of a type using cables are complicated and require means for fixing cables to roof members, or the like. Conventional shells of the general solid truss structure require great accuracy in the dimension of each member, and involve problems of economic assembly. The present invention provides improvements over such prior art shell structures. Shells can be made of almost any material cold formed steel, wood, reinforced concrete, plastics. Structures made of short, rigid bars of wood or steel are technically not shell structures since they are not surface elements, however, their structural behavior can still be conceptualized in this fashion. Shells can be defined as curved structures capable of transmitting loads in more than two directions to supports. Loads applied to shell surfaces are carried to the ground by the development of compressive, tensile, and shear stresses acting in the in-plane direction of the surface. Thin shell structures are uniquely suited to carrying distributed loads and find wide application as roof structures in building. They are, however, unsuitable for carrying concentrated loads.

BEC 202

Page 12

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

History & Invention of Shell Structures: During the early twentieth century, planetariums became very popular in Europe and the U.S. The Carl Zeiss Company of Germany was one of the leading manufacturers of the machinery that produced the sky shows. The problem in the early 1900s was that the quality of the space used for viewing rarely matched the quality of the projector. Thus, The Carl Zeiss Company sought a high-quality dome design that could be produced efficiently. Zeiss hired engineers, Dyckerhoff and Widmann, who created the solution known as the Zeiss Dywidag System. This system was patented in the U.S. and licensed to the Roberts & Schaefer Company in Chicago, which employed the structural engineer. In accordance with the invention claimed, an improved shell surface construction or covering is provided that utilizes as its basic building block an elongated, substantially rectangular strip. The strips are of constant width and are modified at their ends to trapezoidal form permitting their assembly using joints at the ends and overlapping side joints along the long edges of the strips. It is, therefore, one object of the present invention to provide an improved shell structure. Another object of the invention is to provide a means for initially subdividing the spherical surface into spherical triangular sectors that lend themselves to the application of the construction or covering method of the invention. A further object of the invention is to provide an improved method for further subdividing a spherical triangular sector beyond that realized in geodesic dome construction. A still further object of the invention is to provide a means for enlarging the overall size of the structure so that large multi-sided shells can be constructed. A still further object of the invention is to provide a means of construction that can be applied to originally flat strips of material having essentially parallel edges. Still further object of this invention is to provide a shell design that is cost-effective in terms of materials and constructional labor. Object of this invention is to permit the realization of heating and cooling efficiencies which may result from domical shell structures. Another object of the invention is to use the fewest number of simple, standard shapes of constructional materials. Yet another object of this invention is to provide a constructional means for taking full advantage of elastic theory as set forth for thin-wall shell structures. Further objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent as the following description proceeds and the features of novelty which characterize the invention will be pointed out with particularity in the claims annexed to and forming a part of this specification.

BEC 202

Page 13

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Behavior of Shell Structures: Support conditions in both shells of revolution (spherical) and shells of translation (cylindrical) are a major design consideration. Some device must be employed to gather forces at the lower edges of the shell. In domes, common methods include circular buttressing systems or a tension ring. Cylindrical shells are usually supported by edge beams. A consequence of carrying loads by in-plane forces (primarily tension and compression) is that shell structures can be very thin in comparison to their spans. Span to thickness ratios of 400 or 500 are not uncommon. (e.g. A 3 in. thickness is possible for domes spanning 100-125 ft.) Reinforced concrete has become the ideal material used for these types of three dimensional surfaces; however, they may also be made of assemblies of short, rigid bars. In concrete structures, the careful laying and specification of reinforcement is key to the success of the structure. 1. Construction of desired curved surfaces. Since the shell structure is formed by a plurality of strip members woven together to define a latticework, it adapts to change in the curvature of the shell by slight angular changes in the lattice corners. Accordingly, the curved surface is reasonably approximated with slight adjustments of the lattice configuration. Also, since the lattice rigidity is slight and the entire structure is flexible, a desired curved roof is obtainable without the necessity of defining precisely the spatial positions of each lattice member and joint, such as is required with prior art rigid trusses. 2. Dynamic features of lattice-type shell structure. A dynamic characteristic of the inventive shell structure is that the rigidity of the individual strip members is low and the entire structure is flexible. When this structure is deformed upon receiving a load, it does not experience the complicated stress conditions or the local stress concentrations inherent in rigid body structures such as trusses and truss joints. An in plane force within the lattice work of the invention is balanced by the expansion and contraction of the strip members constituting the shell to provide a simple stress condition. Since the strip members are not rigidly fixed at their theoretical points of intersection, secondary stress accompanying the deformation is also slight. Since the strip members themselves restrain outward deformation one with the other at their intersection points, not only is the buckling length of a strip member shortened, but also the yield strength is prevented from being abruptly reduced. Also, should a strip member fail in stress, the stress after the buckling is redistributed throughout the lattice work. The outward bending of flat and curved strip members is transmitted to the peripheral portion of the structure due to the bending and twisting of the respective crossing strip members.

BEC 202

Page 14

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

3. Vibration attenuating performance. When the restraining braces and chord members are few in number, the whole structure becomes flexible, and is deformable due to wind and/or earthquake vibrations. However, a large vibration-attenuating effect is inherent in the structure due to the frictional contact of the strip members constituting the latticework of the structure. Accordingly, this inherent friction is positively utilized for earthquake-proof design in structures such as silos, wherein some degree of beneficial deformation is acceptable. The inventive shell structure and the method of construction according to the present invention are utilized for roofs of various kinds of buildings and/or building frames. The interwoven strip members function like a uniform plate having few stress concentrations, and are advantageously utilized for weight reduction of large spans. Closed and Open Shell Structure: Before describing the main body of the theory it is useful to discuss quantitatively an important practical point. Anyone who has built childrens toys from thick paper or thin cardboard will be familiar with the fact that a closed box is rigid, whereas an open box is easily deformable. Similarly, a chocolate box with the id open can easily be twisted, yet it is effectively rigid when the lid is closed. The same sort of thing applies to an aluminum can, which may be squashed far more easily after an end has been removed. Again, it is noticeable that a boiled egg wills not normally t snugly into a rigid egg cup until the top of the shell has been removed: the closed egg is so rigid that small deviations from circularity are noticeable; but it becomes exible enough to adapt to the shape of the egg cup once an opening has been made. There seems to be a principle here that closed surfaces are rigid. This is used in many areas of engineering construction. For example, the deck of a ship is not merely a horizontal surface to walk on: it also closes the hull, making a box-like structure. It is easy to think of many other examples of this form of construction, including aircraft wings, suspension bridge roadway girders, rocket skins and anybody cars.

BEC 202

Page 15

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

Summary of the Report: Surface structures are structural elements that are able to transfer load basically through membrane stresses. Surface structures have small thickness compare to their other dimensions. . Sometimes the material is very flexible and can take the form of the tent or airinflated structure. In both cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure tension. Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete. Rigid surface structures are sometimes called rigid shells. As such they may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic parabolas and are referred to as thin plates or shells. These structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in tension and compression with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell structures are generally very difficult to analyze, due to the three-dimensional geometry of their flexible surface structures include mechanically or pneumatically pre-stressed membrane such as reinforced concrete. . In both cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure tension. In concluding this topic, it is important to emphasize that surface structures have changed and added aesthetic beauty to modern architecture design since it was improved and developed over the years. It plays today a very significant role in the construction industry and its value and shape have been advanced over the ages by improve technology and further research in this field. Its improvement and advancement in the field of engineering have shape and change the beauty and aesthetics of modern day structures in the most dramatic way. Unlike earlier times where information about the structure behavior of these members was limited, today these members are divided into whole new fields of study. These structures give the engineer much more options on the cost and suitability of materials especially when the span of the structure and the aesthetics of the structure are important. Preferably the structure comprises a plurality of alternating random pile layers and layers of stratified fibrous material. Increasing the number of layers increases the achievable CFH of the structure. Desirably the layer of stratified fibrous material overlays a further random pile layer From studying the behavior of the three types of the Surface structure, Membrane structures rely on double curvature to resist imposed loads efficiently. The shell structure is typically found in nature as well as in classical architecture. Its efficiency is based on its curvature (single or double), which allows a multiplicity of alternative stress paths and gives the optimum form for transmission of many different load types, where Plates is typically flat.

BEC 202

Page 16

Surface Structure

Waseem Akram

References: http://www.civilprojectsonline.com/building-construction/structures-andclassification-of-structures-design-of-steel-structures/ http://www.civilengineergroup.com/tension-membrane-structures.html http://www.arabianbusiness.com/middle-east-has-long-history-of-using-membranestructures-205695.html http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVI/part5/paper/LIN_633.pdf http://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/118686/files/241p.pdf http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4302914.html http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5069009/description.html http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/cas/courses.d/AFEM.d/AFEM.Ch31.d/AFEM.C h31.pdf http://www.springerlink.com/content/r18365m80181x707/ http://www.civilengclub.com/vb/t2925.html http://www.greatfa.com/modern-architecture/surface+structure+roof+stadium.html http://www.euro-inox.org/pdf/paper/LuisSanchez_EN.pdf http://www.mondoarc.com/projects/Architectural/209848/the_birds_nest_stadium_beijing
_china.html

BEC 202

Page 17