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Chapter 3
The symbol for most elements is the one- or two-letter abbreviation of the name of the element. Only the first letter of an elements symbol is capitalized. If the symbol has a second letter, it is written as lowercase. Co CO (cobalt) (carbon and oxygen)
Although most of the symbols use letters from current names, some of the symbols of the elements are based on their Greek or Latin names. Na Fe sodium (natrium) iron (ferrum)
Some elements have formulas that are not single atoms. Seven of these elements have diatomic (2-atoms) molecules. Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen H2 O2 N2 Chlorine Fluorine Bromine Iodine Cl2 F2 Br2 I2
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Chapter 3
Metals 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mostly solid Have shiny appearance Good conductors of heat and electricity Are malleable and ductile Lose electrons in a chemical reaction 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Nonmetals Can be solid, liquid or gas Have dull appearance Poor conductors of heat and electricity Are brittle (if solid) Gain or share electrons in a chemical reaction
Metalloids are elements that possess some properties of metals and some of non-metals. The most important metalloids are silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) which are used extensively in computer chips. Metallic character increases going down a group, and decreases going across a period. Seven elements (H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2 and I2) exist as diatomic molecules. All others exist as monatomic (single atom). 2
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Elements in groups 1-2 and 13-18 are referred to as main-group or representative elements. Alkali metals are soft metals that are very reactive. They often react explosively with other elements. Noble gases are un-reactive gases that are commonly used in light bulbs. Halogens are the most reactive nonmetals, and occur in nature only as compounds. Group 2 elements are called alkaline-earth metals. These metals are less reactive than alkali metals. The group of metals in between the main group elements are called the transition metals.
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Chapter 3
In the fifth century B.C., the Greek philosopher Democritus proposed that matter is composed of a finite number of discrete particles, named atomos (meaning un-cuttable or indivisible) In 1808, John Dalton, built on ideas of Democritus, and formulated a precise definition of the building blocks of matter.
John Dalton Daltons model represented the atom as a featureless ball of uniform density. This model is referred to as the soccer ball model.
Daltons Atomic Theory: explains the difference between an element and a compound explains two scientific laws, and predicts a new scientific law. Postulate Each element consists of indivisible, small particles called atoms. All the atoms of a given element are identical to one another, and significantly different from others. Atoms combine chemically in definite wholenumber ratios to form compounds. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in chemical reactions. Deduction
1. 2.
Gives a more precise definition for an element. Supports Law of Definite Composition Predicts Law of Multiple Proportions Supports Law of Conservation of Mass.
3. 4.
Law of definite composition states that compounds always contain elements in the same proportion by mass. Law of multiple proportions states that two or more elements may combine in different ratios to form more than one compound.
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Chapter 3
In absence of a magnetic field, the cathode rays were not deflected. In presence of a magnetic and electric fields, the cathode rays were deflected towards the positive plate, indicating a negatively charged nature. The cathode rays were later named electrons.
Based on these findings, Thomson proposed an atomic model composed of negatively charged electrons embedded in a uniform positively charged sphere. This model is called the plum pudding model.
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Chapter 3
The majority of the particles were observed to pass through un-deflected or slightly deflected. Some of the particles were observed to be deflected at large angles. Few of the particles were observed to be turned back towards the direction they came from.
Based on these observations, Rutherford proposed a model of the atom consisting of a small, massive positive center (nucleus), surrounded by electrons in mostly empty space. The deflections were caused by head-on collision of -particles with the nucleus. The scattering were caused by the glancing collision of -particles with the nucleus.
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Chapter 3
The modern atom consists of 3 subatomic particles: Particle PROTON NEUTRON ELECTRON Charge +1 0 1 Relative Mass ~1800 ~1800 1
Mass Relationships in the Atom: The number of protons in an atom determines its identity, and is called atomic number (Z). In a neutral atom, the number of protons (+) are equal to the number of electrons (). Almost all the mass of the atom rests in the nucleus. Therefore the number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called the mass number (A).
Chemistry 51
Chapter 3
2 1
3 1
hydrogen
deuterium
tritium
Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number (Z), but a different mass number (A). The mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass of a chosen standard (carbon-12 atom), and is expressed in atomic mass units (amu). The average atomic mass of an element is the mass of that elements natural occurring isotopes weighted according to their abundance. Therefore the atomic mass of an element is closest to the mass of its most abundant isotope.
Examples: 1. Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in number of p+= number of e =
35 17
Cl .
number of n0 =
410 185
412 183
412 185
3. Based on the information below, which is the most abundant isotope of boron (atomic mass = 10.8 u)? Isotope Mass (amu) B 10.0
10
B 11.0
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Examples: 1. Calculate the average atomic mass of silver from the following isotopic data: Isotope 107 Ag 109 Ag
107 109
Mass (amu) 106.91 108.90 Ag=106.91 x (0.5184)= 55.42 amu Ag=108.90 x (0.4816)= 52.45 amu
Atomic mass of Ag=55.42 amu+52.45 amu=107.87 amu 2. Calculate the average atomic mass of magnesium from the following isotopic data: Isotope 24 Mg 25 Mg 26 Mg
24 25 26
Atomic mass of Mg =
Chemistry 51
Chapter 3
Wavelength (lambda, ): the distance between any 2 successive crests or troughs. Frequency (nu,): the number of waves produced per unit time. Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional. Speed (c): tells how fast waves travel through space. Energy travels through space as electromagnetic radiation. This radiation takes many forms, such as sunlight, microwaves, radio waves, etc. In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (3.00 x 108 m/s), and differ from each other in their frequency and wavelength. The classification of electromagnetic waves according to their frequency is called electromagnetic spectrum. These waves range from gamma rays (short , high f) to radio waves (long , low f).
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Chapter 3
When white light is passed through a glass prism, it is dispersed into a spectrum of colors. This is evidence of the wave nature of light.
Scientists also have much evidence that light beams act as a stream of tiny particles, called photons. A photon of red light (long ) carries less energy that a photon of blue light (short )
Scientists, therefore, use both the wave and particle models for explaining light. This is referred to as the wave-particle nature of light. Scientists also discovered that when atoms are energized at high temperatures or by high voltage, they can radiate light. Neon lights are an example of this property of atoms. When the light from the atom is placed through a prism, a series of brightly colored lights, called a line spectrum is formed.
These lines indicate that light is formed only at certain wavelengths and frequencies that correspond to specific colors. Each element possesses a unique line spectrum that can be used to identify it.
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Chapter 3
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Similarities of behavior in the periodic table are due to the similarities in the electron arrangement of the atoms. This arrangement is called electron configuration. The modern model of the atom describes the electron cloud consisting of separate energy levels, each containing a fixed number of electrons. Each orbital can be occupied by no more than 2 electrons, each with opposite spins. The electrons occupy the orbitals form the lowest energy level to the highest level. The energy of the orbitals on any level are in the following order: s < p < d < f. Each orbital on a sublevel is occupied by a single electron before a second electron enters. For example, all three p orbitals must contain one electron before a second electron enters a p orbital. Electron configurations are written as shown below:
2p
Principal energy level
1s
Type of orbital
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Element Orbital Notation
Chapter 3
Configuration
Li
1s 2s
Be
1s 2s
1s 2s 2p
1s 2s 2p
1s 2s 2p
1s 2s 2p
1s 2s 2p
Ne
1s 2s 2p
Na
1s 2s 2p 3s
Mg
1s 2s 2p 3s
Al
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Si
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
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1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s
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Chapter 3
The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. The period number corresponds to the number of energy levels that are occupied in that atom. The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups or families. For the main-group elements, the group number corresponds to the number of electrons in the outermost filled energy level (valence electrons). The valence electrons configuration for the elements in periods 1-3 are shown below. Note that elements in the same group have similar electron configurations.
The location of the different orbital types in the periodic table is shown below:
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Examples: 1. Use the periodic table to write complete electron configuration for phosphorus. phosphorous, Z = electron configuration =
2. Draw an orbital notation diagram for the last incomplete level of chlorine and determine the number of unpaired electrons. Be sure to label each orbital clearly. chlorine, Z = orbital notation = _____ _____ ______ _____
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abbreviated configuration
Examples: 1. Write abbreviated electron configurations for each element listed below:
a) Fe (Z=26):
b) Sb (Z=51):
2.
Give the symbol of the element with each of the following electron configurations: a) [Ne] 3s2 3p1
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Chapter 3
Atomic Size: The size of the atom is determined by its atomic radius, which is the distance of the valence electron from the nucleus. For each group of the representative elements, the atomic size increases going down the group, because the valence electrons from each energy level are further from the nucleus. The atomic radius of the representative elements are affected by the number of protons in the nucleus (nuclear charge). For elements going across a period, the atomic size decreases because the increased nuclear charge of each atom pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus, making it smaller.
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Examples: 1. Select the element in each pair with the larger atomic radius: a) Li or K b) K or Br c) P or Cl
2. Indicate the element in each set that has the higher ionization energy and explain your choice: a) K or Na b) Mg or Cl c) F, N, or C
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