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Gale Encyclopedia of US History: Fire Fighting

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After a major fire in Boston in 1631, the first fire regulations in America were established. In 1648, fire wardens were appointed in New Amsterdam (later New York City), thereby initiating the first public fire department in North America. In 1736, Ben Franklin formed the first volunteer fire-fighting company in Philadelphia. Fire fighting was not an easy feat. Fire-fighters numbering up from fifty to one hundred men labored arduously at heavy pumpers of limited effectiveness. The enthusiastic but amateur volunteers were badly organized. Curious onlookers got in the way and looters stole whatever they could. Nearby buildings were often drenched or even pulled down with ropes to stop the fire from spreading; in the 1800s, firefighters also used dynamite to blow up buildings to save cities from complete destruction from a raging fire. By the 1700s, independent volunteer fire companies began receiving payment for their services from the insurance company or the property owner. Property owners displayed fire markers outside the building to indicate that they were insured; in some cases, no marker meant no effort would be made to fight the fire. In other cases, only the first arriving companies got paid, which led to fierce competition. Volunteers sabotaged each other's equipment and fought off later-arriving companies, often using fire-fighting equipment as weapons. Often, the building burned down while the firemen brawled.

Fire-Fighting Organizations
Early in 1853 the Cincinnati, Ohio, Fire Department Committee formulated a plan that would entirely change the way fires were fought in America. To end the frequently violent competition between companies, the plan called for fulltime, paid city employees to fight fires using a horse-drawn steam engine. The steam pumper would allow four or five men to spray more water on a fire than hundreds of volunteers using hand pumpers. The City Council on 16 March 1853 authorized the plan and the creation of a Fire Department, effective 1 April. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, fire department personnel are either volunteer (nonsalaried) or career (salaried). Volunteer firefighters are found mainly in smaller communities, career firefighters in cities. The modern department, with salaried personnel and standardized equipment, became an integral part of municipal administration only late in the nineteenth century. In some cities, a fire commissioner administers the department. Other cities have a board of fire commissioners with a fire chief as executive officer and head of the uniformed force. In still other cities a safety director may be in charge of both police and fire departments. The basic operating unit of the fire department is the company, commanded by a captain. A captain may be on duty on each shift, although in some fire departments, lieutenants and sergeants command companies when the captain is off duty. Fire companies are usually organized by types of apparatus: engine companies; ladder companies; and squad or rescue companies. Boston installed the first fire-alarm systems, which used the telegraph and Morse code, in 1852. Many communities are still served either with the telegraph-alarm system or with telephone call boxes. Most fires, however, are reported from private telephones. Many large cities have removed all or many of their street alarm boxes because of false alarms and maintenance problems. Alarms are received at a central dispatch office and then transmitted to fire

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stations, frequently with the use of mobile teleprinters and computers. Apparatus is dispatched according to the nature of the alarm and location of the fire. Many modern departments are now equipped with computer-aided dispatch systems that track the status of all units and provide vital information about the buildings where fires occur. Typically, on a first alarm, more apparatus is sent to industrial areas, schools and other institutions, and theaters than to private residences. Additional personnel, volunteer or off duty, is called as needed. Fires that cannot be brought under control by the apparatus responding to the first alarm are called multiple-alarm fires, with each additional alarm bringing more firefighters and equipment to the scene. Special calls are sent for specific types of equipment. Mutual aid and regional mobilization plans are in effect among adjacent fire departments for assisting each other in fighting fires. A superior example of this was exhibited with the 11 September 2001 attack on New York City's World Trade Center, when fire companies from all over Manhattan and from neighboring boroughs responded to the catastrophe.

Fire-Fighting Equipment
Early on, pioneer firefighters fought fires with bucket lines. Men usually formed a line to convey water from the nearest source to the scene of destruction, while the women and children formed a second line to pass empty buckets back to the water source. The first fire engines were developed in the seventeenth century. They were merely tubs carried on runners, long poles, or wheels. The tub functioned as a reservoir and sometimes housed a hand-operated pump that forced water through a pipe or nozzle to waiting buckets. The invention of a hand-stitched leather hosepipe in the Netherlands around 1672 made it possible for firefighters to move nearer to the fire without risking damage to the engine. During the same period, the creation of pumpers made it possible for fire-fighters to use water from rivers and ponds. In the early 1900s, stitching on hoses gave way to copper rivets and fifty-foot lengths coupled with brass fittings that enabled firefighters to convey water through narrow passages, up stairways, and into buildings while the pumps operated in the street. The pumper threw a stream of water up to 133 feet while twelve men pumped for a few exhausting moments at a time. In about 1870, rubber hoses covered by cotton came into use. The steam-pump fire engine, introduced in London in 1829, gained popularity in many large cities in the 1850s. Most steam pumpers were equipped with reciprocating piston pumps, although a few rotary pumps were used. Some were self-propelled, but most used horses for propulsion, conserving steam pressure for the pump. After establishing the first professional fire-fighting force, Cincinnati also briefly led the way in technological developments. Cincinnati inventors Able Shawk and Alexander Latta developed "Uncle Joe Ross," the first successful steam fire engine in America. First deployed in 1853, the fire engine had the capacity of the six biggest doubleengine hand pumpers and needed only three men to operate it. It could supply three hand companies with water while at the same time shooting a powerful spray of water 225 feet onto the fire. The Ahrens-Fox Manufacturing Company of Cincinnati, an early leader in developing steam engines, replaced the horses with motorized tractors, and produced compressed-air aerial ladders to reach windows of tall buildings. By the 1920s, the last of the horsedrawn engines had disappeared. With the development of the internal combustion engine in the early twentieth century, pumpers became motorized. Because of problems in adapting gear rotary gasoline engines to pumps, the first gasoline-powered fire engines had two motors, one to drive the pump and the other to propel the vehicle. The first pumper using a single engine for pumping and propulsion was manufactured in the United States in 1907. Motorized pumpers had almost entirely displaced steam pumpers by 1925. The pumps were originally of the piston or reciprocating type, but these were gradually replaced by rotary pumps and finally by centrifugal pumps, which are used by most modern pumpers. Modern pumpers consist of a powerful pump that can supply water in a large range of volumes and pressures; several thousand feet of fire hose, attached to a hydrant by a short segment of wide hose; and a water tank to be used in places lacking a water supply or to enable firefighters to begin their work while the hose is being attached to a hydrant. In the countryside, pumpers are used along with suction hoses to obtain water from rivers and ponds. The late nineteenth century saw other innovations in fire fighting including the chemical fire extinguisher. The first was a glass fire extinguisher, the Harden Hand Grenade Extinguisher. The extinguisher, or grenade, contained carbon tetrachloride, later banned because at high temperatures it emitted a hazardous phosphene gas. The grenade, when tossed into the fire, broke open and released the carbon tetrachloride. The sprinkling system also came into use at this time and fireproof construction materials were developed as well. Several catastrophic blazes in the early history of San Francisco, California, led to other innovations. San Francisco's Fire Department Maintenance Shop Supervisors developed the Hayes Aerial Ladder in 1868 and the Gorter Nozzle in 1886, both of which were adopted by fire departments worldwide. The department was among the first to employ fireboats and to place water towers on many roofs. It also recommended sixty-foot height limits for buildings and fire escapes and standpipes on all multistory edifices. Beginning in the late 1950s, new equipment and materials emerged on the scene: the snorkel truck, equipped with a cherry-picker boom to replace the traditional extension ladder; the super pumper, which is capable of pumping eight thousand gallons of water per minute at very high pressure (used in fighting fires in very tall structures); and foam and other chemicals to fight fires. To fight forest fires, specially equipped airplanes and helicopters are used to drop water or chemicals from the air, and to insert "smokejumpers" (firefighters who parachute in) to fight fires in remote locations. In the 1990s, fire companies began using thermal imaging cameras. Infrared technology allows firefighters to see through smoke to locate the seat of the fire and to quickly locate hazardous hotspots. With thermal imaging, large areas of land or water can be searched quickly and accurately, requiring less manpower than do conventional methods. Searches can be conducted efficiently during nighttime darkness or full sunlight, in a variety of weather conditions. Thermal imagers can be used for searches carried out on foot or from automobiles, watercraft, and aircraft.

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Bibliography
Ditzel, Paul C. Fire Engines, Fire Fighters: The Men, Equipment, and Machines, from Colonial Days to the Present. New York: Bonanza Books, 1984. Ingram, Arthur. A History of Fire-Fighting and Equipment. London: New English Library, 1978. Loeper, John J. By Hook and Ladder: The Story of Fire Fighting in America. New York: Atheneum, 1981. Marston, Hope Irvin. Fire Trucks. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1984. Smith, Dennis. Dennis Smith's History of Firefighting in America: 300 Years of Courage. New York: Dial Press, 1978. James G. Lewis

Columbia Encyclopedia:
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fire fighting, the use of strategy, personnel, and apparatus to extinguish, to confine, or to escape from fire. Fire-Fighting Strategy
Fire fighting strategy involves the following basic procedures: arriving at the scene of the fire as rapidly as possible; assessing the nature of the fire by determining its intensity and extent, the type and abundance of fuel, the danger of entering the fire area, and the most effective techniques for extinguishing the fire; locating and rescuing endangered persons; containing the fire by protecting adjacent areas; ventilating the fire area to allow for the escape of heat and toxic gases; and, finally, extinguishing the fire.

Fire-Fighting Personnel
In most cities, firefighters are trained members of government-supported organizations, such as fire departments. Elsewhere, fire-fighting organizations are primarily composed of volunteers, or "vols." Fire-fighting organizations also help design and implement fire-prevention programs, which may include such measures as building codes requiring fire alarms, regularly located fire-extinguishing equipment, internal fire walls to help contain a fire, sprinkler systems, the use of fire-retardant construction materials, and safe electrical wiring. Educating the public about fire safety and fire-prevention practices is an important part of all fire-prevention programs.

Fire-Fighting Apparatus
Fire-fighting vehicles have evolved into highly specialized equipment. Ladder trucks provide access to buildings as much as 100 ft (30 m) high; snorkel trucks enable firefighters to douse fires from above. In addition, modern fire apparatus includes rescue trucks, mobile laboratories, searchlight cars, double-ended tunnel engines, smoke ejectors, high-pressure spray trucks, foam trucks, and even coffee wagons. For fires of long duration there are tank trucks to bring extra fuel to the pumpers. The modern diesel pump delivers about 2,000 gal per min (8,000 liters per min) through lightweight hose 1 in. (2.5 cm) to 2.5 in. (6.3 cm) in diameter, reinforced with artificial fibers. A fireboat, not limited to hydrant supply, can deliver as much as 10,000 gal per min (40,000 liters per min). Airports have specially equipped crash trucks, and refineries have chemical applicators. The commonly seen metal cylinder with a short hose attached is the soda-and-acid extinguisher; inside it, above a solution of soda and water, is a container of acid. When the extinguisher is inverted, the acid mixes with the solution and reacts with the soda to generate carbon dioxide; gas pressure then forces the solution out of the hose. A foam extinguisher is a cylinder containing water, sodium bicarbonate, an agent (often licorice powder) for strengthening the foam, and an inner container of aluminum sulfate powder. Mixed together, these ingredients form a foam of carbon dioxide bubbles. A carbon dioxide extinguisher consists of a tank of liquid carbon dioxide under pressure. When released, the carbon dioxide forms flakes that vaporize and blanket the fire.

Extinguishing Fires
For a fire to occur, there must be available oxygen, a supply of fuel, and enough heat to kindle the fuel. Therefore, the three basic ways of extinguishing fire are to smother it, to cut off the fuel supply, or to cool it below the flammability temperature. Fires are classified into four types: those in solids, e.g., wood, paper, and cloth; those in flammable liquids, e.g., gasoline, alcohol, oils, lacquers, and paints; those in electrical apparatus; and those in flammable metals such as magnesium. These are called, respectively, class A, B, C, and D fires. Characteristics of Extinguishing Substances Certain dry materials that melt and coat the burning material, thus excluding air, are useful against all classes of fire. In certain cases inert gases such as argon or nitrogen are used to fight fires in materials that would react dangerously with water or with other extinguishing agents; sodium and water, for example, is a dangerous combination. Water, although supplanted somewhat by other materials, is still the most common substance used for quenching class A fires, which are the most common types of fire; water both cools and helps smother the fuel. Buckets of water are the simplest equipment for fighting small fires in solids. More effective are fire extinguishers capable of directing a stream of water. Wetting agents called detergents make water more penetrating, especially for such

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objects as cotton bales and mattresses. Class B fires cannot be fought with water unless it is sprayed in a fine mist, for flammable liquids will usually float on water and spread. Foam is most often used to suffocate class B fires, particularly oil fires. Since both water and foam conduct electricity, neither can be used against class C fires unless a fog nozzle, which produces tiny droplets that burst into a smothering blanket of steam, is employed. Halogen compounds and carbon dioxide are effective agents in fighting class C fires and are also used against flammable liquids and small fires in solids. Halogen compounds such as carbon tetrachloride turn into a vapor that settles over a fire, smothering it. Unfortunately, most halogen vapors are both toxic and corrosive; but for enclosed spaces where water damage would be as disastrous as fire damage, it is the agent of choice. In any case, nearly all professional firefighters today are equipped with oxygen tanks. Dry-chemical extinguishing agents, such as fine sodium bicarbonate, can be used on class B and C fires but are especially effective against class B fires. Special Equipment and Techniques Buildings are protected against fire most effectively by protective sprinkler systems. In most sprinkler systems, water circulates through overhead pipes whose outlets are normally closed; at high temperatures the outlets open, spraying water on the fire. Most large buildings also provide water for fire fighting through a standpipe system with hose connections on each floor. Forest and brush fires are fought by making a firebreak and by covering the fire with extinguishing substances. A narrow strip is cut and cleared in front of the fire down to mineral soil. Embers flying into the strip are put out, while water and other fire-extinguishing substances are spread from land-based vehicles or are dropped on the fire from the air. Oil-field fires demand multiple approaches: water streams, fogs, foams, and explosives may all be used simultaneously to quench a fire and prevent its reignition.

History of Fire Fighting

Ancient Rome is known to have had a fire department consisting by the 1st cent. of approximately 7,000 paid firefighters. These fire brigades not only responded to and fought fires, but also patrolled the streets with the authority to impose corporal punishment upon those who violated fire-prevention codes. The inventor Ctesibius of Alexandria devised the first known fire pump c.200 B.C. but the idea was lost until the fire pump was reinvented about A.D. 1500. The only equipment available to fight the London fire in 1666 were two-quart hand syringes and a similar, slightly larger syringe; it burned for four days. Elsewhere in Europe and in the American colonies fire fighting equipment was equally rudimentary. The London fire stimulated the development of a two-person operated piston pump on wheels. In 1648, Governor Peter Stuyvesant of New Amsterdam (New York City) was the first in the New World to appoint fire inspectors with the authority to impose fines for fire code violations. Boston imported (1679) the first fire engine to reach America. For a long time the ten-person pump devised by the English inventor Richard Newsham in 1725 was the most widely used. The inventor Thomas Lote of New York built (1743) the first fire engine made in America. About 1672 leather hose and couplings for joining lengths together were produced; though leather hose had to be sewn like a fine boot, fabric and rubber-treated hose did not come into general use until 1870. A steam fire engine was built in London in 1829, but the volunteer fire companies of the day were very slow to accept it. When a group of insurance companies in New York had a self-propelled engine built in 1841, the firefighters so hindered its use that the insurance companies gave up the project. Finally, in Cincinnati, Ohio, the public forced a steam engine on the firefighters. The aerial ladder wagon appeared in 1870; the hose elevator, about 1871. Gasoline engines were at first used either as pumping engines or as tractors to pull apparatus. In 1910 the two functions were combined, one engine both propelling the truck and driving the pump. Modern equipment is usually diesel powered, and multiple variations of the basic fire engine enable firefighters to respond to many types of emergency situations.

Bibliography
See P. R. Lyons, Fire in America (1976); C. V. Walsh and L. Marks, Firefighting Strategy and Leadership (2d ed. 1976); J. Robertson, Introduction to Fire Prevention (1989).

Wikipedia on Answers.com: Firefighting

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Not to be confused with a firefight, which is a battle with firearms. Firefighting is the act of extinguishing fires. A firefighter fights fires to prevent loss of life, and/or destruction of property and the environment. Firefighting is a highly technical skill that requires professionals who have spent years training in both general firefighting techniques and specialized areas of expertise.

Contents
1 History 1.1 Ancient Rome 1.2 United Kingdom 2 Firefighters' duties 3 Hazards caused by fire 4 Reconnaissance and reading the fire
Firefighting in Jyvskyl, Finland

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6 Use of water 6.1 Open air fire 6.2 Closed volume fire 7 Asphyxiating a fire

fire fighting: Information from Answers.com

5 Science of extinguishment

8 Tactical ventilation or isolation of the fire 9 Categorising fires 9.1 USA 10 Appendix: calculating the amount of water required to suppress a fire in a closed volume 10.1 Volume computation 11 Notes 12 See also 13 References
Firefighters at a major fire involving an abandoned convent in C anada, 2006.

History
Main article: History of firefighting These organised teams would use bucket-brigades and syringes to douse a fire.[1]

Ancient Rome
There was no public fire-fighting in the Roman Republic. Instead, private individuals would rely upon their slaves or supporters to take action. This action could involve razing nearby buildings to prevent the spread of fire as well as bucket brigades. The very wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus was infamous for literal fire sales. He would buy burning buildings, and those adjacent to them at low prices, and rebuild them using his team of 500 slaves. However there is no mention of the men extinguishing the fires. There was not an organized fire-fighting force in ancient Rome until Augustus's era.
[2]

Bulgarian firefighters in action, 1930s

United Kingdom
Prior to the Great Fire of London in 1666, some parishes in the UK had begun to organise rudimentary firefighting. After much of London was destroyed, the first fire insurance was introduced by a man named Nicholas Barbon. To reduce the cost, Barbon formed his own Fire Brigade, and eventually there were many other such companies. By the start of the 1800s, those with insurance were given a badge or mark to attach to their properties, indicating that they were eligible to utilize the services of the fire brigade. Other buildings with no coverage or insurance with a different company were left to burn [1] unless they were adjacent to an insured building in which case it was often in the insurance company's interest to prevent the fire spreading. In 1833, companies in London merged to form The London Fire Company Establishment. Steam powered apparatuses were first introduced in the 1850s, allowing a greater quantity of water to be directed onto a fire. The steam powered appliances were replaced in the early 1900s with the invention of the internal combustion engine.

Firefighters' duties
Firefighters' goals are to save lives, property and the environment. A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many lives; however, with modern firefighting techniques, catastrophe is usually, but not always, avoided. To prevent fires from starting, a firefighter's duties can include public education about fire safety and conducting fire inspections of locations for their adherence to local fire codes. Because firefighters are often the first responders to people in critical conditions, firefighters may provide many other valuable services to the community they serve, such as: Emergency medical services, as technicians or as licensed paramedics, staffing ambulances; Hazardous materials mitigation (HAZMAT); Vehicle rescue/extrication; Search and rescue; Community disaster support. Fire risk assessments Additionally, firefighters may also provide service in specialized fields, such as: Aircraft/airport rescue; Wildland fire suppression; Shipboard and military fire and rescue; Tactical paramedic support ("SWAT medics");

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Tool hoisting; High angle rope rescue; Swiftwater rescue. Trench rescue Confined space rescue Building collapse Cold water rescue

fire fighting: Information from Answers.com

In the US, firefighters also serve the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) as urban search and rescue (USAR) team members.[ citation needed]

Hazards caused by fire

One of the major hazards associated with firefighting operations is the toxic environment created by combusting materials. The four major hazards associated with these situations are as follows:[3] Smoke, which is becoming increasingly dangerous due to the rise in synthetic household materials. Oxygen deficient atmosphere, 21% O 2 is normal, 17% O 2 is considered oxygen deficient. Elevated temperatures Toxic atmospheres To combat these potential effects, firefighters carry self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA; an open-circuit positive pressure compressed air system) to prevent smoke inhalation. These are not oxygen tanks; they carry compressed air. SCBA usually hold 30 to 45 minutes of air, depending upon the size of the tank and the rate of consumption during strenuous activities. Obvious risks are associated with the immense heat. Even without direct

A hose team training to fight an aircraft fire aboard a US aircraft carrier, 2006.

Structure fire in Grand Rapids, Michigan, US

contact with the flames (direct flame impingement), conductive heat can create serious burns from a great distance. There are a number of comparably serious heat-related risks: burns from radiated heat, contact with a hot object, hot gases (e.g., air), steam and hot and/or toxic smoke. Firefighters are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE) that includes fire-resistant clothing (Nomex or polybenzimidazole fiber (PBI)) and helmets that limit the transmission of heat towards the body. No PPE, however, can completely protect the user from the effects of all fire conditions. Heat can make flammable liquid tanks violently explode, producing what is called a BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion).[4] Some chemical products such as ammonium nitrate fertilizers can also explode. Explosions can cause physical trauma or potentially serious blast or shrapnel injuries. Heat causes human flesh to burn as fuel, or the water within to boil, causing potentially severe medical problems. Depending upon the heat of the fire, burns can occur in a fraction of a second. Main article: Burn Additional risks of fire include the following: smoke can obscure vision, potentially causing a fall, disorientation, or becoming trapped in the fire; structural collapse. According to a University News Bureau Life Sciences article reported by News Editor Sharita Forest and photographed by L. Brian Stauffer, from the Website of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,: "Three hours of fighting a fire stiffens arteries and impairs cardiac function in firefighters, according to a new study by Bo Fernhall, a professor in the department of kinesiology and community health in the College of Applied Health Sciences, and Gavin Horn, director of research at the Illinois Fire Service Institute. The conditions (observed in healthy male firefighters) are "also apparently found in weightlifters and endurance athletes..." [5]

Reconnaissance and reading the fire

The first step of a firefighting operation is a reconnaissance to search for the origin of the fire (which may not be obvious for an indoor fire, especially when there are no witnesses), and identification of the specific risks and any possible casualties. Any fire occurring outside may not require reconnaissance; on the other hand, a fire in a cellar or an underground car park with only a few centimeters of visibility may require a long reconnaissance to identify the seat of the fire. The "reading" of the fire is the analysis by the firefighters of the forewarnings of a thermal accident (flashover, backdraft, smoke explosion), which is performed during the reconnaissance and the fire suppression maneuvers. The main signs are: Hot zones, which can be detected with a gloved hand, especially by touching a door before opening it; Soot on windows, which usually means that combustion is incomplete and thus there is a lack of air; Smoke going in and out around a door frame, as if the fire breathes, which usually means a lack of air to support combustion; Spraying water on the ceiling with a short pulse of a diffused spray (e.g., cone with an opening angle of 60) to test the heat of the smoke: When the temperature is moderate, the water falls down in drops with a sound of rain,

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When the temperature is high, it vaporizes with a hiss this can be the sign of an extremely dangerous impending flashover Ideally, part of reconnaissance is to consult an existing preplan for the building. This provides knowledge of existing structures, firefighter hazards, and can include strategies and tactics.

Science of extinguishment
See also: Fire Chemistry and Physical properties of wildfires Fire elements[6] There are four elements needed to start and sustain a fire and/or flame. These elements are classified in the fire tetrahedron and are: 1. Reducing agent (fuel) 2. Heat 3. Self-sustained chemical chain reaction 4. Oxidizing agent (oxygen) The reducing agent, or fuel, is the substance or material that is being oxidized or burned in the combustion process. The most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen. Heat is the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes into contact with a fuel, it provides the energy necessary for ignition, causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the combustion reaction can continue, and causes the vaporization of solid and liquid fuels. The self-sustained chemical chain reaction is a complex reaction that requires a fuel, an oxidizer, and heat energy to come together in a very specific way. A chain reaction is a series of reactions that occur in sequence with the results of each individual reaction being added to the rest. This happens in the science of fire, but is self-sustaining in that it continues without interruption. An oxidizing agent is a material or substance that when the proper conditions exist will release gases, including oxygen. This is crucial to the sustainment of a flame or fire. A fire can be extinguished by taking away any of the four components of the tetrahedron.[6] One method to extinguish a fire is to use water. The first way that water extinguishes a fire is by cooling, which removes heat from the fire. This is possible through waters ability to absorb massive amounts of heat by converting water to water vapor. Without heat, the fuel cannot keep the oxidizer from reducing the fuel to sustain the fire. The second way water extinguishes a fire is by smothering the fire. When water is heated to its boiling point, it converts to water vapor. When this conversion takes place, it dilutes the oxygen in the air with water vapor, thus removing one of the elements that the fire requires to burn. This can also be done with foam. Another way to extinguish a fire is fuel removal. This can be accomplished by stopping the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel or by removing solid fuel in the path of a fire. Another way to accomplish this is to allow the fire to burn until all the fuel is consumed, at which point the fire will self-extinguish.
A fire helicopter is used to fight a wildfire

One final extinguishing method is chemical flame inhibition. This can be accomplished through dry chemical and halogenated agents. These agents interrupt the chemical chain reaction and stop flaming. This method is effective on gas and liquid fuels because they must flame to burn.

Use of water
Often, the main way to extinguish a fire is to spray with water. The water has two roles: in contact with the fire, it vaporizes, and this vapour displaces the oxygen (the volume of water vapour is 1,700 times greater than liquid water, at 1,000F (540C) this expansion is over 4,000 times); leaving the fire with insufficient combustive agent to continue, and it dies out.[4] the vaporization of water absorbs the heat; it cools the smoke, air, walls, objects in the room, etc., that could act as further fuel, and thus prevents one of the means that fires grow, which is by "jumping" to nearby heat/fuel sources to start new fires, which then combine. The extinguishment is thus a combination of "asphyxia" and cooling. The flame itself is suppressed by asphyxia, but the cooling is the most important element to master a fire in a closed area. Water may be accessed from a pressurized fire hydrant, pumped from water sources such as lakes or rivers, delivered by tanker truck, or dropped from aircraft tankers in fighting forest fires.
USAF airmen from the 20th C ivil Engineer Squadron Fire Protection Flight neutralize a live fire during a field training exercise at Shaw Air Force Base.

Open air fire

For fires in the open, the seat of the fire is sprayed with a straight spray: the cooling effect immediately follows the "asphyxia" by vapor[ citation needed] , and reduces the amount of water required. A straight spray is used so the water arrives massively to the seat without being vaporized before. A strong spray may also have a mechanical effect: it

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can disperse the combustible product and thus prevent the fire from starting again. The fire is always fed with air, but the risk to people is limited as they can move away, except in the case of wildfires or bushfires where they risk being easily surrounded by the flames. Spray is aimed at a surface, or object: for this reason, the strategy is sometimes called two-dimensional attack or 2D attack. It might be necessary to protect specific items (house, gas tank, etc.) against infrared radiation, and thus to use a diffused spray between the fire and the object. Breathing apparatus is often required as there is still the risk of inhaling smoke or poisonous gases.

Closed volume fire

Until the 1970s, fires were usually attacked while they declined, so the same strategy that was used for open air fires was effective. In recent times, fires are now attacked in their development phase as: firefighters arrive sooner; thermal insulation of houses confines the heat; modern materials, especially the polymers, produce a lot more heat than traditional materials (wood, plaster, stone, bricks, etc.). Additionally, in these conditions, there is a greater risk of backdraft and of flashover. Spraying of the seat of the fire directly can have unfortunate and dramatic consequences: the water pushes air in front of it, so the fire is supplied with extra oxygen before the water reaches it. This activation of the fire, and the mixing of the gases produced by the water flow, can create a flashover.[ citation needed] The most important issue is not the flames, but control of the fire, i.e., the cooling of the smoke that can spread and start distant fires, and that endangers the lives of people, including firefighters. The volume must be cooled before the seat is treated. This strategy originally of Swedish (Mats Rosander & Krister Giselsson) origin, was further adapted by London Fire Officer Paul Grimwood following a decade of operational use in the busy West End of London between 198494 (www.firetactics.com) and termed three-dimensional attack, or 3D attack. Use of a diffused spray was first proposed by Chief Lloyd Layman of the Parkersburg Fire Department, at the Fire Department Instructors Conference (FDIC) in 1950 held in Memphis. Using Grimwood's modified 3D attack strategy, the ceiling is first sprayed with short pulses of a diffused spray: it cools the smoke, thus the smoke is less likely to start a fire when it moves away; cooler gas become more dense (Charles's law), thus it also reduces the mobility of the smoke and avoids a "backfire" of water vapour; it creates an inert "water vapour sky", which prevents roll-over (rolls of flames on the ceiling created by the burning of hot gases). Only short pulses of water must be sprayed, otherwise the spraying modifies the equilibrium, and the gases mix instead of remaining stratified: the hot gases (initially at the ceiling) move around the room and the temperature rises at the ground, which is dangerous for firefighters. An alternative is to cool all the atmosphere by spraying the whole atmosphere as if drawing letters in the air ("penciling"). The modern methods for an urban fire dictate the use of a massive initial water flow, e.g. 500 L/min for each fire hose. The aim is to absorb as much heat as possible at the beginning to stop the expansion of the fire, and to reduce the smoke. When the flow is too small, the cooling is not sufficient, and the steam that is produced can burn firefighters (the drop of pressure is too small and the vapor is pushed back). Although it may seem paradoxical, the use of a strong flow with an efficient fire hose and an efficient strategy (diffused sprayed, small droplets) requires a smaller amount of water: once the temperature is lowered, only a limited amount of water is necessary to suppress the fire seat with a straight spray. For a living room of 50 m (60 square yards), the required amount of water is estimated as 60 L (15 gal). French firefighters used an alternative method in the 1970s: they sprayed water on the hot walls to create a water vapour atmosphere and asphyxiate the fire. This method is no longer used because it was risky; the pressure created pushed the hot gases and vapour towards the firefighters, causing severe burns, and pushed the hot gases into other rooms where they could start a new fire.

Asphyxiating a fire
In some cases, the use of water is undesirable: some chemical products react with water and produce poisonous gases, or even burn in contact with water (e.g., sodium); some products float on water, e.g., hydrocarbons (gasoline, oil, alcohol, etc.); a burning layer can then spread and extend; in case of a pressurised fuel tank, it is necessary to avoid heat shocks that may damage the tank: the resulting decompression may produce a BLEVE; electrical fires where water would act as a conductor. It is then necessary to asphyxiate the fire. This can be done in different ways: some chemical products react with the fuel and stop the combustion; a layer of water-based fire retardant foam is projected on the product by the fire hose, to keep the oxygen in air

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separated from the fuel; carbon dioxide.

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Tactical ventilation or isolation of the fire

One of the main risks of a fire is the smoke: it carries heat and poisonous gases, and obscures vision. In the case of a fire in a closed location (building), two different strategies may be used: isolation of the fire, or ventilation. Paul Grimwood introduced the concept of tactical ventilation in the 1980s to encourage a better thought-out approach to this aspect of firefighting. Following work with Warrington Fire Research Consultants (FRDG 6/94) his terminology and concepts were adopted officially by the UK fire services, and are now referred to throughout revised Home Office training manuals (199697). Grimwood's original definition of his 1991 unified strategy stated that, " tactical ventilation is either the venting, or containment (isolation) actions by on-scene firefighters, used to take control from the outset of a fire's burning regime, in an effort to gain tactical advantage during interior structural firefighting operations." Ventilation affects life safety, fire extinguishment, and property conservation. First, it pulls fire away from trapped occupants when properly used.[ clarification needed] It may also "limit fire spread by channeling fire toward nearby openings and allows fire fighters to safely attack the fire" as well as limit smoke, heat, and water damage.[7] Positive pressure ventilation (PPV) consists of using a fan to create excess pressure in a part of the building; this pressure will push the smoke and the heat out of the building, and thus secure the rescue and fire fighting operations. It is necessary to have an exit for the smoke, to know the building very well to predict where the smoke will go, and to ensure that the doors remain open by wedging or propping them. The main risk of this method is that it may accelerate the fire, or even create a flashover, e.g., if the smoke and the heat accumulate in a dead end. Hydraulic ventilation is the process of directing a stream from the inside of a structure out the window using a fog pattern.[4] This effectively will pull smoke out of room. Smoke ejectors may also be used for this purpose.

Categorising fires USA

Main article: Multiple-alarm fire In the US, fires are sometimes categorised as "one alarm", "all hands", "two alarm", "three alarm" (or higher) fires. There is no standard definition for what this means quantifiably, though it always refers to the level response by the local authorities. In some cities, the numeric rating refers to the number of fire stations that have been summoned to the fire. In others, the number counts the number of "dispatches" for additional personnel and equipment.[8][9] Alarms are generally used to define the tiers of the response by what resources are used. Example: Structure fire response draws the following equipment: 3 Engine/Pumper Companies 1 Truck/ladder/aerial Company Heavy Rescue This is referred to as an Initial Alarm or Box Alarm. Working fire request (for the same incident) Air/Light Units Other specialized rescue units Chief Officers/Fireground Commanders (if not on original dispatch) Note: This is the balance of a First Alarm fire. Second and subsequent Alarms: 2 Engine Companies 1 Truck Company The reason behind the "Alarm" is so the Incident Commander doesn't have to request each apparatus with the dispatcher. He can say "Give me a second alarm here", instead of saying "Give me a truck company and two engine companies" along with requesting where they come from. Keep in mind that categorization of fires varies between each fire department. A single alarm for one department may be a second alarm for another. Response always depends on the size of the fire and the department.

Appendix: calculating the amount of water required to suppress a fire in a closed volume
In the case of a closed volume, it is easy to compute the amount of water needed. The oxygen (O 2 ) in air (21%) is necessary for combustion. Whatever the amount of fuel available (wood, paper, cloth), combustion will stop when the air becomes "thin", i.e. when it contains less than 15% oxygen. If additional air cannot enter, we can calculate: The amount of water required to make the atmosphere inert, i.e., to prevent the pyrolysis gases to burnthis is the "volume computation" The amount of water required to cool the smoke, the atmospherethis is the "thermal computation" These computations are only valid when considering a diffused spray that penetrates the entire volume. This is not possible in the case of a high ceiling: the spray is short and does not reach the upper layers of air. Consequently the

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computations are not valid for large volumes such as barns or warehouses: a warehouse of 1,000 m (1,200 square yards) and 10 m high (33 ft) represents 10,000 m3 . In practice, such large volumes are unlikely to be airtight anyway.

Volume computation
Fire needs air; if water vapour pushes all the air away, the fuel can no longer burn. But the replacement of all the air by water vapour is harmful for firefighters and other people still in the building: the water vapour can carry much more heat than air at the same temperature (one can be burnt by water vapour at 100 C (212 F) above a boiling saucepan, whereas it is possible to put an arm in an ovenwithout touching the metal!at 270 C (520 F) without damage). This amount of water is thus an upper limit that should not be reached. The optimal, and minimum, amount of water to use is the amount required to dilute the air to 15% oxygen: below this concentration, the fire cannot burn. The amount used should be between the optimal value and the upper limit. Any additional water would just run on the floor and cause water damage without contributing to fire suppression. Let: Vr be the volume of the room, Vv be the volume of vapour required, Vw be the volume of liquid water to create the Vv volume of vapour, then for an air at 500 C (773 K, 932 F, best case concerning the volume, probable case at the beginning of the operation), we have [1]

and for a temperature of 100 C (373 K, 212 F, worst case concerning the volume, probable case when the fire is suppressed and the temperature is lowered):[2]

For the maximum volume, we have:

considering a temperature of 100 C. To compute the optimal volume (dilution of oxygen from 21 to 15%), we have [3]

for a temperature of 500 C. The table below show some results, for rooms with a height of 2.70 m (8 ft 10 in).

Amount of water required to suppress the fire volume computation

Amount of liquid water Vw Area of the room Volume of the room Vr maximum optimal

25 m (30 yd) 50 m (60 yd) 70 m (84 yd)

67.5 m 135 m 189 m

39 L (9.4 gal) 5.4 L (1.3 gal) 78 L (19 gal) 11 L (2.7 gal) 110 L (26 gal) 15 L (3.6 gal)

Note that the formulas give the results in cubic meters, which are multiplied by 1,000 to convert to liters. Of course, a room is never really closed, gases can go in (fresh air) and out (hot gases and water vapour) so the computations will not be exact.

Notes
^ indeed, the mass of one mole of water is 18 g, a liter (0.001 m) represents one kilogram i.e. 55.6 moles, and at 500 C (773 K), 55.6 moles of an ideal gas at atmospheric pressure represents a volume of 3.57 m. ^ same as above with a temperature of 100 C (373 K), one liter of liquid water produces 1.723 m of vapour ^ we consider that only Vr - Vv of the original room atmosphere remains (Vv has been replaced by water vapour). This atmosphere contains less than 21% of oxygen (some was used by the fire), so the remaining amount of oxygen represents less than 0,21(Vr-Vv). The concentration of oxygen is thus less than 0,21(VrVv)/Vr, and we want this fraction to be 0.15 (15%).

See also
Glossary of firefighting list of firefighting terms and acronyms, with descriptions Glossary of firefighting equipment expansion of Glossary of firefighting Glossary of wildfire terms expansion of Glossary of firefighting Index of firefighting articles alphabetical list of firefighting articles

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fire fighting: Information from Answers.com

Outline of firefighting structured list of firefighting topics, organized by subject area

References
1. ^ a b http://www.fireservice.co.uk/history 2. ^ Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assasination of Julius Caeser, M. Dillon Accessed: 10/6/2012 3. ^ Essentials of Fire Fighting and Fire Department Operations 5th Edition . 2008. 4. ^ a b c Thomson Delmar Learning. The Firefighter's Handbook: Essentials of Fire Fighting and Emergency Response. Second Edition. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Publishers, 2004. 5. ^ Firefighting stiffens arteries, impairs heart function 6. ^ a b Hall, Richard. Essentials of Fire Fighting. Fourth Edition. Stillwater, OK: Fire Protection Publications, 1998: 7. ^ Bernard Klaene. Structural Firefighting: Strategies and Tactics. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2007. ISBN 07637-5168-5, ISBN 978-0-7637-5168-5 8. ^ NBC4.com 9. ^ Thevillager.com

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