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The language teachers development Steve Mann (In service teachers) http://wrap-test.warwick.ac.uk/3249/1/WRAP_Mann_State_of__ART.pdf Mann, S. J. (2005).

The language teachers development. Language teaching,38(3), 103-118. Defining teacher development

Self development of a teacher is a key concept within teaching as self direction and autonomy is given throughout years of practice and mistakes. Core themes in teacher development

To summarise the discussion above, the following key themes can inform discussion of teacher knowledge, reflection and collaboration. Language teacher development:

- is a bottomup process and as such can be contrasted with topdown staff development programmes; - values the insider view rather than the outsider view; - is independent of the organisation but often functioning more successfully with its support and recognition; - is a continuing process of becoming and can never be finished; - is a process of articulating an inner world of conscious choices made in response to the outer world of the teaching context; - is wider than professional development and includes personal, moral and value dimensions; - can be encouraged and integrated in both training and education programmes. Teacher knowledge and teacher development

Recent work (e.g. Raths & McAninch 1999) offers a breadth of writing on teacher knowledge. This section considers the variety of knowledge that informs language teachers practice. Some of this knowledge is received knowledge (Wallace 1991) and some of it is more personal or individual, and arises from experience and reflection on experience. This section considers where this knowledge comes from, what form it takes and how it maintains a reflexive relationship with development. The relationship between teacher knowledge, teacher education and teacher development is one that continues to change and need examination.

Individual knowledge

There has been movement away from a transmission of knowledge framework (Fanselow 1988), in which knowledge about teaching and related topics are delivered, towards a view of teacher education as ongoing engagement between received knowledge and experiential knowledge (Wallace 1991). This approach inevitably draws more attention to the processes of individual development. Johnson & Golombek (2002: 3) talk about a new scholarship that articulates an epistemology of practice that characterizes teachers as legitimate knowers, producers of legitimate knowledge, and as capable of constructing and sustaining their own professional practice over time. Knowledge and teacher education

Does this shift from a transmission model of teacher education to a constructivist model (Roberts 1998) meet participants expectations of teacher education pro grammes? There may still be tensions between a desire from students for hard information and teacher educators increasing reliance on, and belief in, the constructivist power of collaborative small groups (Bailey & Willet 2004: 15). Small group learning in teacher education has two core tensions. Students are positioned in new, often unfamiliar, collaborative roles and they may also feel deprived of the instructors voice. Students therefore need to be prepared adequately for this way of working, a s they may have unclear expectations. Essentially, these difficulties with roles and expectations are very similar to language learners reservations about cooperative learning. Where a teacher is able to stay in their teaching context, enriched by reading, reflective teaching and action research, the experience usually leads to sustained development (Edge & Richards 1993; Edge 2001).Richards (2002) claims several advantages of such distance modes of teacher education. As well as lower costs (teachers can usually continue with their job and live at home), it is more likely that the teacher will have opportunities to theorise from practice. Reflection, research and development

As a dialogue, reflection is a process of inner conversation and in this cognitive space the language teacher develops awareness of practice, which is an outcome of a reflexive dialogue between knowledge and experience and can happen individually and collaboratively. The process of making explicit teachers practice through reflection has been influential in shaping our current understanding of current classroom practice.

Some teachers might find difficult to sustain a reflecting approach to practice. For this reason, there are a several ways to motivate, prompt, guide and build a monitoring process. Recent guides to reflective practice and particular models of reflective cycles have been put forward in order to explore reflextive inquire, critical reflection and structured reflection. A number of studies have demonstrated that more reflective teachers are better able to respond to changing needs of learners and to make real-time decisions. Furthermore, structured reflection has been used as a means of investigating teachers beliefs, cognitive processes and decision-making practices Reflection, exploration and evaluation

Regarding teaching, leaning and development is better conducted through a process of reflection, self-monitoring and self-evaluation. The process of exploration as a reflective tool has been contrasted with the research agenda and problem-orientation of action research (Allwrht 2005). As a form of reflexive inquiry, exploratory practice is often presented as a less daunting proposition than research and one that uses familiar classroom activities, rather than academic research techniques, as the investigative tools (Allwright & Lenzuen 1997: 73). Allwright (1999) discusses the inter relationships and differing contributions of reflective practice, exploratory practice and action research as models for language teacher development. Such exploratory and reflective processes create opportunities for ongoing evaluation. Teacher educators have become more conscious that awareness of the role of ongoing, formative and illuminative evaluation needs to be part of programmes. Mann (2004) outlines how experienced teachers combine self evaluation, peer-evaluation and learner-evaluation to provide multiple perspectives on classroom phenomena. Raths & Lyman (2003) argue that summative evaluation of student teachers by trainers creates a one-dimensional view of evaluation. Teacher trainees need guidance in taking on responsibility for selfevaluation and for considering other evaluative possibilities. The case for fostering a more on-going view of self-evaluation, as a necessary requirement for language teacher development, is made by Smith (2005). In particular, she recommends the use of self-evaluation questionnaires in order to provide insight into evaluative processes. Copland (2004) examines the relationship between planning and postlesson evaluation. Moore (2002) and Tucker et al. (2003) argue for the use of portfolios to challenge language teachers reliance on summative evaluation.

A number of studies (e.g. Holland & Adams 2002; Lee 2002) report on success, when a supervisory relationship is mitigated by an alternative formative evaluation process. Change as development

Innovation and change is crucial in teacher development. Considering new ideas to maintain learners interest in the classroom, exploring the relationship between professional development and teacher change in order to present a model where significant change in teachers attitudes and beliefs occurs primarily a fter improvements in student learning become evident. Whenever the teaching practice becomes over-routinised, the scenario loses reality. Wu (2002) and Tomlinson (2003) argue that changes in course design and materials are developmental. However, despite many claimed advantages, change and development can be a difficult process. Clarke (2003) details the many pressures, constraints and difficulties that need to be overcome, and provides a systems perspective for changing, developing and learning. He also provides suggestions for aligning thought and action in teaching. ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Introducing peer observation of teaching to GP teachers: a questionnaire study LESLEY ADSHEAD, PATRICK T. WHITE & ANNE STEPHENSON (In service teachers)

http://informahealthcare.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01421590600617533 Adshead, L., White, P. T., & Stephenson, A. (2006). Introducing peer observation of teaching to GP teachers: a questionnaire study. Medical teacher,28(2), e68-e73. Practice points

Most of the teachers that have undergone the process of observation believed it would help them to reflect more on their teaching, to set clearer learning goals with students, and to try out new teaching methods. Peer observation was designed to meet the twin aims of teacher development and quality assurance. Teachers views suggest these two aims may conflict. By imposing peer observation, we could create distance and suspicion between the university department and practice-based teachers.

All the fears teachers may bear about scrutiny must be struggled and we need to redefine the role of the observation towards a quality guarantee process and to use it for teacher development only. Peer observation

The main issue of the observation would be done by teachers themselves, working in pairs, with educationalists providing training in peer-observation and doing some specialized observation Individual GP teachers would choose their peer observer and support and guidance in this process would be given. Peer observation, as proposed, would be done in fourstages, usually once a year. We suggest a set of guiding lines towards the observing process: 1. teacher and observer would identify issues for the observation before the teaching session 2. The teaching session would ideally be video-recorded, if not possible, an audio recording would be accepted. 3. Observer and peer observed would then meet for joint discussion of the session. Examples of good practice and areas for development would be identified and future teaching strategies identified. 4. The observer and the peer observed is expected to prepare a report of the. A mutually agreed copy would be submitted to the department. PO would: Increase confidence as a teacher Encourage clearer learning goals with students Help towards reflecting the teaching practice Help improve education of future teachers Encourage trying new teaching methods Provide an instrument to evaluate problems in the teaching practice through a written and visual record.

Obstacles to taking part in peer observation

Some observed peers might feel intimidated or under scrutiny during the process of observation. The feeling of unease that emerges from being observed by an experienced teacher, seems understandable, but not from a peer as it decreases the level of anxiety. Two thirds of GP teachers (66%) agreed that peer observation would take up too much time and involve too much paperwork. However, we found no significant associations (univariate and multivariate logistic regression) between GP teachers reports of high workload (number of clinical sessions per week, number of patients seen in morning and afternoon/evening surgeries, number of patients per whole time equivalent partner, length of appointments, type of on-call system, number of out of hours sessions, number of students taught) and their decision whether or not to take part in peer observation. Anxiety about the impact of peer observation was reflected in individual statements in the open questions of the questionnaire and in the focus group: Time pressures:

In a job where I feel I barely keep my head above water, I feel (at the present time) supervised teaching practice would feel like an extra burden rather than a useful tool. (GP No. 65, questionnaire.) I am so overworked and stressed anything else will tip me over the edge. (GP No. 279, questionnaire.) . Being observed in their role of teacher: Big Brother is watching you scenario. (GP No. 352, questionnaire.) Find being observed threatening, always have and find that I invariably do things differently . (GP No. 60, questionnaire.) . The motives of the medical school department: What has it come to replace anyway? It might be that you are doing quality control. But have there been complaints about teachers. (GP 2, focus group.) . . . you feel there is a different agenda . . . . (GP 4, focus group.) . Risk of losing teachers with this initiative: Would feel ill at ease, would probably put me off teaching (GP No. 243, questionnaire.)

. . .my impression is that you would lose a lot of tutors through this . . . I think the medical school has to remember that we dont have to teach (GP 5, focus group.) ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Peer Coaching at the Junior College Level: Developing a Non-Threatening Environment J. F., & Preston, K. M (in service teachers) http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED339410.pdf Minor, J. F., & Preston, K. M. (1991). Peer Coaching at the Junior College Level: Developing a Non-Threatening Environment. Peer coaching encourages instructors to learn about the art of teaching from and with their associates. It is a means of keeping valuable experience for both the beginner teacher and the teaching student. One of the major problems in education is the isolation of teachers for much of their careers. Peer coaching can be aneffective means of helping instructors connect with one anotherand to help keep their teaching styles fresh.It is an excellentway to either make use of a networking wstem or to start one. Peer coaching should not achieve a place in the educational system where by it The peer coaching process at OJC has met with some hostil-ity.Only after careful planning sessions with the faculty could the following ground rules be set: 1. The administration is not to participate in an peer observations or in any feedback sessions. 2.The process must be non-evaluative and non-punitive and yet have the support of the administration. 3.The process is not intended to replace administrative or student evaluations. 4.There are no tried and true rules for the process; it is to develop according to each instructor's needs. 5.The administration is required to provide staff development sessions during in services.

6.All peer encounters will be positive in nature and confidentiality will be preserved by all parties. 7.The administration will require faculty members to turn incompleted, approved, peer observation forms three times a year stating that peer coaching has taken place. The key in establishing a peer-coaching program is the development and guarantee of nonthreatening environments. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Models of Peer Observation of Teaching David Gosling http://learningandteaching.vu.edu.au/teaching_practice/improve_my_teaching/evaluation_su pport_for_my_teaching/Resources/id200_Models_of_Peer_Observation_of_Teaching.pdf Gosling, D. (2002). Models of peer observation of teaching. Generic Centre: Learning and Teaching Support Network. Retrieved, 8(10), 08. Peer observation in teaching is also often used as part of a training course for new lecturers or as part of a development process as a consensus. Here, the observer occupies the role of the expert - although still a peer. The welcoming of comments from the observer is a powerful tool to improve the learning experience in future teaching. Althogh both are just starting the teaching practice, peers have a great quantity of knowledge to share in terms of attititudes, techniques and approaches that they themselves are using at the moment. They might set a discussion on what is working better for them and how the observed peers may consider to change in order to make improvements in their teaching style. One of the most valuable sources teachers have to reflect and improve in their practice is the judgement of another teachers. In this case, students observe students that are basically undergoing the same teaching program with a year in advance.

As peers what knowledge do we bring to the process of observing others teach? There is a view that none of us are qualified to make judgements on the teaching of our peers, and that our judgements (Cosh, 98). Many subject lecturers focus their discussions on course content, not on learning processes, because that is where they feel best qualified to comment.

Evidence from American research in 1970s suggested that the greatest influence on the way we teach is neither theories of education nor our training, but is instead our notion of good teaching derived from our own experience of being taught (Lorte, 1975 - quoted by Cosh 98:173). This calls into question the value of colleagues judgements. Experience given by teaching can be emulated by sharing comments about different practices given by teacher with the same level of experience. It is clear that there is not one only model of teaching and in this way, peer observation benefits both parties as it gives ideas for their teaching.

The emphasis should be on both parties learning from the observation to get away from the one-way model, when the observer comments on the observed. In this way both parties benefit from the process - I found it useful to watch someone else teach: it gave me ideas fo r my own teaching. (Martin and Double, 1998) The source of responsibility should not be regarded as solely with the individual teacher. By encouraging staff to think about a collective responsibility for teaching within a department the isolation of lecturers can be removed. Historically there have been a lack of safe places where discussion about teaching can take place. POT can play a large role in creating an environment in which such discussions can occur. Observers go further than only seeing teaching behaviours as they interpret what they see objectively in order to analyze it within constructive criticism . The experience and level of expertise of the observer influences what is seen and what is missed and what is thought to be important. To avoid subjectivity during observation, it is recommended to use more methodical means of collecting data, for example using observation schedules, check lists, time-line analysis, data on interactions, type of question asked and so on. It is significant for the observer to try to observe and record what happens and not rely on memory and interpretation without any evidence.

The chart describes three distinct models of POT a management model, a development model and a peer review model. CHARACTERISTIC Who does it & to whom? EVALUATION MODEL Senior staff observe other staff DEVELOPMENT MODEL Educational developers observe practitioners; or expert teachers observe others in department Demonstrate competency/impro ve teaching competencies; assessment report/action plan; pass/fail PGCert expert diagnosis expertise Between observer and the observed, examiner Selected/ sample How to improve; pass/fail Teaching performance, class, learning materials, The observed Effective central unit No shared ownership, lack of impact PEER REVIEW MODEL teachers observe each other

Purpose

Outcome Status of evidence Relationship of observer to observed Confidentiality

Identify underperformance, confirm probation, appraisal, promotion, quality assurance, assessment Report/judgement authority power Between manager, observer and staff observed Selected staff Pass/fail, score, quality assessment, worthy/unworthy Teaching performance Institution Embedded management processes Alienation, lack of co-operation, opposition

engagement in discussion about teaching; self and mutual reflection

Analysis, discussion, wider experience of teaching methods peer shared perception equality/mutuality Between observer and the observed shared within learning set all Non-judgemental, constructive feedback Teaching performance, class, learning materials, Mutual between peers Teaching is valued, discussed Complacency, conservatism, unfocused

Inclusion Judgement What is observed? Who benefits? Conditions for success Risks

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Using Peer Coaching with Preservice Teachers to Develop Reflective Practice and Collegial Support Stephanie A. Kurtts Barbara B. Levin

Kurtts, S. A., & Levin, B. B. (2000). Using peer coaching with preservice teachers to develop reflective practice and collegial support. Teaching Education, 11(3), 297-310. http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/B_Levin_Using_2000.pdf (I part) Peer coaching, also known as peer observation is a term used to define a process in which two or more colleagues, that is to say preservice and in service teachers, work together to improve their teaching skills by observing specific behaviors and techniques of their partners in the classroom and offering constructive feedback. Peer coaching can take many forms and is similar in structure to cognitive coaching and clinical supervision. Preservice teachers who will be involved in peer coaching are trained to use diffetent ways to observe and record the teaching behavior of their colleages and to provide feedback in a way that is nonjudgmental and nonthreatening. The program suggests to include detailed instructional feedback and practice with nondirective coaching techniques, including how to give specific praise and ask clarifying, eliciting, and leading questions during post-observation conferences. Among peer coaching activities, pre and post observation conferences plus written reflections by both the preservice teacher and the coach are required.

(Conclusion) Peer coaching appears to be a promising practice for helping new teachers (a) to develop as reflective practitioners, (b) to learn to transfer new skills to the classroom, and (c) to encourage peer support and feedback. Furthermore, as preservice teachers analyze their own lessons and those of their coaching partners, the collegiality resulting from interpersonal interactions appears to enhance their sense of professionalism acquired through field-base experiences. As beginning teachers move from concerns of self to concerns regarding the impact of their actions on the educational experiences of students, reflection becomes an agent for the development of teachers who are confident and skilled decision-makers

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Mann, S. J. (2005). The language teachers development. Language teaching,38(3), 103-118. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

Making it their own C Stuart, D Thurlow

Stuart, C., & Thurlow, D. (2000). Making it their own: Preservice teachers' experiences, beliefs, and classroom practices. JOURNAL OF TEACHER EDUCATION-WASHINGTON DC-, 51(2), 113-121. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: http://www.soe.vt.edu/elementaryed/faculty/barksdale/docs/AndersonBarksHite.pdf Nancy A. Anderson, Mary Alice Barksdale, Clare E. Hite Anderson, N. A., Barksdale, M. A., & Hite, C. E. (2005). Preservice Teachers' Observations of Cooperating Teachers and Peers While Participatring in an Early Field Experience. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(4), 97. ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: http://cie.asu.edu/volume8/number14/index.html#discussion Heider, K. L. (2005). Teacher isolation: How mentoring programs can help. Current Issues in Education, 8(14). Reducing Teacher Isolation through Peer Coaching In novice teacher learning communities, large numbers of beginning teachers get together several times a school year to share ideas, discuss problems, or confide in each other. In peer coaching, two or three teachers with varying levels of experience observe each others lessons, share strategies, discuss solutions to problems, or conduct research in the classroom on a weekly or even daily basis (Robbins, 1991). Because the relationship is confidential, participants are not being formally evaluated as part of the process, and peers meet and interact on a regular basis, new teachers who are part of a peer coaching relationship find it much easier to confide in their fellow mentors. As a result, they build closer relationships with their colleagues and feel like they are part of a team. Other benefits of peer coaching include a heightened awareness of ones own strengths and weaknesses, an openness to new ideas, an increase in self-efficacy, higher motivation levels, and a shift from subject-centered instruction to student-centered instruction (Slater & Simmons, 2001). Participants in a university study conducted by Jenkins and Veal in 2002 experienced all of these benefits and more. After being trained in the methods of peer coaching in a secondary pedagogy course, eight preservice teachers used those methods to complete field experiences required in their elementary pedagogy course. Each of the eight preservice teachers taught kindergarten, second, or fourth grade classes over a two-month period while being observed by a peer who was not teaching. After the observations, the teachers and peer coaches had private conferences which began with positive comments from the coaches. Teachers initiated all discussion about their lessons with the coaches interjecting only to ask for clarification or encourage reflection. This entire process was repeated fifteen times, until each participant had served as teacher eight times and coach eight times. Being able to discuss their teaching in a non-threatening environment made the experience enjoyable for all the participants. In addition, all eight preservice teachers felt that their

pedagogy improved and said that they saw themselves using the skills and techniques they had learned while peer coaching throughout their teaching careers (Jenkins & Veal, 2002). Unfortunately, peer coaching is not a popular mentoring practice in the United States. Most teachers in America never get to see their colleagues teach or have colleagues observe their teaching. Observations are almost always done by administrators a few times a year in a formal, threatening manner which results in little reflection on the part of the teacher. In China, Japan, New Zealand, and Switzerland, however, new teachers often observe other new teachers, mentors, teachers in the same grade or subject, and teachers of other grades or subjects (Britton, Raizen, Paine & Huntley, 2000). Beginning teachers can benefit from observing other new teachers and support each other. Peer coaching should not only be limited to new teachers. Best practices are usually found in the more experienced teachers classrooms. Expanding the range of grades increases content knowledge and improves pedagogy as teachers observing other grades classes can focus not only in content, but also in classroom management The National Commission on Teaching and Americas Future (2002) writes, The era of solo teaching in isolated classrooms is over. To support quality teaching our schools must support strong professional learning communities (p. 13). Peer coaching is a means by which Americas schools can overcome isolation and build collegial environments that improve teacher retention rates and, ultimately, classroom instruction. :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: http://techblog.psd401.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/peer_coach_article.pdf Becker, J. M. (1996). Peer coaching for improvement of teaching and learning. Retrieved September, 19, 2006.

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