Collaborative Writing

Making Teams WorkTeam Development Collaboration plays an important role in the productivity of organizations. Professionals and students are finding themselves entrenched in climates that value collective efforts to problem solving over the input of the individual. With this change has come a fervor to explore the elements of collaboration what impacts it, how does it work, how can it be taught, and most importantly, how can it be done effectively. In an attempt to prepare our audience of graduate students in the program of professional and technical writing for the challenges faced during collaboration, I have researched four key areas of collaboration determined to impact our audience: How to development an effective collaborative team What are the roles of symbolic interactions and identity in team conflict and conflict resolution during collaboration How can technical writers make collaboration work with subject matter experts
How do cultural differences impact virtual collaborations

Understanding personalities may be optional in many cases, but if you intend to build an effective project team, it is a prerequisite. This understanding is important to successful team building in any setting. Simply stated, without an understanding and consideration of personalities on the front-end, a teams effectiveness can be impeded if not destroyed on the

back-end. Lets face it, the fact is we all have personalities, differing according to types, and these personalities do affect our behavior at work. Teams are no exception! As the workplace grows in diversity, it is incumbent upon managers and employees to expand their knowledge bases concerning personalities as these affect the business of the workplace. The question is not whether we as leaders and future leaders will choose to make ourselves more aware and conscious of personality types, especially as we select members of groups and teams for collaborative work, but how we will go about doing it. What is personality, and what are some of the ways it can be accessed? How does personality impact work teams? Most of us probably think of ourselves as being rational, objective, and sensitive at least most of the time. But, in truth, we do not always see ourselves as others see us, nor do we always understand the impact of our emotions on others. We all have emotions and we all react differently to people and situations. Emotions can influence the way you interact with others and how you make decisions, both of which influence how well a team functions, (Bennett, Gadlin, and Levine-Finley 7). For example, according to Bennett, Gadlin, and Levine-Finley in Collaboration & Team Science, research shows that being unaware of your own strong emotional reactions may have negative consequences including: Narrowing vision and creativity Stifling curiosity, openness, and playfulness of mind Hindering ability to recognize nuances Distorting perceptions (7)

Such findings as this have strong implications for team building. If we as individuals are not attuned to our own emotions and emotional reactions, and team leaders are not aware of

personality types, the teams we lead and serve may already be on a collision course or destined for failure. In Collaboration and Team Science: A Field Guide, the authors raise the subject of emotional intelligence as a way to help overcome our lack of knowledge concerning emotions. They state: Emotional intelligence is the subject of many books, articles, and presentations that highlight the notion that characteristics such as self-awareness, the ability to build healthy personal relationships, and understanding of the impact of emotions (our own as well as those of the people with whom we interact) are extremely important to effective leadership. In addition, this concept also addresses the ability to be aware of the greater context in which you and others operate. This recognition may facilitate communication, conflict management, and the skill to motivate others. Psychologist Daniel Goleman (1998) has suggested that emotional intelligence among leaders might be more important than how smart they are otherwise. He also suggests that, with practice, emotional intelligence can be learned (7, 8).

Perhaps you are now wondering exactly what is emotional intelligence? Alan Chapman in Emotional Intelligence (EQ) provides a more simplified definition than Wikipedia and some other sources revealed in the search of the literature. Chapman both defines and summarizes emotional intelligence as follows: Emotional Intelligence - EQ - is a relatively recent behavioral model, rising to prominence with Daniel Goleman's 1995 Book called 'Emotional Intelligence'. The early Emotional Intelligence theory was originally developed during the 1970s and 80s by the work and writings of psychologists Howard Gardner (Harvard), Peter Salovey (Yale) and John 'Jack' Mayer (New Hampshire). Emotional Intelligence is increasingly relevant to organizational development and developing people, because the EQ principles provide a new way to understand and assess people's behaviors, management styles, attitudes, interpersonal skills, and potential. Emotional Intelligence is an important consideration in human resources planning, job profiling, recruitment interviewing and selection, management development, customer relations and customer service, and more(12).

A review of the literature indicated a vast range of definitions of varying degrees of technical complexities and depth for the concept of personality. For example, in the The Structure of Personality Attributes, Gerard Saucier and Lewis R. Goldberg record that Allport (1937) catalogued fifty distinct meanings-some from literary, theological, philosophical, juristic, and sociological traditions and others stressing external appearances or psychological constructs. The definition he proposedpersonality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his [her] unique adjustments to his [her] environment (48). According to Saucier and Goldberg, funder (2001) provided a more down-to-earth rendition: an individuals characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior, together with the psychological mechanismshidden or notbehind these patterns (2). In Personality and Social Behavior, Frederick Rhodewalt offers this definition based on Pervins work: Personality is the complex organization of cognitions, affects, and behaviors that give direction and pattern (coherence) to the persons lifepersonality consists of both structures and processes and reflects both nature (genes) and nurture experience. Rhodewalt advocates an understanding of personality based on the study of the human mind (cf. Kelly, 1955) rather than a concept that defines persons merely as sum totals of behaviors or what people do in situational contexts. His perspective is to strive to understand personality and social behavior by exploring the mental systemsthe socialcognitive and affective structures and processesthat contribute to the coherent and distinctive patterns of experience and action that are the hallmarks of personality (261).

Kendra Cherry, who holds a Bachelor of Science in Psychology Degree from Idaho State University, and who is a writer specializing in psychology, child development, and education, has offered the following simplified definition of personality: Personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a person unique. In addition to this, personality arises from

within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life (psychology.about.com).

As these selected references indicate, the literature on the theories and definitions for personality is vast and complex. In terms of the impact that personality has on our behavior and actions, based on the research, it is probably safe to conclude that personality not only influences how we respond in situations, but it is also the cause of why we act in certain ways. The collaboration between individuals in the workplace or in an academic setting can be challenging; not only for the team members but also the team manager. The development of team, planning and tracking the teams progress, managing team conflicts, and the ability to sustain an effective team are critical factors in team management. I will discuss these factors and show their significance when working within team projects. Teams come together in the workplace and in classrooms because they are required, or maybe the individuals work in the same department. Little is known about each others work ethic or personality. This can cause disruption and controversy within the team, which can lead to a destructive team that doesnt accomplish the task at hand. One way companies, schools, or other institutions are developing successful teams is by learning more about the individuals personality traits. This is important for the following reasons: Understanding can unlock elusive human qualities such as: leadership, empathy, organization, etc. Can radically improve team dynamics by presenting a clear picture of the strengths and benefits associated with specific personality traits, while giving everyone the tools and common language needed to harness individual potential

Having diverse personalities within a given team can be a tremendous advantage to an organization

Understanding and capitalizing on this asset can enhance productivity, efficiency, and creativity while decreasing unproductive conflict

All of these reasons can be measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Test (MBTI). This test was the product of three people: Isabel Briggs Myers, her mother Katharine Briggs, and the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung. They designed a questionnaire based on Jungs system so that people could understand themselves and others. In the last fifteen years or so, the MBTI personality inventory has become the most widely used assessment instrument for working with normally functioning individuals. The MBTI explains four different dimensions of personality: How you focus your energy and attention How you gather information How you make decisions How you approach the outer world

The test includes questions that ask about these topics specifically. Based on the answers given, the test will give the individual a grade. The numeric grade will show the individuals preferences to each of the topics, including: Extraversion or Introversion Sensing or Intuition

Thinking or Feeling Judging or Perceiving

These are some of the characteristics of each topic in the MBTI test. There are sixteen personality types that can be assessed with the MBTI test. These characteristics can tell how a person will react in different situations and around other team members. After the questions in the test are scored the test taker receives a four-letter score to define their personality. I took the test for my research and I am defined as an ESTJExtrovert, Sensing, Thinking, Judging. My scores reflect that: The ESTJ puts forth a lot of effort in almost everything that they do. They will do everything that they think should be done in their job, marriage, and community with a good amount of energy. He or she is conscientious, practical, realistic, and dependable. While the ESTJ will dutifully do everything that is important to work towards a particular cause or goal, they might not naturally see or value the importance of goals which are outside of their practical scope. However, if the ESTJ is able to see the relevance of such goals to practical concerns, you can bet that they'll put every effort into understanding them and incorporating them into their quest for clarity and security(38).

This test is beneficial for any group because of how opposites may work well from each other. For example, it may be beneficial for individuals that need more direction with instructions (sensing to be paired with a thinker, someone that strives to be very clear in the delivery of instructions. Practical applications for personality types can be used for career guidance, managing employees, inter-personal relationships, education, and counseling. It will show what types of tasks individuals are suited to perform, how to understand and be aware of anothers individuals personality, and how we can understand ourselves to effectively communicate and work with different types of people. All of these characteristics play off of

one another. If a team has a diverse mix of personalities, that have been developed thoughtfully using this test, then the probability of success is high. In a recent research study, The Development and Validation of a Personality Instrument to Increase Team Collaboration, Rita Coombs Richardson and Thomas A. DeVaney made a significant contribution to the literature on the subject of how personality profiles can be helpful in understanding personality in work settingshow understanding the personality types of team members can be helpful in dealing with conflict and in enhancing collaboration. In their examination of personality profiles for effective collaboration, Coombs Richardson and Devaney stated the following: Becoming aware of ones own personality type and the personality type of others can be helpful in developing intra-personal and inter-personal growth. Personality identification has been used for many purposes in various organizations; to forecast a workers ability to fill certain roles, to establish harmonious relationships, to determine team effectiveness, and to predict future behavior (Barbian 2001). Individuals with opposite personality preferences can work together to achieve common goals when they understand that the mixture of strengths can contribute to the job. One way that companies and institution have attempted to increase productivity is through building teams. Varvel, et al. (2004) found that individuals who were trained on the types of personality of team members were helped to improve communication, trust, and interdependence in spite of differences. Briggs, Copeland, and Hayes (2006) proposed that a heterogeneous mix is actually preferable in most organizationsunderstanding personality types and patterns of behavior can provide a useful framework for collaboration (121, 126).

Can Cultural Differences Affect Teams? Two areas of research that Barrick mentions and that will offer interesting insights for collaboration are research studies that deal with the determinants of expatriate performance where the importance of culture for example, adjusting to an environment other than ones own is acknowledged, and how leadership is affected by culture. For example, according to the

literature, House et al. (1997) reviewed cross-cultural differences and concluded that Hofstedes four constructs (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, and masculinity versus femininity; (1980) were the most useful for describing and differentiating cultures. Triandis and Suh (2002) suggested a hierarchical structure consisting of fourcomplexity, tightness, collectivism, and individualism-at the highest level, with sub-dimensions of collectivism and individualism. These cultural variables need to be incorporated into our models of performance if we expect to understand the conditions under which our models are accurate portraits of the determinants of performance. 1 Barrick raises another interesting point having to do with personality assessment tools and culture. He states that an important issue when studying personality and culture is the structure of personality across culture. As mentioned previously, the Meyers-Briggs test has been used to some extent for this purpose but with limitations as proponents of the Test have acknowledged. Why is information that may be learned from this kind of research important? For one thing as researchers attending a conference on Work-team Dynamics and Productivity in the Context of Diversity last October concluded, the challenge before us is, to understand the interactive effects of multiple diversitieshow to determine the relative saliency of the different identities an individual may bring to a work team. We should be explicit in recognizing the multiple sources of identity for example, racial identity, gender identity, ethnic identify, and functional-group identity and not assume that all operate the same in a work team or that one can be a surrogate for another (Skevington & Baker, 1989; Tinsley, 1994). Others of the same group proposed a framework for studying diversity in work groups that looks at personality and cognitive and behavioral style as one of five clusters that they

believe have different effects on groups. It is true that simply placing people on teams and work groups is no guarantee of team effectiveness. We need frameworks that will assist us in getting people to listen to every member, to consider all viewpoints, and to exercise courtesy and respect for each other, and [understand personality types and styles] 2

Managing Team Conflict Conflict is a natural part of our daily lives. Conflict ranges from an inner struggle over a decision, to an outward all-out battle with a person. Within a team, conflict is sure to arise, but the way that you, as a manager, handle that conflict will determine whether it makes the team (and project) stronger or weaker.

Prevention An important component to resolving conflict is simply to prevent it. Clear communication plays a critical role. As a manager you have to make sure that you are communicating well, which means that your communication is being received in the way you intend it. It is also important to make sure that your group members are communicating clearly with each other. Many things can hinder communication, such as: different communication styles, genders, personalities, or cultures. Creating awareness of this in your team by using Myers-Briggs (or another personality indicator) and having an introductory group meeting will assist your team in getting to know one another better. Another important way to prevent conflict is to establish a plan of action on the front end, or a team charter. In Wolfes book Team Writing she says, The official purpose of a team charter is to have a written statement of the teams priorities and norms that the team can use to resolve

any problems or confusion that may occur later in the project. The unofficial purpose, particularly when team members have not worked together before, is to air any differences that they might have in goals, expectations, and commitment levels before the project begins (Wolfe, 28). Wolfe goes on to detail what could/should be included in the charter: Overall, broad team goals for the project Measurable, specific team goals Personal goals Individual level of commitment to the project Other information about team members that may affect the project Statement of how the team will resolve impasses Statement of how the team will handle missed deadlines Statement of what constitutes unacceptable work and how the team will handle this

The book, The Dos and Donts of Work Team Coaching offers additional helpful advice for preventing conflict: Keep individual and team goals reasonable and attainable Be sure that workers duties and responsibilities are clearly defined, that they understand why particular procedures are in place, and that all necessary tools are available Encourage team members to openly share their knowledge with one another and to exchange ideas, techniques and helpful tips. Coach

individuals to avoid being offended when another worker offers a suggestion, points out an error, or has an alternate opinion Resolution Let me reiterate: conflict happens every day. It is an unavoidable part of life. So if youve taken, but Susie still has an issue with Bobbyall is not lost! As Brown, et al say First, recognize that your goal is to manage the conflict, not necessarily resolve it (Brown, et al, 131). This certainly frees the manager from bearing all the responsibility of the break down. Recognizing that you cant fix the problem, but you can shape it into something good for the group, is a good place to start. Secondly, you need to realize that ignoring the conflict will not help the situation. Garton and Wegryn say, The key is to do something immediately when you suspect there is a problem. If you are mistaken and there is no problem, your team members will not be insulted or upset that you asked questionsIt will increase confidence in your abilities and motivations regarding conflict, and the team members will feel more comfortable approaching you about issues in the future (Garton and Wegryn, 293). Pretending like there is no problem only has the potential to make the problem worse, and confronting a potential problem only creates better communication within the group. Finally, if you find that there is a conflict in the group, the keys to handling the conflict could be summarized by Brown, et al: Get the facts there are two sides to every story. Get as many perspectives of the problem as you can. Stick to the issues at hand misunderstandings easily give way to heated arguments when conversation turns to personal attacks or unrelated issues. Make

sure that you, as manager, assist in keeping the conversation about the issues at hand. Get together with everyone involved face-to-face communication is the best way to handle conflict because voice tone, inflection, and body language can be conveyed. . More than 70 percent of communication is nonverbal, particularly in an emotional This obviously creates a dilemma for teams that cannon meet faceto-face. In this scenario, it would be worthwhile to try to communicate via Skype or some other web conferencing tool. Even a phone conversation has the potential to ease tension, because, again, voice inflection can be heard. Acknowledge cooperation, even if it is small praise progress. If one person finally comes to understand the others position, praise that! Positive thinking, talking, and leading will leak out into the rest of the group and help to put out the fire. Also letting the individuals know that this isnt about you it is about the team and that youre all in this together will help to create a positive atmosphere. Ask leading questions lead the individuals to resolution by asking questions that will help them see the end result. Be the mediator, keep the calm, listen actively and respond to what is being said. Stay neutral and nonjudgmental. If necessary, take a time out If people get too emotional they cannot hear what the other side is saying. Sometimes taking a break from communication (letting everyone sleep on it) will help some of the tension to fizzle. So, if needed, take a break, regroup, and try again tomorrow.

A number of team members face conflict and have a hard time resolving this conflict because they lack team wisdom, as proposed by Christopher Avery, Meri Walker, and Erin OToole (2001) which is apparent when, as they say, people: Understand and act on all of their personal abilities to affect their entire teams effectiveness Know that being in a good team isnt random. Instead, it is a function of ones relationship behavior and what you and others do Take personal responsibility for the quality of their relationships. They never wait for those in charge to notice and act on a situation that needs attention (26)

Traditionally, as (Dean Tjosvold et al. 2003) have said, conflict is presumed to be destructive, and should be avoided. However, they say, it has been arguedconflict can contribute substantially to organizational work (69). Furthermore, the authors say studies have shown the usefulness of conflict, e.g., for strategic decision making through such means as devils advocacy and challenging assumptions. Moreover, they say studies indicate when approaching conflict to discuss it directly this can be constructive, but avoiding conflict is ineffectual (70). Certain types of conflict produce constructive results. Task conflict (Tjosvold et al.) where members operate as a team, might be helpful when team members are challenged to remedy ineffective decisions; thereby, allowing them to develop more adequate approaches. Another type of conflictrelationalwhere members treat each other as individuals, typically does not offer a constructive result. Instead this type of conflict might disrupt coordination,

reduce commitment or breakdown performance (70). Ultimately, when conflict is approached in a competitive, win-lose frame of mind, this approach typically will undermine both task performance and relationships. Thereby, openly discussing conflict typically signals stronger, more cooperative relationships, avoiding the competitive and win-lose approaches (71). Tjosvold et al., quoting (Deutsch 1973) have argued . . . that resolving conflict directly and constructively, helps people work effectively together . . . leads them to appreciate each others abilities and believe that they can rely upon them (72). The opposite is true for those who decide to avoid conflict; they say there is no need to rely on others. The point is, conflict can surface in both team types and can either be confronted, or avoided. I am not totally convinced the face-to-face interaction will allow for better handling of conflict over the virtual teams inability to see one another, especially if there is not a video conference taking place, which would go against my initial thought of no face-to-face interaction. Where one team might seem to succeed in handling conflict does not mean the other team is less able to handle conflict. Facing the conflict, I believe, will help make the team more cohesive. However the conflict is handled will determine the success of the team, will determine whether team members maintain trust with each other, will determine whether members feel as if they belong, and it definitely will determine whether there was a lesson learned from the process. Team members should get to know each other, build rapport, understand each others personality, skills, work on what is in common, fix those things which can be fixed, and learn from those which cannot, do not avoid conflict, but approach it with a group mind-set, provide timely and constructive feedback about performance, acknowledge the need factoreach member needs the other to make it work, no single member can do it alone, not without a fight.

Conclusion Although difficult, successful collaboration is possible. This review has attempted to provide practical solutions to the very real challenges this effort can produce. Understanding the challenges to workplace collaboration and understanding that there are strategies that counter challenges stemming from personality variances, group conflict, and conflict with subject matter experts, or cultural aspects of collaboration, is the first step towards success for the technical writers work in a team environment. Whether writers are students or professionals, this research offers practical theory explanation and recommendations to mitigate the chances that collaboration will fail.

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