23

CONTENTS

Quality and Safety of Frozen Eggs and Egg Products

Lih-Shiuh Lai
National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II. Selection of Raw Materials for the Processing of Frozen Eggs and Egg Products . . A. Before Breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. After Breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Albumen Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Yolk Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. Pretreatment before Freezing to Minimize Product Changes ................ A. Microbial Aspects: Pasteurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Rheological Aspects: Minimizing Gelation Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Addition of Cryoprotectant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. Freezing and Packaging of Egg Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. Quality of Frozen Eggs and Frozen Egg-Related Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Microbial Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Functional Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Product Performance Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

503 503 504 505 505 505 505 505 507 510 511 511 512 512 512 515 515 516 516

I. INTRODUCTION
Eggs are widely used in the preparation of various processed foods because of their versatile functions such as foaming properties, heat-induced gelation of egg albumen, emulsifying properties of egg yolk, and so on. To extend the shelf life of liquid eggs, they are commonly pasteurized, dehydrated, or frozen. The adequacy of performing functionalities of eggs after pasteurization, dehydration, or freezing determines the value of eggs in food products. In this chapter, issues related to improving functional performance of eggs after pasteurization and freezing would be reviewed. Generally, top quality frozen egg products should be prepared with appropriately stored fresh shell eggs with low bacteria count, followed by breaking operations with strict sanitation, temperature control, and rapid freezing operations, together with application of cryoprotectants.

II. SELECTION OF RAW MATERIALS FOR THE PROCESSING OF FROZEN EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS
Eggs are generally considered as tasty, wholesome, and nutritious food. Their protein value is high, and their calories and fat content are in moderation. In addition, eggs are easy to digest. Generally,
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they contain approximately 75% water, 12% protein, 10% lipid, all necessary vitamins (except vitamin C), and minerals [1 3]. Egg protein is known to be a nutritionally complete protein with an unenviable balance of amino acids. The protein value of whole egg proteins is considered to be 100. According to the World Health Organization, egg protein has the highest true digestibility among major food proteins. Because of its high quality, egg protein is used as a standard for measuring the nutritional quality of other food proteins. One egg contributes the same dietary requirements of protein as 35 g of meat. The protein content of two eggs is about 12 g, which corresponds to 30% of the dietary allowance recommended by the National Research Council in the United States [2]. Most of the egg lipids are contained in the yolk. Egg yolk contains triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols. The fatty acids in eggs are more unsaturated than those of most animal lipids. One egg may supply almost 12% vitamin A, more than 6% vitamin D, 9% riboavin, and 8% pantothenic acid of the recommended daily allowance in the United States [2]. The high nutritional value, low caloric content, blandness, and ease of digestibility make eggs quite popular. However, in the last two decades, these positive attributes of egg has suffered a blow because of the issues of cholesterol, food safety, allergies induced by eggs, mainly in children, as well as lack of convenience in preparation [1 3]. These issues have been addressed to a certain extent to t in the consumers new lifestyles and preferences. The functionality of eggs, such as coagulation, foaming, emulsifying, and contributing nutrients, make them widely used in cooking and in the preparation of various processed foods. In addition, eggs serve as color and avor ingredients, and in some instances, they are used to control the growth of sugar crystals. The adequacy of performing these functions determines the value of eggs in food products [4,5]. To be manufactured into various processed foods, shell eggs are rst broken into liquid products, including liquid whole egg, liquid egg whites, and liquid egg yolk. Liquid egg products are pasteurized to eliminate Salmonella. Unfortunately, many spoilage bacteria and spores remain viable after pasteurization. These organisms multiply rapidly to about 10 million cells per gram, by which time the egg product starts to deteriorate [6]. Furthermore, microorganisms release enzymes into the media in which they live. Some of these enzymes are heat-resistant, thus they will survive pasteurization. Refrigeration slows down this process and increases the shelf life of the product. Therefore, rapid breaking and pasteurization of the eggs immediately after being laid, as well as rapid cooling in pre- and postpasteurization periods dramatically reduces microbial and enzymatic risks. In addition to the microbial and enzymatic risks, the pH value of very fresh egg albumen is generally 7.6 7.9. Upon storing eggs at 258C for 6 days, the pH rises to 9.2 9.5, possibly due to carbon dioxide release from the eggs. A fall in the freshness of eggs is generally accompanied by a decrease in the viscosity and gel strength of egg albumen as well as a decrease in the foam stability of albumen and an increase in the temperature for heat-induced gelation during the processing applications [7]. Lowering storage temperature and shell oiling with light, food-grade mineral oils could slow down the escape of carbon dioxide and moisture of shell eggs and prevent the shrinkage and thinning of the egg white [8]. Therefore, top quality frozen egg products should be prepared with appropriately stored fresh shell eggs with low bacteria count, followed by breaking operations with strict sanitation, temperature control, and rapid cooling during pre- and postpasteurization process to minimize microbial hazards. Further-processed liquid eggs are then used to prepare chilled, frozen, or dried products.

A. BEFORE BREAKING
As mentioned earlier, top quality frozen egg products should be prepared with appropriately stored fresh shell eggs with low bacteria count. Candling is the most commonly used method to measure the freshness of an egg before breaking [8]. When an egg is candled, the yolk creates a denite shadow. For fresh eggs, the shadow is light, as the thick albumen tends to keep the yolk centralized within the shell. However as the egg ages, the albumen becomes thinner, allowing the yolk to

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approach the shell during candling with rapid rotation of the egg, therefore, creating a darker shadow. Yolk shadows could be affected by the color of the shells and yolks.

B. AFTER BREAKING
1. Albumen Quality After the egg is broken, the most widely used measurement of albumen quality is the Haugh unit [8], which is a measure of the height of the albumen after correcting the reading for differences in egg weight as follows: p 100 log H { G30(W 1000)0:37 100 1:9} HU 100 (23:1)

where HU is the Haugh unit, H the thick albumen height (mm), G a dimensional constant of 32.2, and W the weight of egg (kg). Generally, the HU values of albumen range from a high of above 100 to a low of less than 20. The higher the HU value, the thicker the albumen and the better the albumen quality. 2. Yolk Quality Yolk quality is determined by the shape and the color of yolks. The shape of yolk depends on the strength of the vitelline membrane and the chalaziferous albumen layer surrounding the yolk. In a freshly laid egg, the yolk is nearly spherical, and when the egg is broken out onto a at surface, the yolk stands high with only a little change in shape. After oviposition, the vitelline membrane and the chalaziferous albumen layer surrounding the yolk gradually undergo physical and chemical changes, which decrease their ability to maintain the yolks spherical shape. A general attening of the yolk upon breaking therefore results. For yolk color, processors of liquid, frozen, and dried egg products generally desire a darker yolk than do users of table eggs, as these products are usually used for mayonnaise, doughnuts, noodles, pasta, and other foods that depend on eggs for their yellowish color [8].

III. PRETREATMENT BEFORE FREEZING TO MINIMIZE PRODUCT CHANGES A. MICROBIAL ASPECTS: PASTEURIZATION
The egg breaking process transforms shell eggs into liquid products, including liquid whole egg, liquid egg whites, and liquid egg yolk. The Egg Products Inspection Act of 1970 [9] led to regulations requiring that all egg products, including liquid egg, be rendered free from Salmonella by the application of appropriate pasteurization process. Furthermore, the USDA [10] requires that all prepasteurized liquid egg products be refrigerated to holding temperature between 4.4 and 21.18C (40 and 708F) within 2 h from the time when the eggs are broken, as shown in Table 23.1. Minimum pasteurization temperature and holding times for pasteurizing various types of liquid egg products, as specied by the USDA [10], are listed in Table 23.2. It requires that liquid whole egg be heated to a least 608C (1408F) and be held for no less than 3.5 min for the average particle. Pasteurization specications could vary, as different time temperature combinations will provide the same pasteurization effect. In addition, pH values also affect the successful pasteurization of liquid eggs. For example, higher pH generally requires lower pasteurization temperature, as the alkaline pH of 9.0 is the most effective for destroying Salmonella. This is partly, why Salmonella is more heat-resistant in yolk than in whole egg. Yolk has lower pH and higher solid content and hence must be pasteurized under a higher temperature than whole egg

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TABLE 23.1 Maximum Holding Temperature Allowed for Liquid Egg Products within 2 h from the Time the Eggs are Broken
Time to be Held before Next Operation Maximum Holding Temperature Allowed 8C 8F

Products Liquid egg whites (not to be stabilized) Unpasteurized Unpasteurized Pasteurized Liquid egg whites (to be stabilized) Unpasteurized Unpasteurized Pasteurized Products with 10% or more salt added Unpasteurized Unpasteurized Pasteurized All other products Unpasteurized Unpasteurized Pasteurized

8 h or less More than 8 h

12.8 7.2 7.2

55 45 45

8 h or less More than 8 h

21.1 12.8 12.8

70 55 55

30 h or less More than 30 h

18.3 7.2 18.3

65 45 65

8 h or less More than 8 h

7.2 4.4 7.2

45 40 45

Source: Anonymous. Regulations Governing the Inspection of Eggs and Egg Products, 7CFR Part 59, Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, USA, 1991. With permission.

or egg white. In contrast, egg white is more sensitive to higher temperature than whole egg or egg yolk due to the possibility of coagulation of protein. The maximum stability of most egg white proteins occurs at near neutral pH, except conalbumin. Addition of lactic acid, which adjusts the pH of albumen to 7.0, allows the albumen to withstand temperatures of 60.5 61.78C (141 1438F). Aluminum sulfate is generally added together with lactic acid to protect conalbumin, although this process generally results in products with lower whipping ability. Cotterill et al. [11] reported the thermal destruction curves for a wide range of egg products. Table 23.3 lists minimum requirements for pasteurization time temperature combinations of liquid egg products in various countries [6,12,13]. Pasteurization is generally done using a high temperature short time process (HIST) equipped with a plate heat exchanger. A more advanced technology known as UHT is currently available in the U.S. and other countries [14]. This technique using modied milk ultrapasteurization technology allows the ultrapasteurized liquid eggs to be processed at temperature above 648C (1478F) in a very short time. However, as the ultraheat treatment of liquid eggs is conducted at a much lower temperature and longer time than that of UHT milk (e.g., 1358C for 2 5 sec), the UHT egg products with a shelf life of 60 days or longer need to be stored under refrigeration. Pasteurization method without heat is also available. For example, using high-energy radiation, particularly gamma rays, to pasteurize frozen egg products results in destruction of bacteria, in addition to the benets of eliminating the costs of thawing, heat pasteurization, and refreezing. In a study of the effect of gamma irradiation on the physicochemical and functional properties of frozen liquid egg products, Ma et al. [15] found that the apparent viscosity of frozen egg yolk was signicantly decreased by radiation at pasteurization dosages of 1 4 kGy. The functional properties of the egg whites,

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TABLE 23.2 Pasteurization Requirements for Various Liquid Egg Products by USDA
Minimum Holding Temperature 8C 8F 56.7 55.6 60.0 61.1 60.0 62.2 61.1 63.3 62.2 61.1 60.0 61.1 60.0 63.3 62.2 63.3 62.2 134 132 140 142 140 144 142 146 144 142 140 142 140 146 144 146 144 Minimum Holding Timea (min) 3.5 6.2 3.5 3.5 6.2 3.5 6.2 3.5 6.2 3.5 6.2 3.5 6.2 3.5 6.2 3.5 6.2

Products Albumen (without use of chemicals) Whole egg Whole egg blends (less than 2% added nonegg ingredients) Fortied whole egg and blends (2438% egg solids, 212% added non-egg ingredients) Salted whole egg (with 2% or more salt added) Sugared whole egg (212% sugar added) Plain yolk Sugared yolk (2% or more sugar added) Salted yolk (212% salt added)
a

For the average particles.

Source: Anonymous. Regulations Governing the Inspection of Eggs and Egg Products, 7CFR Part 59, Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, USA, 1991. With permission.

including foaming, emulsifying, and gelling, were generally not signicantly affected or slightly decreased by radiation. Angel food cakes prepared with irradiated frozen egg white had increased cake volume. Mayonnaise prepared with irradiated frozen egg yolk had increased stiffness and stability. However, this method has not been generally accepted by the egg industry yet [13]. Some spoilage bacteria and spores unfortunately remain viable after pasteurization. Furthermore, microorganisms release enzymes into the media in which they live. Some of these enzymes are heat-resistant, thus they survive pasteurization. Therefore, rapid breaking and pasteurization of the eggs immediately after being laid, as well as rapid cooling in pre- and postpasteurization periods dramatically reduce microbial and enzymatic risks [6].

B. RHEOLOGICAL ASPECTS: MINIMIZING GELATION REACTION

Freezing is an effective way to preserve the quality and nutritive value of many foods. As shown in Table 23.4 [16 22], approximately 6 9% of the total liquid egg production is frozen. Frozen egg and egg products are widely used in the food industry as ingredients for other food products, and in quantity food preparation, such as restaurants, hotels, and institutions, due to its longer shelf life and high quality if processed appropriately. Appropriate freezing process generally causes only minor changes in raw egg white. However, freezing egg yolk to below 2 68C (218F) causes an irreversible change in its uid texture called gelation [23]. The thawed yolks would not return to their original smooth texture, but instead show a higher viscosity with a separation of water as well as a lumpy and gummy texture, which would not mix well with other ingredients after thawing. Yolk gelation is an undesirable process because it reduces functionality [23,24]. Chen and Chang [25] reported

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TABLE 23.3 Minimum Requirement for Pasteurization of Liquid Egg Products in Various Countries
Temperature Country Australia China (PRC) Denmark Product Whole egg Whole egg Whole egg Whole egg Egg white Egg yolk Whole egg Egg white Egg yolk Whole egg Egg white Egg yolk Whole egg Egg white Egg yolk Whole egg Whole egg Egg white Egg yolk Whole egg Whole egg Egg white Egg yolk 8C 62.5 63.3 6569 68.0 61.0 68.0 58.0 55.5 62.5 65.5 56.0 58.0 60 5556 60 66.167.8 60 56 63 64.4 60 56.7 61.1 8F 144.5 146 149156.5 154.4 141.8 154.4 136.4 132 144.5 150 132.8 136.4 140 131132.8 140 151154 140 132.8 145.4 148 140 134 142 Time (min) 2.5 2.5 1.5 3.0 4.5 3.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 8.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.0 10 10 20 2.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 Reference [6] [6] [6] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [12] [6] Industry info Industry info Industry info [6] [6] [6] [6]

France

Germany

Japan

Poland Taiwan

U.K. U.S.A.

that the unpasteurized yolk quality was acceptable after frozen storage at 2 3 to 2 68C for 4 weeks. However, the emulsifying capacity and emulsifying stability of yolk were signicantly reduced when frozen-stored at 2 188C. The sponge cake made from 2 188C frozen yolk showed lowered cake volume and poorer quality when compared with those made from 2 3 to 2 68C frozen yolk. The mechanism of egg yolk gelation is still not completely understood. As egg yolk is a dispersion of particles in clear plasma, constituents in both plasma and in granules should contribute to gelation during freezing. It has been generally accepted that the protein and phospholipid moieties of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) may participate in the formation of a LDL water sodium chloride complex. Yolk gelation seems to be caused by denaturation of the LDL largely presented in egg yolk. The breakdown of the water shell surrounding the molecules during freezing could further promote rearrangement and aggregation of yolk lipoproteins [26,27]. As constituents in both plasma and in granules contribute to the gelation problem during freezing, and the fatty acid compositions of yolk lipids are inuenced by the types of fat diets for hens and the genotypes of hens, it might be expected that factors such as breed, diet, and age of the hen may impact the compositions of LDL particles in such a way that would inuence the propensity for yolk gelation during freezing [28]. Other factors, such as freezing and thawing rates, storage temperatures, additives, homogenization, and so on, which inuence the

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TABLE 23.4 Liquid Egg and Frozen Egg Productions in the United States
Edible Liquid from Shell Eggs Broken (1000 lb) 1,886,003 2,009,295 2,064,563 2,213,090 2,300,156 2,319,322 2,379,668 2,334,058 Frozen Eggs (1000 lb) Whole and Mixed 98,814 82,374 84,829 87,965 116,382 124,809 76,634 119,846 Frozen to Liquid Production Ratio (%) 8.24 5.86 6.07 5.35 7.72 8.12 6.30 8.73

Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Whites 15,998 12,617 11,326 8,397 38,834 34,962 22,614 30,964

Yolks 21,807 12,950 12,019 8,571 8,716 9,001 9,633 12,632

Unclassied 18,860 9,834 17,095 13,422 13,570 19,526 41,015 40,426

Total 155,479 117,775 125,269 118,355 177,502 188,298 149,896 203,868

Source: Anonymous. Dairy and poultry statistics. Agricultural Statistics 19982004. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, USA, 1998.

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rate and size of ice crystal formation, dehydration of proteins, and concentration effects due to increased salt concentrations or ionic strengths, are also important [6,26,29,30]. In a study of the viscoelastic properties of frozen or thawed egg yolk, Telis and Kieckbusch [31] concluded that the gel formed during freezing was based on physical aggregation rather than chemical binding, with a nonhomogeneous structure. Ice crystals formation and associated freeze concentration of the unfrozen phase were hypothesized to be fundamental causes of gelation, because undisturbed supercooled samples did not show notable changes in complex modulus, G ; but considerable increase in G was observed for yolks that were disturbed and became frozen at the same temperature for the same time. A variety of approaches have been developed to minimize the gelation of frozen egg products. This section looks at a range of developments in frozen egg products, many of which exploit the benets of addition of cryoprotectant and rapid freezing on product quality. 1. Addition of Cryoprotectant Cryoprotectants are compounds that improve the quality and extend the shelf life of frozen foods. A wide variety of cryoprotective compounds are available, including sugars (e.g., sucrose, galactose, glucose, and fructose), amino acids, polyols, methyl amines, carbohydrates, some proteins, enzymes, and even inorganic salts, such as potassium phosphate and ammonium sulfate [32 35]. For frozen egg products, sodium chloride and sucrose at a level of 10% are commonly added to the yolk to prevent gelation. Syrup, glycerin, phosphates, and other sugars can also be used. The slated yolk is then used for mayonnaise and salad dressing. In contrast, the sugared yolk is used for bakery products and ice cream. Sato and Aoki [36] observed that LDL gelation was inhibited by the addition of salts when frozen at higher than eutectic temperature of coexisting salts. Such inhibitory effects are probably attributed to solvation of the adsorbed layers or the formation of a complex between LDL, water, and sodium chloride, which stabilize LDL particles during freezing [27,37]. Jaax and Travnicek [38] reported that sodium chloride increases both emulsifying capacity and viscosity; however fructose reduces emulsifying capacity of the thawed yolk. On the basis of dynamic rheological measurements, Telis and Kieckbusch [39] found that sucrose, glycerol, and magnesium chloride could prevent egg yolk gelation at concentration of 2% and higher. These additives showed improved cryoprotectant effects as their concentration was increased. Sodium chloride at 2% also prevented gelation, but at 10%, it caused a considerable increase in the viscosity of unfrozen yolk. Instead of preventing yolk gelation, calcium chloride showed an opposite effect. It could even promote protein coagulation before freezing. Egg yolk with 2% calcium chloride was found to be gelled completely after 36 h at 2 248C. Potassium chloride in the range of 2 10% had an effect similar to that of sodium chloride before freezing. However, yolk with 2% potassium chloride showed very elastic behavior after 36 h at 2 248C. Ibarz and Segales [40] studied the steady-shear rheological behavior of salted yolk frozen stored at 2 208C, and found that the shear thinning ow behavior of frozen salted yolk could be described by the power-law equation as follows: _n t Kg (23:2)

_ the shear rate (sec21), K the consistency index (Pa sn), and n the where t is the shear stress (Pa), g ow behavior index (dimensionless); the power law parameters, K and n, could be obtained using linear regression analysis of the log (shear stress) and log (shear rate) data. The ow behavior index of frozen salted yolk was found to be decreased, but consistency index increased with increasing salt concentrations ranging from 2 to 14% [40]. In a study of the effect of antifreezing agent addition (10% glycerol), pasteurization treatment (618C, 3.5 min for yolk, 608C, 3.5 min for whole egg), and frozen storage (0 60 days) on the rheological properties and functional properties of freezethawed yolk and whole egg, Chou et al. [29,30] reported that 10% glycerol addition could

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signicantly improve the gelation problems associated with frozen yolk and whole egg, as indicated by the lesser extent of changes in rheological behavior. 2. Processing Huang and Yang [41] reported that the texture and stability modication of frozenthawed egg white gels are affected by the adjustment of pH values of egg white in conjunction with sodium chloride or sucrose addition. At pH 9, sodium chloride or sucrose addition could signicantly reduce the toughness of egg white gels made from frozen thawed egg white. However, at pH 7, the toughness of egg white gels made from frozenthawed egg white was signicantly lowered and sodium chloride or sucrose addition did not modify the toughness of egg white gels signicantly. Lopez et al. [42] reported that treatment of yolk with proteolytic enzymes (papain, trypsin, or rhizome) inhibited gelation. Only papain did not seriously affect its organoleptic properties. Feeney et al. [43] reported that gelation was reduced by incubation with crotoxin (lecithinase A) before or after freezing. Haard [28] also reported that treatment of egg yolk with proteolytic enzymes such as papain, trypsin also prevents gel formation, but the product has reduced emulsifying capacity. However, frozen egg yolk products modied with a natural enzyme designed for sauces and dressings are commercially available [44]. Mechanical treatment, such as homogenization, colloid milling, or excessive mixing, also reduces the viscosity of frozen yolk. Low levels of salt, sugar, and skim milk combined with homogenization stabilizes frozen eggs used for scrambling [45]. Fast freezing and thawing result in less gelation for egg yolks than slow freezing and thawing, possibly due to the decreased damage to protein structures by formation of smaller ice crystals, less dehydration of proteins, and less concentration effects by less increase in ionic strength and salt concentrations [23,24,46]. There is evidence that some lipoprotein complexes are altered by freezing; however, when the protein moiety is hydrolyzed, gelation could be inhibited or signicantly retarded [26]. Fast freezing and thawing also result in less damage to whole eggs. Using a differential scanning calorimetry, Wooton et al. [47] reported that the loss of denaturation enthalpy was increased by slower freezing rates, higher thawing temperature, higher storage temperature, and longer storage time. Conalbumin suffered greater losses, and ovalbumin had smaller losses than egg white itself. Viscosity and foam instability of egg white was reduced by slower freezing rates, higher thawing temperatures, increased storage times, and lower storage temperatures [26]. Moreover, the magnitude of protein changes and resulting functionality alterations due to freezing are less pronounced for whole eggs when compared with yolks.

IV. FREEZING AND PACKAGING OF EGG PRODUCTS

Freezing of liquid egg products is a time temperature related process. As mentioned earlier, rapid freezing is generally benecial to product quality and also reduces processing costs. Air-blast freezers with various designs using cold air as the medium to remove heat from egg products are the most commonly used freezing systems. The cooling rate and the efciency of the process depend on the contact between the air and the product. Nonami and Akasawa [48] studied the quality of whole liquid egg packaged in unit tin container and frozen at 2 5 to 2 208C. It was found that the solid content and the apparent viscosity of tinned frozen egg were lower for samples in the outside than in the center, particularly evident for those frozen at 2 58C. Such results also implied the benets of fast freezing. Efstathiou [49] developed a process for making the frozen concentrated whole egg. This process involves two passes of a lm of liquid whole egg (3 mm) over the surface of a plate evaporator for preheating (51.78C or 1258F) and concentration (54.48C or 1308F for 8 10 sec) at a time and temperature effective for removing water (33 49% solids) but not for coagulating and freezing the concentrated liquid whole egg at 2 23.3 to 2 28.98C (2 10 to 2 208F) using the known equipment.

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Individual quick freezing is a relatively more advanced design. With this method, egg whites or liquid whole eggs could rst be concentrated using the known techniques such as vacuum evaporation. Concentrates are then forced through a nozzle to create droplets, followed by falling droplets into liquid nitrogen bath where they are immediately frozen, forming small pellets. The free owing pellets are easy to handle and are thawed rapidly upon heating or mixing with other ingredients. The similar functional properties to standard pasteurized products are closely related to the cryogenic freezing process, with rapid freezing eliminating the risk of visible gel formation. This product is widely used for manufacturing commercial scrambled eggs and omelets [6,50]. The majority of frozen egg products by volume are for further-processing markets. The 13.6-kg (30 lb) containers, including cans, cartons, and plastic bags, are the standard commercial packages for frozen egg products. One of the major drawbacks of frozen egg products is the lengthy thawing time, which reduces the exibility of work scheduling, especially in emergencies or when additional eggs are needed [6,26]. Smaller units in 2.3 and 4.5 kg (5 and 10 lb) and 3.785 1023 m3 (1 gal) sizes are also available to overcome the problems associated with lengthy thawing time. The compositions of some frozen products are shown in Table 23.5 [51].

V. QUALITY OF FROZEN EGGS AND FROZEN EGG-RELATED PRODUCTS A. MICROBIAL ASPECTS

Normally less than 1% of the bacteria in raw egg products survive pasteurization. The principal genera found in pasteurized egg products are Alcaligenes, Bacillus, Proteus, Escherichia, Flavobacterium, and Gram-positive cocci. However, the last three genera are not found after freezing [13]. The approximate total number of bacteria (psychrophiles, thermophiles, and anaerobes) found in 44 pasteurized, frozen commercial egg products are reported in the study of Sha et al. [52]. Bacillus was the predominate genus present in these products.

B. FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS
Denaturation and performance impairment brought by pasteurization on egg products before freezing or after freeze thawing is a function of time and temperature [13]. It has been reported consistently that pasteurizing egg white in the range of 54 608C (129 1408F) damages the foaming power of egg whites. However, for yolk-contaminated egg white, heating improves its foaming properties. The extent of improvement varies with pH [13]. Whole eggs pasteurized under commercial conditions in the United States show a small (about 5%) reduction in volume and functional properties, but performed satisfactorily in commercial baking test [13]. Freezing causes major textural changes and reductions in microbial counts in some egg products [46]. However, functional properties of frozen stored liquid egg white may be only slightly affected, such as some thinning of thick white, possibly due to the denaturation of albumen [46]. Upon freezing and storing raw egg yolk below 2 68C (21.18F), the viscosity increases and gelation occurs. Generally, this gelation has been considered irreversible, although Palmer et al. [53] observed that heating thawed yolk at 45 558C (113 1318F) for 1 h partially reversed this gelation. The functional properties of plain egg yolk are little affected by freezing [26,29,30,46]. However, pasteurized frozen whole egg generally has more separation of a watery portion after thawing when compared with unpasteurized frozen whole egg. In addition, the combination of pasteurization and freezing reduces the viscosity of the product when thawed and increases the heating time required for the preparation of a sponge cake, but improves the foam stability [13]. Signicant damage to functional properties of frozen whole egg may occur when the egg is pasteurized above 638C (145.48F) for 3.5 min or 748C (165.28F) for 2 3 sec [13]. In a study of the rheological and functional properties of freezethawed whole egg and egg yolk, Chou et al. [29,30] found that the emulsifying capacity of frozen yolk and frozen whole egg were not signicantly affected by frozen

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TABLE 23.5 Nutritive Values Per 100g of Edible Portions of Various Eggs and Egg Products
Whole Egg Fresh Frozen Egg White Fresh Frozen Egg Yolk Frozen Salted Frozen Yolk Sugared Frozen Yolk Frozen Scrambled Egg Mixtures

Nutrient Proximate Energy (cal) Water (g) Protein (g) Total fat (g) Saturated fatty acid (g) Monounsaturated fatty acid (g) Polyunsaturated fatty acid (g) Cholesterol (mg) Carbohydrate (g) Ash (g) Fiber (g) Minerals Ca (mg) Fe (mg) Mg (mg) P (mg) K (mg) Na (mg) Zn (mg) Cu (mg) Mn (mg) Se (mg)

Fresh

147 75.84 12.58 9.94 3.099 3.810 1.364 423 0.77 0.86 0.0

148 75.85 11.95 10.20 3.147 3.886 1.412 432 1.05 0.95 0.0

52 87.57 10.90 0.17 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0.73 0.63 0.0

47 88.55 9.80 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 1.05 0.60 0.0

322 52.31 15.86 26.54 9.551 11.738 4.204 1234 3.59 1.71 0.0

303 56.20 15.50 25.60 7.820 9.747 3.628 1075 1.15 1.55 0.0

274 50.80 14.00 23.00 7.028 8.849 3.150 955 1.60 10.60 0.0

307 51.25 13.80 22.75 6.970 8.614 3.244 959 10.80 1.40 0.0

131 72.70 13.10 5.60 1.052 2.339 1.778 65 7.50 1.10 0.0

53 1.83 12 191 134 140 1.11 0.102 0.038 31.7

59 1.85 11 202 130 133 1.38 0.053 0.034 30.8

7 0.08 11 15 163 166 0.03 0.023 0.011 20.0

7 0.05 10 13 136 158 0.02 0.012 0.007 17.6

129 2.73 5 390 109 48 2.30 0.077 0.055 56.0

138 3.34 9 417 118 67 2.88 0.024 0.062 41.8

114 3.75 10 431 117 3780 2.84 0.109 0.062 37.7

123 3.14 10 384 103 67 2.81 0.012 0.059 37.7

17 0.23 10 30 147 162 0.14 0.030 a 22.9

(Table continued ) 513

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TABLE 23.5
Nutrient

Continued
Whole Egg Fresh Frozen Egg White Fresh Frozen Fresh Egg Yolk Frozen Salted Frozen Yolk Sugared Frozen Yolk Frozen Scrambled Egg Mixtures

Vitamins Vitamin C (mg) Thiamin (mg) Riboavin (mg) Niacin (mg) Pantothenic acid (mg) Vitamin B6 (mg) Folate (mg) Vitamin B12 (mg) Vitamin A (IU) Retinol (mg) Vitamin E (mg) Vitamin D (IU) Vitamin K(mg)
a

0.0 0.069 0.478 0.070 1.438 0.143 47 1.29 487 139 0.97 34.548 0.3

0.0 0.060 0.460 0.075 1.480 0.162 73 1.07 525 158 a a a

0.0 0.004 0.439 0.105 0.190 0.005 4 0.09 0 0 0.00 0.000 0.0

0.0 0.005 0.400 0.100 0.155 0.004 3 0.06 0 0 a a a

0.0 0.176 0.528 0.024 2.990 0.350 146 1.95 1442 371 2.58 107.423 0.7

0.0 0.155 0.520 0.045 3.530 0.345 116 1.82 1609 433 2.49 a 0.7

0.0 0.130 0.430 0.040 3.230 0.261 107 2.52 1190 357 a a a

0.0 0.135 0.530 0.023 3.200 0.284 139 1.77 1315 395 a a a

0.0 0.010 0.300 0.090 a 0.010 17 0.17 410 0 0.84 a 1.8

Quality and Safety of Frozen Eggs and Egg Products

Data unavailable.

Source: Anonymous. National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 161. Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, USA, 2004. With permission.

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515

storage at 2 208C or by pasteurization treatments at 608C, 3.5 min for whole egg, and 618C, 3.5 min for yolk. However, addition of 10% glycerol signicantly increased the emulsifying capacity of frozen whole egg, but not that of frozen yolk.

C. PRODUCT PERFORMANCE ASPECTS

The majority of frozen egg products by volume are for further-processing markets. Omelets and scrambled eggs are major items. A wide range of ingredients have been added to whole egg to prepare commercial frozen scrambled egg mixes. The most common added components include nonfat dry milk, whey, vegetable oil, water (if dry ingredients are used), gums (e.g., carboxyl methyl cellulose or xanthan gums), organic acids or other chelators (e.g., citric acid, lactic acid, or phosphates), salt, and egg white. When they are held at serving temperatures (at or above 608C or 1408F) or for long periods of time, a uid may separate (syneresis) and a green discoloration due to the formation of the iron sulfur compound may occur. The problem of greening can be easily prevented by the addition of ingredients to lower the pH (e.g., lemon juice) and to chelate the iron (e.g., citric acid, lactic acid, or EDTA) [26]. Other product lines using frozen egg products include pancakes, crepes, wafes, French toast, egg tofu, and sauces, and so on [26,54 56]. Schell and Schell [46] successfully developed a method of preparing frozen egg butter sauces without loss of texture or appearance. Manderfeld et al. [55] developed a method for manufacturing egg patties that could maintain their shape when thawed. Feiser and Cotterill [57,58] reviewed the performance of cooked frozen thawed reheated egg s, meringues, omelets, and egg rolls. The products, including scrambled egg, quiches, soufe increase in pH due to the loss of carbon dioxide is commonly encountered in these products. Greening is therefore likely if the pH of the cooked products exceeds 8.2. Gossett and Baker [59] reported the optimum conditions for the prevention of greening discoloration in cooked liquid whole egg by the addition of the chelator. OBrien et al. [60] reported that by addition of 0.1% xanthan gum, omelets that has been steamed for 5 min and then cryogenically frozen using liquid carbon dioxide (2 798C) or liquid nitrogen (2 1968C) could minimize the moisture loss and shear force of frozen omelets, and provide satisfactory organoleptic properties. Chang and Ho [61] studied the qualities of liquid whole eggs with various cryoprotectants such as xanthan gum, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, polyphosphate, or xanthan gum in conjunction with tapioca starch, after heating at 858C for 20 min, followed by freezing at 2 25, 2 35, and 2 458C freezer or at 2 1968C liquid nitrogen to lower the internal temperature to 2 208C. After frozen storage of up to 3 months, samples were thawed for drip loss, color, hardness, and microstructure determination. It was found that the drip loss of frozen-thawed whole egg coagulates increased with increasing freezing temperature and frozen storage time. The drip loss of frozenthawed whole egg coagulates can be signicantly lowered by the addition of cryoprotectants as mentioned earlier. L values of the frozenthawed whole egg coagulates decrease and a/b ratios increase as a result of freezing and frozen storage. Quick freezing at 2 1968C with the addition of cryoprotectants, particularly 0.2% polyphosphate, lowers the damage to microstructure caused by ice crystal formation. Wang et al. [62] found that the quality of frozen brined duck yolk was signicantly affected by the brining process and freezing temperature. Generally, the shear value of frozen brined duck yolk is the highest when frozen for 2 months, and then decreases after 6-month frozen storage. The thiobarbituric acid and volatile basic nitrogen values of frozen brined duck yolk are within acceptable level, and the microstructure becomes smoother after 6-month frozen storage.

VI. CONCLUSIONS
Eggs have been generally considered as nutritious food. The nutritive values and various functionalities of eggs make them quite useful for food industry. To be manufactured into various processed foods, shell eggs are generally broken into liquid products, pasteurized to eliminate Salmonella, and frozen for longer shelf life. Appropriate freezing process generally causes only minor changes in
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raw egg white. However, freezing egg yolk to below 2 68C (218F) causes a irreversible change in its uid texture called gelation. A variety of approaches have been developed to minimize the gelation problems associated with frozen egg products, many of which exploit the benets of addition of cryoprotectant and rapid freezing on product quality. Functional properties of the resulting frozen egg products may therefore be only slightly or little affected by freezing.

NOMENCLATURE
HU H G W t _ g K n Haugh units (dimensionless) thick albumen height (mm) constant of 32.2 (dimensionless) weight of egg (kg) shear stress (Pa) shear rate (sec21) consistency index (Pa secn) ow behavior index (dimensionless)

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