4.

AIRCRAFT RELIABILITY (9 HRS) Aircraft reliability Maintenance schedule & its determination Condition monitoring maintenance Extended range operations (EROPS) & ETOPS Ageing aircraft maintenance production.

Aircraft reliability (schedule reliability) Topics of interest is schedule reliability Elements include: Aircraft readiness Down time and repair time Events which can cause schedule interruptions, such as diversions or turn backs High schedule reliability can be achieved with unreliable aircraft system- as long as the aircraft can be repaired before each flight, without causing delay. RELIABILITY : DEFINITIONS Component reliability. Probability of no failure over a specified period of time under particular use and environment condition. System reliability. Determined by the reliability of its components, the way they are put together, and the criteria for satisfactory operation. Not all component failures cause system failure (some component unscheduled removals are later found not to be failures) Aircraft reliability, commonly referred to as schedule reliability , includes only those failures that result in a schedule interruption Probability of starting & completing a scheduled revenue flight without interruption : r air= [1- (schedule interruptions / total revenue departures)]

. Reliability & maintainability of digital avionics MTBF ( mean time between failures) MTBUR (mean time between unscheduled removal) ( MTBUR/MTBF IS called maintenance efficiency)~50% for electronic components, despite progress in reliability & diagnostics

TYPES OF FAILURES Hard . Persists thro several attempts to start the system Soft. Symptoms vanish when power is recycled ( Greatest area of concern for digital avionics) Intermittent . Disappears without operator action ( more of a nuisance than danger). As these are sources of erratic Maint practices, called Shot Gun Maintenance Flight Deck Effect. Faithful Maint response to crews perception of a system fault , instead of discounting if system is found to work well on subsequent ground checks Fault Isolation & Reporting Method ( FIRM). Combo of: Fault reporting Manual (FRM)- defines numerical fault codes Fault Isolation Manual (FIM)- defines Maint action reqd SERIES SYSTEM. i.e. Reliability of a system comprising two items; system fails if either item fails; failures are statistically independent( no common-cause failures) . R system= r1xr2 or,unreliability q= q1 +q2 PARALLEL SYSTEM. I.e system fails only if both items fail, again with independence. Q system=Q1XQ2 DESPATCH RELIABILITY. Probability of departing on time. R= 1- [{delays+cancellations} /total departures] ENROUTE RELIABILITY. Probability of completing a flight plan without a deviation. R= 1- [ {air turn backs+ground turn backs+diversions}/total departures] GROUND TURN BACK. Occurring before take-off AIR TURN BACK. Occurring after take-off INFLIGHT RELIABILITY . Same as for enroute reliability, but excluding ground turn backs. SCHEDULE RELIABILITY. Probability of starting and completing a scheduled revenue flight without a schedule interruption. R = 1- {schedule interruptions/total departures} SCHEDULE INTERRUPTIONS INCLUDE delays, cancellations,turn backs, diversions. Schedule reliability combines component & system reliability , maintainability and deferability ( i.e ability to defer maintenance of non critical item) and the maintenance efficiency of the organisation performing repairs. Types of reliability Component Reliability Other reliability measures Pilot reports of tech Defects

System Reliability Dispatch Reliability Delays Ground Turn back In-flight Reliability schedule Schedule Reliability Schedule Interruptions

Engineers Report of Tech defects Ave level of deferred defects carried Ave time to clear deferred defects Time off service for repairs Usage of stdby ac or slack time in the

Maint man hrs per flying hour Maint Cost per flying hour

MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE & ITS DETERMINATION MAINTENANCE STEERING GROUP (MSG ). Modern aircraft maintenance schedules is the document produced by the Air Transportation Association (ATA) . MSG APPROACH SETS LOGICAL RULES BASED ON : Importance of the component or system. Nature of anticipated failures in them Visibility of such faults Possible corrective actions Final report is termed maintenance review board (mrb) report. Older methods. Before msg logic, all aircraft maint was based on preventive replacement or restoration, commonly referred to as hard time ( fixed lives assigned to parts /tasks). High wastage of usable components. Most serious disadvantage :it did not actually improve the reliability of aircraft components & systems.

MSG introduced overhaul or on-condition maint in place of hard time lifting of components MSG-2 included condition-monitored concept for the first time. Reliability centred maintenance ( RCM). Focus on: Maintenance significant items ( MSIs) and structural significant items (SSI s) Distinction needed between economics & safety

for systems & power plant, MSI defined as that: Could affect safety, either on ground or in flight

 Undetectable during operations, and/or have significant operational economic impact ,and/or have significant non-operational economic impact Top down approach. I.e. Change in emphasis from piece-part to system approach.Systems and power plant analysis uses the top down approach, in which the functional failure of a system is considered in relation to other systems. If functional failure of a specific system does affect the operating safety of the aircraft, or cause substantial economic penalty, then that system is maintenance significant& must contain items requiring further considerations. BOTTOM UP APPROACH. i.e. Analysis begins with individual components and work upwards to system level.

. CONDITION MONITORED MAINTENANCE Definition. A primary maintenance process under which data on the whole population of specified items in service is analyzed to indicate whether some allocation of technical resources is required. Active redundancy. All the redundant items are operating simultaneously and share the task; failure of a single item causes the task to be shared among the remaining items. Standby redundancy. Only one redundant system is functioning at a time; if a failure occurs it is necessary to select a standby system.

Three primary maintenance processes Hard time. A preventive process in which known deterioration of an item, but is limited to an acceptable level by the maintenance actions which are carried out at periods related to time in service (calendar time, or no of cycles or no of landings) On condition. Also a preventive process, but one in which the otem is inspected or tested at specified period to an appropriate standard in order to determine whether it can continue in service. Inspection or test may reveal a need for servicing. Condition monitoring. Not a preventive process. Information on items, gained from operational experience, is collected, analysed and interpreted on a continuing basis as a means of implementing corrective procedures.

It is repetitive and continuous, key factor being introduction of aircraft embodying failure tolerant design. Actuarial analysis. Statistical reliability analysis, performed by examination of age related risk of failure, to determine whether or not a hard time replacement policy is justifiable.

. Extended range of operations ( EROPS) Operations beyond the original safety limit of flying time to the nearest airfield with an engine failure. This is of particular significance with the two engined aircraft. Original limit on the distance which a twin-engined aircraft might be from a suitable emergency airfield was 60 minute flying time at normal singleengine cruise speed. Operations beyond this distance were extended range, subject to special procedures.max single engine speed was 120 min. Increase of 15% (138 min) possible to obtain after a qualifying period. Further extension up to 180 min at single engine speed allowable

Design of the aircraft must provide alternative power sources sufficient to permit continued safe flight in single-engine operation. Particular requirements are specified for electrical power, since automatic controls, instruments, navigation and communications depend on this. Checks for critical items of EROPS related tasks should be signed for by an EROPS qualified person immediately prior to an EROPS flight. Technical log should ensure adherence to proper minimum equipment procedures.

Ageing aircraft 15 yrs/50,000 hrs have now changed to 20 yrs/60,000 hrs since manufacture. As age & fatigue increase, with additional corrosion effects, inspection reveals more flaws that need repair -- thus maint cost rises until it may be cheaper to buy a new aircraft than to retain the old one. Reasons for postponing replacement of ageing ac: aircraft is postponed : Higher costs of new aircraft; Increasing travel demands, needing larger or more numerous replacements; shortage of ac from manufacturers Reduced profitability due to price competition

 Ageing aircraft programme& corrosion control All age-related, essential service bulletins are selected , based on factors such as: Safety effects Failure risk Inspection difficulty Corrosion control programme. 3 levels of corrosion: Level 1. Fact of life, occurs in any good program. Level 2. warning sign. Excessive corrosion that exceeds allowable limits, taking place between regular inspection intervals. Level 3. potential airworthiness concern, requiring prompt corrective action. A sign that the corrosion control program is not doing its job. Purpose of an effective Corrosion control programme: Establishes many inspection areas for each ac. Each area comprises numerous typical corrosion repair zones; repairs and inspections are made at each zone. A typical corrosion repair would require removing the damaged surface and patch repair Special corrosion inspections are required for aircraft after their 15 th year of operation. Every airline has to inspect the equivalent of one aircraft for each area. (it guarantees that every area receives inspection once a year, whether or not maintenance is planned in that area at less intervals).

5. TECHNOLOGY IN AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE (8 HRS) Airlines scheduling (with reference to engg) Product support & spares Maintenance sharing Equipment & tools for aircraft maintenance Aircraft weight control

Budgetary control. On board maintenance systems Engine monitoring Turbine engine oil maintenance Turbine engine vibration monitoring in aircraft Life usage monitoring Current capabilities of NDT Helicopter maintenance

Airline scheduling with reference to engineering Main task of the airline engineer is to produce serviceable aircraftto meet the flying programme of the airline. Factors to be taken into account in scheduling aircraft flying and maintenance: Demand patterns. Transport is a perishable product. Demand for air transport varies with time. Seasonal effects. Air tpt is more leisure oriented Summer. Busiest period of the year. Public holidays. Route effects . Short hauls done in day time. Long hauls require aircraft to be away from base for days in succession. Factors to be taken into account in scheduling aircraft flying and maintenance (contd) Timing. Commercial timing is important for marketing reasons. Business travel has morning peak and evening return peak. Turn rounds. Aircraft only earn money when they are flying Resources needed for efficient schedule maintenance Building & ground facilities Trained labor Access & parking Spares supply

 Documentation ( tech manuals) Tools & equipment Continuity Maintenance response to a problem on the aircraft GO defects ( deferred defects, to be repaired at next opportunity) NO GO defects ( depart late/change the aircraft---with an inconvenience to passengers) Product support and spares Airlines depend on aircraft manufacturers for the supply of parts and often for the o/h of spares. After sales service- status of maint < status of manufacture Airlines in strongest bargain position while placing order for a new fleet Manufacturers recoup income thro high price for spares, expensive tooling needed in maintenance , unnecessary modifications offered, etc. Complete aircraft costs tens of millions of $ Cost of engine.. Millions of $ Turbine blades .vanes cost thousands of $ Fasteners cost many times those of equivalent ground based m/c Operators now ask manufacturers to assume more responsibility for reliability and cost of spares in the early years of use( say, 3 yrs) Air Transport Association (ATA) set up data base of aircraft parts available online to customers( paperless transaction) Other Provisions for airline-spares inventory problemss: Selective provisioning of different shortage risks Better forecasting models Selective provisioning for different shortage risks Better forecasting models More use of Real-Time computer systems Just In Time (JIT) policies Manufacturers spares depots

 Processing of Spares. Kinds of Inventory Items: Expendable Rotable (Lifed Component) Contracts Loans New Purchases Compliance of Quality control& Engg business activity essential Requirements for Inventory Control: Airworthiness Regulations Company Policies (Inter airline) Maintenance Sharing (agreement It is one solution to the high cost of facilities and staff needed for modern ac Maint. Best Examples: ATLAS. Air France,Alitalia,Iiberia, Lufthansa and Sabena. KSSU. KLM,SAS, Swissair & UTA (taken over by Air France) Consortia formed originally to support wide body jets in 1970. Allocation of Maint is: One partner is main provider of Air Frame major check Maint for one ac type; another for engine O/H for one engine model; another for elect compt repair &O/H etc Significant savings in hangar & workshops construction

Aircraft Weight Control Operators are required to weigh their ac at regular intervals- (initially <2 yrs; later every 5 yrs) Aircraft wt increases with age- due to repairs, Modifications etc Measurement of CG is also necessary Weights Basic weight- wt of ac& essential eqpt+ unusable fuel Operating Empty Wt - Basic Wt + Crew + removable catering& containers for baggage, freight

 Max Zero Fuel Wt - Stru limit applied by designer, taking into a/c bending relief offered by fuel load in wing Max Landing Wt Related to A/F strength & shock absorbing capacity of u/c Max T/Off Wt Related to Structure strength & airfield performance required Max Ramp Wt Including allowance for fuel burnt during taxing from terminal to runway Crew salaries are more than cost of weight saved Indirect way to control weight is to place a cost on it Budgetary Control Essential use of resources and control of costs Communication about plans, motivation to perform and measurement of performance Company divided into Cost Centres for accounting and reporting purposes Budgetary control important part of planning process- manpower, materials & capital eqpt Usually tied to the financial year, with estimate of total revenue, to forecast profitability Budgeting may also include performance statements about quality of serviceon time delivery, average turn round times or other non monetary events Single figure targets- late delivery of ac after maint checks; spares demand met <1 week ;% departures delayed for engg reasons. Some of these could be checks on financial targets. On Board maintenance Systems Latest Developments in Aircraft Avionics Dedicated Maintenance control & Display Unit (MCDP) Performance Data Computer Flight Mgt Computer Engine Indicating & Crew Alert system Maintenance significant system, with Maint data displays for Engines, APU, Elect, Hydraulic & Environmental control systems Dispatch -critical Maintenance data displayed as Status messages Control & Display Unit (CDU)

Ingredients of On-Board Maintenance System Fault detection &Reporting Central Maintenance computer

Documentation system

Engine (Health) Monitoring Techniques Oil Analysis Gas Path Analysis Usage Measurement Attempts to Measure: Engine operates within acceptable performance limits Trend in performance value indicates need for intervention Oil Analysis Includes: > Filter element checks > Micro Visual examination particles > Spectrometric oil analysis Engine (Health) Monitoring Techniques Oil Analysis Gas Path Analysis Usage Measurement Attempts to Measure: Engine operates within acceptable performance limits Trend in performance value indicates need for intervention Oil Analysis Includes: > Filter element checks , Micro Visual examination particles , Spectrometric oil analysis Gas Path Analysis- Engine thermodynamic parameters : Temp, Pressure, Fuel Flow, shaft Speed- reduced to day values for comparison with manufacturers performance specs Usage Measurement cycle counting for the more temp critical parts (discs, turbine blades) Trend Analysis Computer system monitors & analyses engine performance in cruise, in T/O, on Test bed, Vibration readings, engine control settings & performance simulation. FDR Engine Parameters Recorded. Engine shaft speeds, Exhaust gas temp, engine pr ratio, vibration levels, fan rotor imbalance, oil temp, fuel flow rate, control settings.

 Aircraft Performance Parameters. Ambient temp, pr, velocity, Mach No, Altitude, Phase of flt, Time, Control lever position Turbine Engine Oil Monitoring Monitoring for gas turbine engines can be of: Oil system Operation.. oil pressure, temperature& quantity, chip detectors. Filter bypass indicators provided as alerts Oil Debris Monitoring.. Varies from visual to quantitative assessment. Onboard debris monitoring system. Ground based debris monitoring system. Spectrometric oil Analysis SOAP analysis Oil Condition Monitoring. Physical or chemical analysis of oil Turbine Engine Vibration Monitoring Airborne Vibration Monitoring ( AVM). Fitted to most aircraft, comprising hardware, data& analysis procedures Engine Faults detectable through AVM. Blade loss or partial loss Blade mounting disturbance Missing rotor parts, such as bolts etc Blade coating delamination Bearing misalignment or wear Oil or debris in rotors Reheat system instability ( Military aircraft)

Vibration sensors are small accelerometers using piezoelectric effects. Life Usage Monitoring of Engine Parts Important for aircraft safety & economics Turbine engine parts susceptible to failure by mechanical and thermal stress( fatigue , shock) and by sustained stress and temp ( creep) Major engine components exhibit more consistent failure distributions with age, than other aircraft components Failure of engine part due to cumulative damage from cyclic or steady stresses from rotational speed, temp or pressure Certain engine parts are critical and , hence, life limited if deterioration is age related

Failure of Life Limited parts. (Due to fatigue, creep. wear ,corrosion , negligence or defective manufacture) Low Cycle Fatigue. Due to repeated high stress applications<50,000 cycles High Cycle Fatigue. Lower stress amplitudes than LCF. >50,000 cycles Thermal Fatigue. Due to temp diffce causing internal stress Creep. Time dependent effect (e.g., long cruise) Current Capabilities of NDT For NDT purposes, ac may be grouped as : Old Aircraft. >15 yrs old. 50 % ac fall in this. Young Aircraft. New inductions < 5 yr old ac. Advanced Aircraft. Using new materials and advanced engine. Will place severe demands on NDT

Main NDT Techniques. Visual Aids. Magnetic Dye Penetrant Eddy current Ultrasonic Radiography Helicopter Maintenance Special problems for aircraft Operation and Maintenance: Engine failure at certain phases of flight very critical Vibration affects components & structure more in helicopter Low altitude & over water Ops increase exposure to atmospheric turbulence, FOD & corrosion One method to deal with the problem is use of Health & Usage Monitoring system ( HUMS). (Requires instruments, FDR and signal processing equipment) 85% serious helicopter incidents & 55% of accidents detectable by HUMS.

 Quantitative Debris Monitoring (QDM) to signal debris count to cockpit instruments or FDR directly Vibration reduction possible by improving main rotor balancing and tracking Future of Aircraft Maintenance Predictions for the Airline Industry Industry as a whole will grow; volumes will grow- so also fuel prices Congestions in the airports; local community resistance to airport development Present under utilized airports will become important Trend of using larger ac at busy airports will continue ( 1000 seater unlikely). No of ac will ; so will demand for maintenance skill & facilities States will divest themselves of airline ownership Technologies Expected to have an Impact in the Future: Composite materials in structures Non metallic materials in engines Automation & software in avionics Active systems for stability & control Environmental effects of processes used in manu or maint Computers , Communications & Information Technology Predictions for the airline Industry Reliability and Maintainability of these ac will be higher. Operators have to improve planning skills. Present Gen of old ac will continue in use after the ageing study program to restore them is implemented. Final retirement may be determined( up to 30 yrs) by economic or legal factors. Supply of spares to these may become difficult Skills & Labor shortage( due to decline in proportion of young people in populations & a decrease in those taking science subjects at school) Aircraft will continue to require maintenance in the future Airlines will become much more cost conscious( will it affect safety, cutting cost on trg, facilities & R&D?-NO)

 Competitive nature of travel markets will raise the emphasis on mktg methods by airlines & the operators will respond quickly to changes in demand or taste. Engines produce noise, pollution and CO2 . Also contribute to global warming & green house effects. Higher standards of pollution levels will come in. Rising fuel prices will accelerate the retirement of older, less fuel-efficient aircraft and increase the demand for newer, higher tech ac types. These ac will demand different maint skills, particularly in avionics, control systems, and materials. Present Gen of old ac will continue in use(upto30 yrs ) till they are retired by either economic or legal factors. Supply of spares for some of these may be difficult. Operators or maint orgns may have to consider entering spares prodn business. Shortage of skilled man power will prevail. Importance of wt saving for economic reasons makes maint inevitable. Technologies Expected to have an Impact in the Future: Composite materials in structures Non metallic materials in engines Automation & software in avionics Active systems for stability & control Environmental effects of processes used in manufacture or maint enance Computers , Communications & Information Technology Computers & Communications. Since ac maint records are stored on a computer& most Computers will be networked, airworthiness authorities could check compliance by remote examination. Onboard maint systems can transmit data direct to base. Extension of inventory control systems to contractors & manufacturers will provide complete tracking of parts. Computer aided planning will allow more examination of alternatives. Maint staff will have to learn new skills in the access & manipulation of data at much higher volumes& speeds Safety. Safety Vs Economy. Improvement in air tpt safety by maintenance engineers will have to come from better understanding of materials , processes & eqpt used.