Technical University of Varna

Department of Electronics and Microelectronics

ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS Lecture 2. Static Characteristics of Measurement System Devices. (Systematic characteristics)
The static characteristics and parameters of measuring instruments describe the performance of the instruments related to the steady-state input/output variables only. The various static characteristics and parameters are destined for quantitative description of the instruments perfections and they are well presented in the manufacturer's manuals and data sheets. Systematic characteristics are those that can be exactly quantified by mathematical or graphic means (we know their values and polarities). These are distinct from statistical characteristics which cannot be exactly quantified.

1. Transfer Function TF (Output/Input relationship)

The transfer function of the measuring device is the most important characteristic, describing the instrument's conversion, giving the general relation between input and output variables and parameters of measuring instrument : Y = f(a1 , a2 a3 , X) measuring instruments. Usually, the instruments manufacturers make efforts to obtain a linear transfer function such as (Fig.1-a): Y = S.X where: S = Y/X is called sensitivity (note: for linear function and Y=0, when X=0 only !). The sensitivity S is the most important parameter of a linear measuring device and is a object of a special attention when the device is designed. (2) (1)

Where: X is the input variable, Y is the output variable and a1, a2 a3 are the parameters of the

For some measuring devices (for example the transducers with current output signal 4 to 20 mA) the output variable can contain constant (Fig.1-b): Y = Yo+S.X function is nonlinear such as (Fig.1-c): Y = Yo ( 1+a1.X + a2.X2) (4) (3)

For some measuring devices (for example, the resistance temperature device Pt100) the transfer

a/

b/

c/

Fig. 1. Graphical presentation of a transfer functions: linear(-a,-b) and nonlinear(-c)

2. Sensitivity
By definition, the sensitivity S is rate of change of output Y with respect to change of input X: S = Y/X - for linear measuring device S = dY/dX - for nonlinear measuring device

The graphical representation of sensitivity for both different type devices is shown in Fig.2.

a/

b/

Fig.2. Sensitivity of linear (-a) and nonlinear (-b) transfer functions.

As can be seen in Fig.2-a, the sensitivity of a device with linear TF is constant for the whole measurement range.

For the devises with non-linear TF the sensitivity varies in the measurement range and mast be determinated for a concrete point only or as a average value for some internal in the range interval.

The changes in sensitivity are named sensitivity error or drift (frequently also gain error or drift).

3. Resolution Resolution is defined as the largest change in input variable (XR) without any corresponding change of output variable (Y=0). Thus, resolution can be defined also as insensitiveness of the measuring devices.

4. Range and Span 4.1. Range - The input range of an measuring device is specified by the minimum and maximum values of input variable (Xmin to Xmax) , for example: from -10 to +150 oC (for the measurement device with temperature input). - The output range of an measuring device is specified by the minimum and maximum values of output variable (Ymin to Ymax) , for example: from 4 to +20 mA (for the measurement element with current output).

4.2. Span - The input span of a measuring devices is specified by the difference between maximum Xmax and minimum Xmin values of input variables: (Xmax - Xmin ). For example, for a measuring devices with input range from -10 oC to +150 oC the input span is: +150 oC - (-10 oC) = 160 oC. - The output span of a measuring devices is specified by the difference between maximum Ymax and minimum Ymin values of output variables: (Ymax - Ymin). For example, for a measuring devices with output range from 4 to +20 mA is: +20 mA - 4 mA = 16 mA.

5. Measurement errors The measurement error is the most important quality characteristic of the

measurement process. The measurement error is defined by the deviation of the measurement result from the true value of the input variable.

5.1. Mathematical expression of errors. Absolute and percent errors Lets X T is a true value and X R i s a reading (measured) value of the input variable, then, by the above definition the measurement error is: X = X R - X T where X is named absolute error or shortly - error. The absolute error has the same dimension as the measured value. The absolute errors are used for presentation of the result X of the measurement: X = X R X (6) (5)

The absolute error of a measuring device may be presented by table or graph versus input variable in the range but usually by limits of absolute error in the range, for example: voltmeter with range from 0 to 10 V and with limits of absolute error 0.1V.

The percent errors of reading X are given in percent and are normally used for compare the accuracy of two or more measurements:

X =

X X 100% 100% XT XR

(7)

For example, lets two measurements X1=20V and X2=50V are given with equal limits of absolute errors: X = 0.1V. Corresponding to the (7), the percent errors of reading are: X1=0.5% and X2=0.2%. Therefore, the second measurement is better than the first.

The percent errors of span (frequently named of range) X are given in percent and are normally used for compare the accuracy of two or more measurement instruments:

X =

X 100% SPAN

(8)

For example, lets two voltmeters V1 and V2 with ranges respectively 0 to 10V and 0 to 20V are given with equal limits of absolute errors: X = 0.1V. Corresponding to the (8), the percent errors of range are respectively: X1=1% and X2=0.5%. Therefore, the second instrument is more precisely than the first.

5.2. Accuracy Traditionally this term is basically used in the manufacturer specifications for a measurement instrument or device. Accuracy of an instrument is the quality which characterizes the ability of a measuring instrument to give indications approximating to the true value of the measured variable. The specifications of the accuracy are given actually in terms of error (in other words in terms of inaccuracy !). Note, that when the accuracy of some measurement device is presented with percent error, we can estimate the error after measurement. Example: Lets reading value is 100V, obtained by voltmeter with a range from 0 to 200V and accuracy X= 1% of range. By the (8) we can obtain the limits of absolute error after measurement:

V = X

SPAN 200 0 = 1 = 2V 100 100

Finally for measurement we can write the result of measurement such as:

V = VR V = 100V 2 V and we say, that the measurement value is between 98 and 102 Volts.

5.3. Sensitivity error (sensitivity drift, gain error) The changes in sensitivity are named sensitivity error (sensitivity drift, gain error) - Fig.3:

Fig.3. Sensitivity error of a measuring device with a linear transfer function The sensitivity error can be calculated by the equation: S = SR SN or, usually as: S = S/SN = (SR SN)/ SN, (9)

where SN nominal sensitivity and SR - real sensitivity.

5.4. Zero error (zero drift or offset) - Zero error or offset is defined as the change in ouput Y (YOS) without any corresponding change of the input as is shown in Fig.4:

Fig.4. Output and Input Zero error (Offset)

The input offset is expressed in units of the input variable. The output offset is expressed in units of the output variable. Usually the offset is specified in relation with the corresponding influence factor, for example: 10uV/C in case of a voltmeter affected by ambient temperature change.

The output offset (output zero error) can be calculated or measured using the equation: YOS = Y R (for X=0) YN(for X=0), Where: YN nominal output and YR - real output. The input offset (input zero error) can be calculated or measured using the equation: XOS = -X0 (for Y=0), Where: YN nominal output; YR real output; X0 the value of input variable for witch output becomes equal to zero. (11) (10)

5.5. Nonlinear error. Usually the manufacturers try to obtain a linear transfer function (named nominal) of the measuring instruments. However, the real isnt exactly ideal straight line, due to the different causes. The effect of this non-linearity will results in output readings, which do not conform completely to the nominal linear TF- Fig.5.

Fig.5. Nonlinear error

The nonlinear error is usually expressed as a percentage of the span (full-scale reading). For example, corresponding to the Fig.5 maximal nonlinear error can be calculated by equation:

(YNL ) max =

(YR YN ) max 100% Ymax

(12)