ORGANS OF THE HUMAN URINARY SYSTEM

1. The principal system of excretion is the urinary system, which is considered far more efficient than the most modern sewage disposal system in the world. The urinary system, consisting of the kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra, disposes such metabolic nitrogenous wastes as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. 2. Organs of the Urinary System a. The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about four inches long and lying near the base of the spinal cord. Each contains about half a million tubules called nephrons, which are the filter devices of the kidneys. The function of the kidneys is primarily to eliminate nitrogenous wastes, excess water, sugar, mineral salts, and other toxic or unnecessary substances. As blood passes through the glomerulus, a ball of capillaries on top of the nephrons, the wastes are collected by the tubules and sent for temporary storage to the urinary bladder through the ureter. b. The ureter is the long tube that leads from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. c. The urinary bladder is the bag that temporarily holds the urine. d. The urethra is the tube exit for the urine. 3. Blood and urine are two body fluids associated with kidneys. Each of these fluids can provide information about the health condition of the body. 4. A urine analysis is often performed in order to determine the state of a patients health. This analysis consists of tests that can detect various substances in the urine that can provide clues to various disorders and ailments. These tests are as follows: a. Acidity Test. Normal urine is slightly acidic. b. Protein Test. The presence of protein may indicate kidney infection. c. Blood Test. The presence of blood may indicate chemical poisoning or internal bleeding. d. Glucose Test. The presence of sugar may indicate diabetes or kidney infection.

COMMON AILMENTS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

1. The urinary tract may sometimes get infected by microorganisms, which usually enter the body through the urethra, other body organs, or the blood. Some infections can be treated by drinking lot water, resting, cushioning your diet, or taking antibiotics. Other infections are more serious and need medical attention. 2. Nephritis. When the nephrons of the kidneys become infected, a disease called nephritis may result. The disease causes inflammation of some parts of the kidney, reducing its ability to filter blood. if untreated or if it occurs repeatedly, the infection can damage the kidneys to the point that they cannot remove wastes anymore. The body becomes poisoned with its own waste, resulting in a condition called uremia. 3. A person with severe kidney damage may have to be connected to an artificial kidney, called a dialysis machine. During dialysis, the patients blood is pumped into special tubing made of semipermeable membrane and surrounded by a special fluid. Wastes and other unneeded materials diffuse from the tubing into the fluid. At the same time, certain substances from the fluid diffuse into the blood. in this way, the blood is cleansed and replenished. The blood then flows back into the person. 4. If the kidneys no longer function, a new kidney may have to be transplanted. Fortunately, one kidney is enough to do the work of two. 5. Kidney Stones. These stones form in the kidneys when salts in the urine form crystals. The stones may be as small as gravel or large enough to block the ureter and keep urine from leaving the kidneys. This can be a very painful experience. If the stone is not removed, it can lead to the destruction of the kidneys. 6. Kidney stones are often treated with a technique called ultrasound. The ultrasonic vibrations break up the stones into smaller pieces so they can pass out of the ureter.

THE SKIN

1. The skin is the largest organ of the human body, weighing up to 4.5 kg, with a surface area of about 17,000 sq.cm. in the average adult. It is divided into three tissue layers: epidermis (outer layer), dermis (inner layer), and the subcutaneous layer. 2. Structures of the Skin a. The Epidermis. The epidermis is subdivided into 4 layers. The top layer is made up of dead cells containing keratin, which toughens the skin. The bottom layer is made up of live, reproducing cells whose main purpose is to replenish the top layer. These cells move up through the two intermediate layers until they arrive, dead at the surface. The bottom layer also contains cells producing a brown pigment called melanin, the bodys adaptation against ultraviolet radiation. The greater the melanin, the darker is the skin. Exposure to sunlight and artificial ultraviolet tends to increase the melanin production. b. The Dermis. The dermis contains nerve endings, blood vessels, fatty tissue, and glands. The dermis has tiny projections called papillae, which help join the dermis to the epidermis. c. Under the dermis is a flexible tissue containing many spaces called areolar tissue which connects the skin to the body and helps the skin intact. 3. The skin has two kinds of glands: a. Sebaceous glands. Sebaceous glands secrete oil called sebum, which lubricate the hairs and surface. b. The Sweat Glands. The sweat glands are of two kinds: eccrine and apocrine. The eccrine glands secrete sweat that cools the body. The apocrine glands secrete a small amount of fluids that give odor to the skin. 4. The skin can be considered another organ of excretion of the human body for excess water, urea, and mineral salts. The sweat gland is the principal excretory structure of the skin. It consists of a long tubule which is partly coiled at the lower end. The upper end is straight and leads to an opening on the skin called pore. 5. The excretion of the fluid waste through the pores of the skin is called perspiration. The fluid waste is also called sweat.