From!Abhidharma!to!Mah"y"na!

:!Remarks!on!the!early!Abhidharma!doctrine!of!the!three!y!na-s!! !
KL!DHAMMAJOTI!
! ! ! For! a! couple! of! decades! since! 1968,! modern! studies! on! the! origin(s)! of! Mah"y"na! Buddhism! had! been! dominated! by! the! theory! of! Akira! Hirakawa! who! claimed! that! Mah"y"na! Buddhism! arose! outside! the! monastic! context,! among! a! group! of! lay! people! fully! devoted! to! st!pa! worship.! If! his! theory! is! true,! all! previous! studies! aiming! at! uncovering!the!developmental!link!between!the!doctrines!advocated!by!the!pre-mah"y"na! monastic! Sa#gha! on! the! one! hand,! and! those! of! the! early! Mah"y"na! on! the! other,! would! completely! lose! their! significance.! However,! towards! the! latter! part! of! the! 80s,! this! theory!has!come!to!be!challenged!and!now!largely!rejected.!! ! More! recently,! of! course,! there! are! some! other! scholars! who! also! argue! that! Mah"y"na! Buddhism! arose! totally! outside! the! Sa#gha.! Reginald! Ray,! for! instance,!

proposes that it emerged among the forest-dwelling (!ra"yaka) renunciants who were dissatisfied with the monastic members negligence in praxis and who wanted to devote fully to intensive meditative praxis. For him, these forest renunciants should be highlighted as a distinct religious typeapart from the monastic members and the lay practitioners. The Mah!y!na from the beginning was primarily a forest tradition, entirely non-monastic in character.1 However, various!evidences!point!to!the!fact!that!at!first,!the!term!Mah"y"na!was!
not! coined! in! contradistinction! to! the! (later)! term,! H$nay"na,! but! was! used! interchangeably! with! bodhisattva-y"na! and! Buddha-y"na.! This! is! clearly! suggested! when! we! examine! some! of! texts! belonging! to! the! earliest! extant! Mah"y"na! scriptures,! such! as! the! Inquiry# of# Ugra! (Ugra-parip$cch")! and! the! Eight-thousand# Perfection# of# Wisdom! (especially! its! first! chapter).! Moreover,! these! texts! indicate! that! the! emerging! Mah"y"nists! were! most! probably! an! integral! part! of! the! traditional! Sa#gha.! Firstly,! the

characters in these earliest Mah!y!na s#tra-s are the familiar bhik$u-s (such as "!riputra, Subh#ti, etc) or lay devotee we have come across in the early discourses (the P!li sutta, Chinese !gama). The setting too is likewise familiar there is nothing distinctively deviating from those in these early discourses. The Buddha is depicted as being in the company of a large bhik$u-sa%gha; no well known Mah!y!na bodhisattva such as Maju$r%, Samantabhadra, etc., is mentioned. What is more, we see no condemnation or humiliation of the early bhik$u-s who are in fact described in very respectful terms. Particularly in the Inquiry of Ugra, we get a clear picture of the 1

harmonious co-existence of the monks who follow the traditional &r!vaka-y!na (Disciple Vehicle) and monks who have taken up the vocation of the Mah!y!na bodhisattva. The lay followers of the new bodhisattva-y!na too are seen to be highly respectful towards the traditional sa%gha and the monasteries. They are urged to leave the household life and become monks at the earliest opportunity. The renunciant forest-dwelling bodhisattva-s were considered members of the bhik$u-sa%gha even during the long periods of time they spent outside the monastery.2 In brief, now that most scholars have come out of the shadow of the influence of such theories as proposed by Hirakawa, Ray, et. al, it is time to both revisit and further the researches into the linkdoctrinally or otherwisebetween pre-Mah!y!na Buddhism and the emergence of the Mah!y!na. In this connection, I would like to discuss below, such a probable link between doctrines in the Abhidharmamah!vibh!$! (=! MV%;! )! and early Mah!y!na. I shall here focus on the three y!na-sparticularly in respect of wisdom and compassion.
! Three-vehicle!doctrine!in!the!northern!tradition!

An examination of the earliest extant Mah!y!na sources shows that early Mah!y!na was definableand in a way more correctlyas bodhisattva-y!na. This is woven into the threefold scheme: &r!vaka-y!na, pratyekabuddha-y!na, bodhisattva-y!na, with the last as the path to Supreme Perfect Enlightenment. This threefold scheme was in fact derived from the earlier, pre-Mah!y!na scheme of &r!vaka-y!na, pratyekabuddha-y!na and buddha-y!na. It is certainly clearly enunciated in the Abhidharma-mah!vibh!$! of the Sarv!stiv!da, a gigantic compendium! (translated into Chinese by Xuan Zang in 200 fascicles) whose compilation was completed around 150 C.E. We can see in this Vibh!$! that, in this pre-Mah!y!na scheme, the various buddhological doctrinesgreat compassion, perfect wisdom (in contrast to those of the two-y!na-s, etc.which were to become the distinctive doctrinal features of Mah!y!na, were already well articulated. From this perspective, we may say that early Mah!y!na, emphasizing the ideal of perfect enlightenment through the bodhisattva path as it does, has highlighted the buddha-y!na as the bodhisattva-y!na.
! Like! the! Mah"y"na! texts,! the! MV%! states! explicitly! that! the! Buddha! alone! possesses! Great!Compassion,!(mah"karu%",!as!distinct!from!just!compassion,!karu%"):! !

Great! Compassion! is! knowledge! (!;! j"na);! it! is! not! an! entity! distinct! from! it.3!For,! one!rescues!and!cures!only!after!understanding!the!medicine!required!and!the!disease! involved.! ! What! is! the! meaning! of! Great! Compassion?! The! uplifting! of! sentient! beings! from! the! dominant! sufferings! is! called! Great! Compassion:! uplifting! them! from! the! great! sufferings! in! the! planes! of! existence! of! hell! beings,! animals! and! preta-s!and!placing!them!in!the!abodes!of!happiness!of!men!and!gods,!etc.!! Moreover,! Great! Compassion! is! uplifting! sentient! beings! from! the! dominant! mire! [of! sams"ra]:! sentient! beings! are! submerged! in! the! great! mire! of! defilements.!! [The! Buddha]! gives! his! hand! of! the! True! Dharma,! uplifting! them! therefrom4!and! placing!them!in!the!Noble!Path!(i.e.!spiritual!path)!and!spiritual!attainments.!!! Moreover,! it! is! the! planting! of! the! seeds! of! the! three! vehicles! and! bringing! about! the! Nirv"%a! of! the! enlightenment! of! the! three! vehicles.! All! this! is! by! virtue! of! the!might!of!Great!Compassion.!! Moreover,! it! is! called! Great! Compassion! because! it! is! acquired! at! a! great! price:! This! pure! Great! Compassion! is! acquired! only! with! the! great! price! of! the! requisites!of!merits!and!wisdom!(pu%ya-j"na-sa&bh"ra)!which!is!perfected,!such!as! the! giving! away! of! all! that! is! treasurable! ! ones! body,! wealth,! wife,! sons,! etc.! in! order! to! save! sentient! beings! from! suffering,! being! fully! endowed! with! the! pure! precepts! ! [enduring! even! the! cutting! of! ones! limbs],! vigorously! practicing! asceticism,! practicing! meditation! in! solitude! and! untiringly! seeking! the! excellent! wisdom.!(note!the!perfections,!p"ramit"!mentioned!here).!This!is!unlike!the!case!of! the! two! vehicles! (y"na-dvaya;! )! who! can! acquire! their! fruits! (spiritual! attainment)! just! by! a! single! alms-giving,! or! observing! the! precepts! for! a! single! [day! and]!night!!or!by!reflecting!on!a!single!four-line!stanza.! Moreover,!it!is!called!Great!Compassion!because!it!is!acquired!through!great! preparatory! effort! (prayoga):! [The! bodhisattva]! must! practice! hundreds! of! thousands! of! difficult! and! ascetic! practices! through! three! uncountable! great! aeons! (kalpa)! in! order! to! acquire! this! boundless! Great! Compassion.! This! is! unlike! the! case! of! the! 'r"vaka-s! the! strongest! grade! among! whom! can! acquire! enlightenment! through! 60! aeons! of! preparatory! effort.! Nor! is! it! like! the! case! of! the! pratyeka-buddha-s! the! strongest! grade! among! whom! can! acquire! enlightenment! through! just! 100! aeons! of! preparatory!effort.! Moreover,! it! is! called! great! compassion! because! [the! Buddha],! in! order! to! cross! over! innumerable! difficult-to-guide! (durvineya)! sentient! beings,! performs! difficult! deeds! requiring! immense! effort:! Although! abiding! in! the! supremely! exalted! position,! the! Buddha! transforms! himself! into! a! potter,! merchant,! a! strong! man,! a! hunter,! ! .! Or,! he! journeys! in! the! five! planes! of! existence! together! with! &nanda,! incessantly!days!and!nights!benefitting!sentient!beings.5!!

! Elsewhere,!we!find!similar!descriptions.!It!is!stated!that!Great!Compassion!is!achieved!by! the! Buddha! alone;! the! ordinary! worldlings,! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! the! pratyekabuddha-s! can! achieve! only! compassion.! Various! distinctions! are! made! between! compassion! and! great! compassions:! For! instance,! the! former! can! exist! in! the! four! dhy"na-s;! the! latter,! only! in! the! fourth! dhy"na.! The! former! is! subsumed! under! the! four! immeasurables! (apram"%a);! the!latter!is!not!subsumable!under!them.!The!former!can!only!feel!pity,!but!not!capable!of! actually! saving! (beings! in! suffering);! the! latter! is! capable! of! both.6!The! Buddha,! by! virtue!

of! this! Great! Compassion,! is! said! to! even! transform! himself! as! a! musician,! ! a! prostitute,! a! beggar,! etc.! in! order! to! guide! sentient! beings.7!More! noteworthy! is! the! emphasis! there! that! the! seed! of! Great! Compassion! can! be! said! to! have! been! planted! only! when! [the! bodhisattva]! has! made! the! excellent! vow! (*vi'i(ta-pra%idh"na;! )! [to! be! enlightened! for! the! sake! of! all! beings]8!! which,! as! we! know,! is! a! distinctive! feature!of!the!Mah"y"na!bodhisattva!ideal.!! In! his! A# History# of# Indian# Buddhism,! Akira! Hirakawa! cites! from! the! Samayabhedoparaca%a-cakra*! the! Mah"s"'ghika! doctrine! that! bodhisattva-s! can! choose! to! be! born! into! the! unfortunate! planes! of! existence! (durgati)! through! their! vows! in! order! to! benefit! sentient! beings.9!He! asserts! that! this! position! is! close! to! the! Mah"y"na,! and! differs! significantly! from! the! Sarv"stiv"din! position! that! birth! is! by! karma.10!But,! as! we! have! seen! above,! the! MV%! already! clearly! mentions! this! Sarv"stiv"din! notion! in! the! case! of!the!bodhisattva.! ! Another! equally! noteworthy! Mah"y"nistic! emphasis! is! the! requirement! of! the! accomplishment!of!the!unique!Buddha-body:! !
Moreover,! it! is! called! Great! Compassion! because! it! has! the! great! body! ()! as! its! support! basis.! This! is! unlike! the! case! of! the! enlightenment! of! the! sr"vaka-s! and! pratyeka-buddha-s! which! can! arise! even! with! an! inferior! body.! Great! Compassion! must!have!as!its!basis!for!arising!the!body!adorned!with!the!32!marks!of!a!Great!Man! (mah"-puru(a),! with! the! body! and! limbs! embellished! with! the! 80! secondary! marks! radiating! a! halo! of! golden! colour! extending! a! fathom, 11 !the! sight! of! ! which! is! insatiable.12!!

! The!MV%!in!fact!stipulates!that!a!practitioner!truly!qualifies!as!a!bodhisattva!only!when! he! is! at! the! stage! of! creating! ((k$)! and! accumulating! (upa-(ci)! the! retributive! karma! leading! to! the! accomplishments! of! the! marks! of! a! Great! Man.! For,! it! is! only! then! that! he! is! determined! (niyata)! with! regard! to! bodhi! and! determined! with! regard! to! reaching! it.13! This! accomplishment! of! the! Buddha-body! endowed! with! the! marks! also! seems! to! be! an! aspect!underscored!by!early!Mah"y"na!with!respect!to!the!ideal!of!attaining!buddha-hood.!! Thus! the! Ugraparip$cch"! teaches! that! when! a! bodhisattva! goes! to! the! Buddha! for! refuge,! he!should!vow!thus:!I!must!accomplish!the!32!marks!of!the!Buddha-body,!so!as!to!adorn! myself.14!The! continuation! of! this! emphasis! can! be! discerned! in! the! further! Mah"y"na! developmentespecially! in! the! Yog"c"ra! tradition,! via! the! doctrines! of! the! transformation! of! the! basis! ("'raya-par"v$tti/-pariv$tti)! and! the! threefold! body! (trik"ya)that! the! spiritual! transformation! of! the! practitioner! includes! that! of! the! physical!aspect.!
!

Probably!the!most!important!distinction!between!the!Buddha!and!the!two!y"na-s!concerns! their! wisdom! (praj"):! The! Buddhas! wisdom! is! perfect! ! it! knows! everything! both! generically! and! in! all! its! particularities.! i.e.,! he! has! both! omniscience! (sarvaj"/sarvajat")! and! wisdom! of! all! modes! (sarv"k"ra-j"na/-jat").! This! is!

explained! as! owing! to! the! fact! that! the! Buddha! has! abandoned! all! defilements! as! well! as! their! traces! (v"san"),! whereas! the! two! y"na-s! have! abandoned! all! defilements,! but! not! their! traces.! Another! perspective! of! explanation! is:! the! Buddha! has! abandoned! all! forms! of! nescience,! defiled! and! non-defiled! (akli()a-aj"na;! );! two! y"na-s,! only! the! defiled.!The!following!are!some!of!the!passages!indicating!this!important!difference:! !
[1]! There! are! two! kinds! of! false! knowledge! (mithy"-j"na;! ):! 1.! defiled! (kli()a),! 2.! non-defiled! (akli()a).! The! defiled! one! is! associated! with! avidy",! the! non-defiled! one,! such!as!that!which!generates!the!thought!of!a!man!with!regard!to!a!bare!tree,!is!not.! ! As! for! the! defiled! one,! both! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! the! pratyekabuddha-s! can! completely! abandon! it,! as! well! as! render! it! incapable! of! manifesting! (sam-ud-"-(car).! As! for! the! non-defiled! one,! though! it! can! be! completely! abandoned! by! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! the! pratyeka-buddha-s,! it! can! still! manifest! in! them.! It! is! only! in! the! case! of! the! Tath"gata! that! it! absolutely! does! not! manifest! any! more,! as! he! has! permanently! abandoned! the! defilements!as!well!as!their!traces.!It!is!for!this!reason!that!he!alone!is!called!a!perfectly! enlightened! buddha.! The! defiled! false! knowledge! is! a! false! knowledge! from! the! absolute! standpoint.! The! non-defiled! false! knowledge! is! a# false! knowledge! from! the! conventional!standpoint,!not!from!the!absolute!standpoint,!since!it!is!not!associated!with! the!false!dharma-s!of!defilement.15!! ! [2]! The! wisdom! fire! of! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! pratyeka-buddha-s! is! not! fierce.! [With! it],! though! the! defilements! are! abandoned,! their! traces! remain.! It! is! like! the! case! of! ordinary! fire! in! the! world:! Though! it! can! consume! a! thing,! it! leaves! behind! ashes.! The! Buddhas! wisdom! is! fierce;! it! consumes! the! defilements! without! leaving! behind! any! trace,! like! the! fire! at! the! end! of! an! aeon! (kalpa)! which! consumes! everything! on! its! way! leaving!no!ash!behind.16!! ! [3]! Q:! ...! All! the! non-trainee! (a'aik(a;! i.e.! arhat)! of! the! three! y"na-s! have#the! faculty! of! full!knolwedge!("j"t"v*ndriya),!why!is!it!that!the!Bhagavat!alone!is!called!buddha?! ! A:! Because! he! can! attain! enlightenment! for! the! first! time,! because! he! can! be! enlightened!with!regard!to!the!universal,!and!because!he!can!be!enlightened!with!regard! to! the! particular,! he! is! called! a! buddha.! Because! the! 'r"vaka! and! the! pratyeka-buddha! cannot! attain! enlightenment! for! the! first! time,! because! they! cannot! be! enlightened! with! regard! to! the! universal,! and! because! they! cannot! be! enlightened! with! regard! to! the! particular,!they!are!not!called!!buddha-s.! ! Some! say:! With! regard! to! the! object! of! knowledge! (jeya),! he! who! is! enlightened! by! himself,! enlightened! to! the! universal,! and! enlightened! without! any! error,! is! called! a! Buddha.! Although! a! pratyeka-buddha! can! be! enlightened! by! himself,! he! does! not! have! the!other!two!kinds!of!enlightenment;!a#'r"vaka#has!none![of!the!three].!Hence!they!are! not!called!buddha-s.! ! Some! say:! With! regard! to! the! conditions! (pratyaya),! he! who! is! enlightened! spontaneously,! and! enlightened! in! all! manners! (sarva-prak"re%a),! is! called! a! buddha.!

Although! a! pratyekabuddha! is! spontaneously! enlightened,! he! is! not! enlightened! in! all! manners;! a! 'r"vaka! has! none! of! the! two! forms! of! enlightenment.! Hence! they! are! not! called!buddha-s.!! ! ...! Some! say:! He! who! has! absolutely! overcome! all! irrational! traces,! is! called! a! buddha.! The!two!y"na-s!have!not!done!so.! ! Some! say:! He! who! can! go! to! the! the! very! bottom! of! the! profoundly! deep! river! of! conditioned! co-arising! (prat*tya-samutp"da)! is! called! a! buddha.! The! two! y"na-s! cannot! do! so.! Thus! the! s!tra! gives! the! simile! of! three! animalsa! hare,! a! horse,! and! an! elephant! crossing! a! river:! A! hare! swims! across! on! the! surface! only.! A! horse! swims! across! at! times! on! the! surface,! at! times! touching! the! bottom.! An! elephant! crosses! over! always! by! walking! on! the! rivers! bottom! .! The! ways! the! 'r"vaka,! the! pratyekabuddha! and!the!Buddha!cross!over!the!river!of!coditioned!co-arising!is!likewise!respectively.! ! Some! say:!He!who!has! abandoned!both! kinds!of!non-cognizance/nescience! (aj"na)! !! defiled! and! non-defiled! ! is! called! a! buddha.! The! 'r"vaka! and! the! pratyeka-buddha! can! only! abandon! the! defiled! one,! not! the! non-defiled! one;! hence! they! are! not! called! buddhas.!17!!

! On! the! Buddhas! unique! omniscience,! we! may! compare! the! above! Abhidharma! conception! in! the! MV%! to! that! expounded! in! the! Twenty-five-thousand# Perfection# of# Wisdom! S!tra! (Pacavi&'ati-s"hasrik"#Praj"p"ramit";! included! in! ),! an!early!Mah"y"na!text:!

!
Subh)ti:! But! how! is! it! that! the! Bhagavat! has! spoken! of! the! all-mode! knowledge! (sarv"k"ra-jat"),! the! path-mode! knowledge! (m"rg"k"ra-jat"),18!as! well! as! the! allknowledge! (sarva-jat";! omniscience).! What! is! the! distinction! among! these! three! types!of!all-knowledge?! ! Bhagavat:! The! all-mode! knowledge,! Subh)ti,! belongs! to! the! Tath"gata,! Arhat,! Samyak-sa&buddha.! The! path-mode! knowledge! belongs! to! the! bodhisattva-s,! great! beings.!The!all-knowledge,!Subh)ti,!belongs!to!all!'r"vaka-s!and!pratyekabuddha-s.! ........................! ! Bhagavat:!Subh)ti,!as!many!as!there!are!modes!("k"ra),!marks!(li+ga),!signs!!(nimitta)! by! which! the! dharma-s! are! indicated,! those! modes,! those! marks! and! those! signs! are! awakened! into!by!the!Tath"gata.! Therefore!it! is!called! the! all-mode!knowledge! of! the! Tath"gata,!Samyak-sa&buddha.!...19! ! Subh)ti:! For! what! reason,! Bhagavat,! does! all-knowledge! belong! to! all! 'r"vaka-s! and! pratyekabuddha-s?! ! Bhagavat:! All! that! there! isinternal! and! external! dharma-sis! known! by! all! 'r"vaka-s!and!pratyekabuddha-s;!but!not!in!respect!of!all-paths!or!all-modes.!

(Xuan!Zangs!tr:!The! different!dharma-pary"ya-sfive!skandha-s,! twelve!"yatana-s,! eighteen! dh"tu-s,! etc.can! also! be! discerned! by! all! 'r"vaka-s! and! pratyekabuddha-s.! But!they!cannot!know!all!the!path-modes!and!all!the!modes!of!all!dharma-s.!...)! .........! ! Subh)ti:! But! that! which! is! all-mode! knowledge,! that! which! is! path-mode! knowledge,! and! that! which! is! all-knowledge! ! is! there! a! difference! in! terms! of! the! abandonment! of!defilements!among!these!three!all-knowledges?! ! Bhagavat:! Subh)ti,! there! is! no! difference!in! terms! of! the! abandonment! of! defilements! [pertaining! to! the! three! types! of! all-knowledge].! However,! for! the! Tath"gata,! there! is! the! abandonment! of! defilements! along! with! the! continuity! of! all! their! traces! (sarvav"san"nusa&dhi-kle'aprah"%a).! But,! for! the! 'r"vaka,! there! is! no! [such! thorough]! abandonment!of!defilements!along!with!the!continuity!of!all!their!traces.!! .........! ! Subh)ti,! ...! there! is! the! abandonment! of! greed,! hatred! and! ignorance! on! the! part! of! those! ['rav"ka-s! and! pratyekabuddha-s];! but! [their! traces! still! remain! so! that! certain]! bodily! and! vocal! perturbations! arise.! These! lead! to! non-beneficial! [consequences]! in! the! case! of! the! childish! worldlings,! but! not! in! the! case! of! the! 'r"vaka-s.! They! do! not! exist!in!the!Tath"gata.! (Xuan! Zangs! tr.:! Subh)ti,! the! continuity! of! the! traces! is! not! defilement.! However,! although! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! the! pratyekabuddha-s! have! abandoned! the! defilements;! there!still!exist!some!semblance!of!greed,!hatred!and!ignorance!which!propel![certain]! bodily!acts!and!words.!This!is!what!has!been!called!the!continuity!of!the!traces.!...!All! such!continuities!of!traces!are!absolutely!absent!in!the!Buddhas,!the!Bhagavats.)20!!!!

! From! these! passages,! we! learn! that:! (1)! whereas! all! the! three! y"na-s! are! said! to! have! obtained! omniscience/all-knowledge,! the! omniscience! of! the! Buddha! is! unique! and! supreme,! described! as! the! all-mode! knowledge.! As! far! as! the! abandonment! of! defilements! is! concerned,! all! three!y"na-s! have! fully! accomplished! it.! But! it! is! a! perfectly! enlightened! buddha! alone! who! has! eradicated! the! continuity! of! the! v"san"-s! of! defilements! besides! having! fully! abandoned! the! defilements.! These! v"san"-s! are! not! of! the! nature! defilement.! They! induce! certain! physical! or! vocal! actions! in! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! pratyekabuddha-s;! but! without! thereby! defiling! them.! It! is! on! their! account! that! these! two! y"na-s! are! unable! to! achieve! the! same! perfection! of! wisdom! as! the! buddha-s.! Such! a! doctrine! can! be! traced! to! the! MV%! which,! as! we! have! above,! also! links! it! up! with! the! notion! of! the! non-defiled! nescience.21 !Sa'ghabhadra! states! that! according! to! all! his! &bhidharmika! teachers,! a! practitioner! trains! to! sublimate! his! faculties! (indriyott"pana!!see!below)!for!the!sole!purpose!of!eradicating!the!manifestation!of!the! non-defined! non-defiled! nescience! ( ! " ! # ! $ ;! aniv$tam# avy"k$tam# aj"nam)! induced! by! virtue! of! the! defilements! to! be! abandoned! through! insight! and! cultivation! (dar'ana-bh"van"-heya).22! !! The!progressive!attainment!of!the!three!types!of!enlightenment!(bodhi)!!

The! teachings! of! the! MV%! is! that! a! practitioner! can! attain! any! of! the! three! types! of! bodhi! corresponding!to!the!three!y"na-s.!This!essentially!depends!on!his!capacity!!the!relative! strength! of! the! faculty! of! understanding! (praj")! that! he! is! capable! of! developing.! The! &bhidharmika!doctrine,!attested!already!in!the!K"ty"yan$putras!J"naprasth"na,23!of!the! elevation! or! sublimation! of! the! faculties! (indriyott"pana)! affirms! the! possibility! of! a! practitioner!upgrading!his!faculties!through!effort!right!up!to!those!of!the!highest!grade! of!arhat-ship,!the!immovable!type!(akopya-dharman).24!!! The! ordinary! worldlings! (p$thagjana)! before! achieving! any! spiritual! fruition! are! classified! at! the! stage! of! preparatory! effort! (prayoga)25!into! three! distinctive! types! or! families! (gotra):! the! family! of! 'r"vaka,! the!! family! of! pratyeka-buddha,! the! family! of! buddha.! In! the! first! part! of! the! preparatory! part! known! as! the! emancipation-part,! or! the! part! conducing! to! emancipation! (mok(a-bh"g*ya),! it! is! possible! for! the! practitioner! to!be!progressively!transformed!from!a!lower!family!to!a!higher!one:!! !
[He! can]! transform! the! 'r"vaka-family! emancipation-part,! and! generate! the! pratyekabuddha-! or! buddha-family! emancipation-part;! transform! the! pratyekabuddha-family! emancipation-part! and! generate! the! 'r"vaka-! or! buddhafamily! emancipation-part.! If! he! generates! the! buddha-family! emancipation-part,! there!will!be!no!transformation,!since!it!is!the!strongest.26!

! Note,! in! particular,! that! (i)! although! in! terms! of! the! stated! sequence! of! transformation,! there! is! implied! some! sort! of! superiority! of! the! pratyekabuddha-type! over! the! 'r"vakatype,! a! practitioner! can! transform! from! one! into! the! other! ! either! way.! There! is! no! explicit! suggestion! of! one! type! being! more! desirable! than! the! other.! (ii)! On! the! other! hand,! the! buddha-type! is! explicitly! stated! to! be! the! strongest! and! highest;! a! buddha-type! is!not!transformed!into!a!'r"vaka-!or!pratyekabuddha-type.!! ! The! following! passage! clarifies! that! through! the! same! spiritual! practicein! this! case,! the! fourfold! abodes! of! mindfulness! (sm$ty-upasth"na)different! practitioners! with! different! strengths!of!insight!attain!different!types!of!bodhi:!! !
...! Sentient! beings! practise! these! two! types! of! meditation! as! the! true! gateway! into! Immortality! (i.e.! Nirv"%a)! of! the! Buddha-dharma:! 1.,! the! contemplation! of! the! loathsome! (a'ubh"),! 2.,! mindfulness! of! breathing! ("n"p"na-sm$ti).! The! first! contemplates! on! derived! matter! (up"d"ya-r!pa);! the! second,! the! Great! Elements! (mah"-bh!ta).!! According! to! some:! if! one! contemplates! on! the! Great! Elements! and! derived! matter,! one! can,! in! a! successive! manner,! realize! the! three! types! of! bodhi:! buddha-,! pratyekabuddha-! and! 'r"vaka-bodhi.! That! is:! if! one! contemplates! on! them! with! a! strong-grade! knowledge! (insight),! one! generates! a! strong-grade! mindfulness! of! the! body! (k"ya-sm$tyupasth"na).! From! this,! one! next! generates! a! strong-grade! mindfulness! of! sensation! (vedan"-sm$yupasth"na);! next,! of! thought! (citta);! next,! of! dharma-s;!next,!of!mixed!cognitive!objects;!...;!next,!the!path!of!vision,!up!to!the!path! of! the! non-trainee! ! all! with! a! strong-grade! [insight].! At! that! time,! one! is! called! a! True!Man!(satpuru(a)!of!the!strong!grade,!realizing!as!one!does,!the!Supreme,!Perfect!

Enlightenment.! If! one! contemplates! on! them! with! a! medium-grade! knowledge,! one! generates! a! medium-grade! mindfulness! of! the! body,! etc.,! ...! ! path! of! the! non-trainee! ! all! with! a! medium-grade! [insight].! At! that! time,! one! is! called! a! True! Man! of! the! medium! grade,! realizing! as! one! does! the! pratyekabuddha-bodhi,! of! a! medium! grade.! If!one!contemplates!on!them!with!a!weak-(/inferior)grade!knowledge,!one!generates!a! weak-grade! mindfulness! of! the! body,! etc.,! ...! ! path! of! the! non-trainee! ! all! with! a! weak-grade! [insight].! At! that! time,! one! is! called! a! True! Man! of! the! weak! grade,! realizing!as!one!does!the!'r"vaka-bodhi,!of!a!weak!grade.27!!

Summary and discussion

In! the! emerging! Mah"y"na,! Mah"y"na! is! definable! as! the! bodhisattva-y"na.! There! are! thus! three! y"na-s:! 'r"vaka-,! pratyeka-buddha-! and! bodhissatva-y"na.! This! threefold! division! had! clearly! been! inspired! by! the! doctrine! of! the! three! vehicles! or! three! bodhi 'r"vaka-,!pratyeka-buddha-!and!buddha-bodhi(/samyak-sa&bodhideveloped!in!the!preMah"y"na!schools.!! ! Within! the! Sarv"stiv"da! Abhidharma! tradition,! we! saw! that! the! contrast! between! the! two! y"na-s!on!the!one!hand!and!the!Buddha!on!the!other,!has!been!well!developed!around!the! Common! Era! (i.e.! around! the! time! of! emergence! of! the! Mah"y"na).! It! is! taught! that! there! are! three! types! of! bodhi,! corresponding! to! the! three! y"na-s.! A! practitioner,! according! to! his! strength! of! insight! and! temperament,! can! attain! any! of! the! three.! At! the! preparatory! stage! before! entry! into! the! path! of! vision! (dar'ana-m"rga),! a! 'r"vaka-family! type! and! a! pratyekabuddha-family! type! can! be! transformed! into! each! other,! as! well! as! promoted! to! be! a! buddha-family! type.! Moreover,! with! regard! to! one! and! the! same! spiritual! practice! (e.g.,! the! a'ubh"),! different! practitioners! with! different! strength! of! insight! can! attain! the! enlightenment!of!a!buddha,!or!a!pratyekabuddha,!or!a!'r"vaka.! ! In! brief,! in! the! MV%,! two! major! differences! stand! out! between! the! Buddha! (a! buddha)! on! the!one!hand,!and!the!two-y"na!on!the!other:!! (1)! the! Buddha! alone! is! perfect! in! wisdom! ! this! is! explained! as! a! perfection! acquired! by! virtue! of! his! having! overcome! the! two-fold! nescience,! defiled! and! nondefiled,! and! as! having! abandoned! all! defilements! together! with! their! traces.! In! the! MV%,! the! difference! is! also! articulated! in! terms! of! the! doctrine! of! the! twofold! hindrance:! The! Buddha! alone! has! overcome! both! the! hindrance! of! defilement! (kle'a-"vara%a)! and! of! knowable! (jeya-"vara%a).28!! This! twofold! hindrance! in! fact! constitutes! an! important! early!Mah"y"na!doctrine.!! (2)! The! Buddha! alone! has! Great! Compassion,! which,! in! its! intrinsic! nature,! is! knowledge! (j"na)! ! which,! in! Sarv"stv"da,! is! praj".! It! is! argued! that! Great! Compassion!!is!none!other!than!knowledge!or!wisdom;!for,!a!doctor!can!save!a!patient!by! curing! him! only! when! he! possesses! the! true! knowledge! of! the! required! medicine.! This! is! comparable! to! the! Mah"y"na! doctrine! that! wisdom! and! (great)! compassion! are! one,! and! that! true! skill! in! means! (up"ya-kau'alya)! issues! necessarily! from! praj"-p"ramit".! The! Buddha!is!said!to!acquire!Great!Compassion!through!a!very!long!period!of!the!practice!of!

the! perfections! (p"ramit"),! and! through! strong! vows,! and! when! the! unique! Buddhabodyendowed! with! all! the! 32! marksis! acquired.! The! emphasis! on! vows! and! the! generation!of!the!thought!of!bodhi!(bodhicittotp"da)!as!important!parts!of!the!bodhisattva! career! is! particularly! noteworthy.! Equally! noteworthy! is! the! assertion! that! by! virtue! of! this! Great! Compassion,! a! buddha! gives! up! his! great! Dharma-bliss! and! undergoes! hardship,! entering! voluntarily! into! the! different! planes! of! existence! and! transforming! himself!in!various!forms,!in!order!to!benefit!and!skillfully!guide!sentient!beings.!! All! this,! as! is! well! known,! in! fact! constitutes! the! essential! elements! of! early! Mah"y"na!doctrines.!! ! !
1

!Reginald! Ray,! Buddhist# Saints# in# India:# A# Study# in# Buddhist# Values# and# Orientations# (New! York,! 1994),! 407.!! 2 !For! a! detailed! discussion! on! the! Inquiry# of# Ugra,! see! Jan! Nattier,! The# Bodhisattva# Path# # based# on# the# Ugraparip$cch",#a#Mah"y"na#S!tra.!(Delhi,!2007).! 3 !Elsewhere!(MV%,428a),!great!compassion!is!also!described!as!having!the!non-delusion!(amoha)!as!its! intrinsic!nature.! 4 !Cf.!P.!Pradhan!(ed.)!Abhidharmako'abh"(yam#of#Vasubandhu,!1:!sa&s"ro#hi#jagad"sa+gasth"natv"d# duruttaratv"c#ca#pa+kabh!ta,#|#tatr"vamagna&#jagad#atr"%am#anukampam"no#bhagav"n#saddharmade'an"hasta-prad"nair#yath"bhavyam#abhyuddh$tav"n#iti#|! 5 !MV%,159b160a.!See!also!MV%,!428ab.! 6 !MV%,!428a.! 7 !MV%,!428c.! 8 !MV%,!428b.! 9 !"#$%&!T49,!no.!2031,!15c:!'()*+,-./0123/45678! 10 !Akira! Hirakawa,! %&'(9:! (Tokyo,! 1979)! vol.! I,! 332.! English! tr.! by! Paul! Groner,! A#History#of#Indian# Buddhism:#From#-"kyamuni#to#Early#Mah"y"na!(New!Delhi,!1993),!262.! 11 !;!vy"ma;!said!to!be!about!7!feet.! 12 !MV%,!428c.! 13 !MV%,!886c887a.! 14 !E.g.,!T11,!no.!310,!472c:!)*+,-./012?!345612789:;,!<=>?@ABCD,!E 89:FG;,!HEBI,!JKLM@NO!!PQ+,-.,!/012@! 15 !MV%,!42b.! 16 !MV%,!77c.! 17 !MV%,!735bc.! 18 !In!the!discussion!below,!we!shall!not!be!concerned!with!this!form!of!sarvajat"!which!is!confined!to!the! bodhisattva-s.! 19 !In! Xuan! Zangs! tr.,! this! comes! just! after! the! explanation! on! the! sarvajat"! of! the! 'r"vaka-s! and! pratyekabuddha-s.!See!Chinese!in!the!following!note.!
20

!Pacavi&'ati-s"hasrik"praj"p"ramit",! Vol! V,! 125! f:! bhagav"n# "ha! |# sarv"k"rajat"# subh!te# tath"gatasy"rhata,# samyaksa&buddhasya# |# m"rgajat"# subh!te# bodhisattv"n"&# mah"sattv"n"&# sarvajat"# subh!te#sarva'r"vakapratyekabuddh"n"m#|# subh!tir#"ha#|#kena#k"ra%ena#bhagavan#sarv"k"rajat"#tath"gatasy"rhata,#samyaksa&buddhasya!|! bhagav"n#"ha# |# y"vanta,# subh!te#"k"r"# li+g"ni# nimitt"ni# yair#"k"rair# yair# li+gair# yair# nimittais# te# dharm",# s!cyante# |# te# "k"r"s# t"ni# li+g"ni# t"ni# nimitt"ni# tath"gaten"nub(u)ddh"ni! |# tenocyate# tath"gatasy"rhata,# samyaksa&buddhasya#sarv"k"rajat"#|#...# ......# subh!tir#"ha#|#kena#k"ra%ena#bhagavan#sarvajat"#sarva'r"vakapratyekabuddh"n"m#|# bhagav"n# "ha# |# et"vad# eva# subh!te# sarva&# y"vad# ev"dhy"tmik"'# ca# b"hy"'# ca# dharm"s# te# ca# sarva'r"vakapratyekabuddhair#j"t"#|#na#puna,#sarvam"rge%a#sarv"k"re%a#|#...## ......#

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subh!tir# "ha# |# y",# punar# im"# bhagavan# sarv"k"rajat"# ca# m"rgajat"# ca# sarvajat"# ca# kaccid# bhagavann# "s"&# tis$%"&# sarvajat"n"&# kle'aprah"%asya# n"n"tvam# asti# |# asya# s"va'e(a-prah"%am# asy"nava'e(aprah"%am#|# bhagav"n# "ha# |# na# subh!te# kle'aprah"%asya# n"n"tvam# asti# |# asti# punas# tath"gatasya# sarvav"san"nusa&dhikle'aprah"%a&#na#puna,#'r"vakasya#sarvav"san"nusa&dhikle'aprah"%am#|! Cf.!RSTUVWXYZ[\68 ]^_`T07, no. 220, 337b338a: abCcde2fghijklmmno8pqrklmst;mskl;m@hP8mu;)*vo *wxv 2yCcgklmOqrz{|}~m@t;mOqrz-..m@kl;mOqrhiss zm@ abCcde2fg*IklmPz{|}~mv 2yCcgklmOqrs9:s9wxq{|s~$wxq$k lt;}klsklp;IqklmPz{|}~m@ ...................... abCcde2fg*Ikl;mQkl;mv 2yCcg$klk;qr;qPIQHkl;m@dqCcKs!s;qh ih$qPIQkl;m@ ................... 2yCcg owx. hi, kl ;; {|s~;@ ................... 2fgCc; @{|}~ qo-7s; BH ;@B+G;!q+{|s~;!qhPkl;q2 !o@ 21 !See!also,!KL!Dhammajoti,!The!Defects!in!the!Arhats!Enlightenment!!His!akli()a-aj"na!and!v"san".! In:!Bukky.#Kenky!!(Buddhist#Studies),!Vol.!XXVII!(1998),!65!ff.! 22 !Ny"y"nus"ra*,!T29,!723a:!3S,!fDH,!!"!#!$cK.! 23 !E.g.,!T26,!999a.! 24 !Sa'ghabhadra!(T29,!723c)!explains!this!doctrine!of!indriyott"ona:!<*I,!QHD?!D,!N I@r,!tI,!D;,!5,!5,!,!QHD@IDQ,!D@! 25 !The! preparatory! stage! consists! of! two! parts:! (1)! the! emancipation-part! (mok(a-bh"g*ya)! comprising! 'amatha! and! vipa'yan"! practices,! and! (2)! the! penetration-part! (nirvedha-bh"g*ya)! which! immediately! precedes! the! stage! of! the! path! of! vision! (dar'ana-m"rga)! entering! which! an! ordinary! worldling! is! transformed!into!a!Noble!One.! 26 !RS[T27,! 35bg{|p,! ~}2p@~p ,!{|}2p@U2p,!,!I@! 27 !RS[T27,! 662cg...! o:! oB:p,! H2:! k,! :A@ ,! ASp@o:! USp,! 2s~s{|,! 8p-@r:! U<m O,! _7@B_;! ;! ;! ";! sssk;! t,! !t,!<_@!QH_C" ,!5!-@U<mO,!_7;!# !t,!<_@!QH_C" ,!5_~-@U<mO,!_7;!# !t,!<_@!QH_C" ,!5_{|-@!! 28 !Cf.#MV%,!724b.!

11