Constellations

Contents
Constellation names.............................................................................................................................. 2 Changing Skies ...................................................................................................................................... 3 An Introduction to Constellations........................................................................................................ 4 Stars and the Sun................................................................................................................................... 5 Stars Over Time..................................................................................................................................... 7 The Birth of a Star ................................................................................................................................. 7 The Life of a Star ................................................................................................................................... 8 Star Gazing Tips ...................................................................................................................................10 Constellations in Different Seasons..................................................................................................... 11 Autumn and Winter ............................................................................................................................. 11 Summer................................................................................................................................................. 12 Spring .................................................................................................................................................... 13 Glossary.................................................................................................................................................14 Credits................................................................................................................................................... 15 About the Author .................................................................................................................................16

Constellation names When looking at pictures of constellations, you might notice that the patterns of stars dont look like the objects for which they were named. Some may be a stretch of the imagination, such as Orion, the hunter:

If you think a bit, it appears to be the outline of a tunic. But when looking for Ursa major, the big bear, you find a pattern of stars like this:

And by no stretch of the imagination does that look like a bear. But there is an explanation. Constellations were named quite a long time ago and two things have happened since then to make some stars invisible, and new stars have become visible since then. Because of these changes, the constellations we see today are different from when they were named.

Changing Skies Think about where you live. At night do you have to draw the blinds so it is dark enough to sleep? If you do, there is light pollution where you live. Cities such as Worcester and Boston have a lot of light and air pollution.

Boston is not a place to go star gazing. In areas of Massachusetts away from cities, there isnt light pollution. There may be a bit of air pollution, but stars are visible. And in really remote areas there is such a small amount of pollution that the sky practically glitters. That is a very amazing sight indeed.

An Introduction to Constellations When looking at the night sky, you see stars. Constellations dont come with convenient outlines that tell you which stars are part of Scorpius, and which are part of Libra. Without already knowing the shapes of constellations, they just appear to be random stars.

Quick, what is pictured here?

A constellation is defined as a random pattern seen in the stars. The stars were not arranged into shapes, so constellations started as a matter of opinion. Today, there is a recognized set of constellations. The constellations recognized today were the patterns that made the most sense to people in the past.

Stars and the Sun Constellations are made of stars, and stars are more than just tiny points of light in the night sky. To start, stars shine all the time, not only at night. During the day, our sun outshines the other stars. Incidentally, the sun is also a star. The sun is a middle sized star, but it is a million times larger than the earth. Even though the sun is the closest star to earth, it is about 93 million miles away, and thats why it looks so small. The next closest star is Proxima Centauri; this star is over 24.6 trillion miles away. A distance of24.6 trillion miles is a huge number, and this star is relatively close to the earth. Because these distances are such large numbers when written in miles, a new unit of distance is required for space. It is called a light-year. A light-year is defined as how far light can travel in a vacuum over the period of one year. The speed of light is approximately 670 million miles per hour, so one light year is approximately 5.878 trillion miles. Using light-years we can say that Proxima Centauri is 4.2 light-years away, which is a more convenient number But that also means that light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach earth. W0w!
5

Stars make heavier elements from lighter ones. This is a process called fusion which creates quite a lot of heat. Consider a fire, the closer a person is to a fire, the hotter the fire feels. The sun is a source of heat, not exactly a fire, and we can feel the heat of the sun 93 million miles away. This heat is important for a star to survive.

If we were the small dot, and our sun was the larger circle, Proxima Centauri would be at least in the corner of the page, if not further away. Unfortunately, the size of the sun and earth are not accurate. The larger circle is nowhere near a million times the size of the smaller. Space is a really, really big place.

Proxima Centauri: that way.

Stars Over Time Stars are not the same during their existence. This is not meant to say that stars are alive, but much like a person goes through birth, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and death, a star goes through distinct stages.

The Birth of a Star Stars are created from large clouds of dust in space. These clouds are called nebulae; one cloud is a nebula. Occasionally, in a nebula, some of the dust gravitates toward a core. As the particles of dust collide, the core temperature increases. The density increases as more dust is pulled toward the core. Eventually the temperature and density create enough pressure to stop more particles from gravitating towards the core. This means that the star is done changing at this stage. Depending on the temperature of the core one of two things may happen.

1) The Temperature is too Low This results in a so called brown dwarf. These objects are not actually stars because hydrogen is not converted into helium. The reason for that is the temperature never became high enough for such a reaction to occur. Brown dwarfs aren't very visible or large.

2) The Temperature is Good If a star becomes hot enough, atoms of hydrogen are made into atoms of helium. This is when a star is considered a real star. But not all stars stop at turning hydrogen into helium. When larger stars run out of hydrogen, they turn helium into carbon, and carbon into other elements.

The Life of a Star Stars last a long time. Most of the stars we see today will still be visible long after you and I are dead. But not all stars last the same amount of time. How long a star lasts depends on the mass of the star. Stars with lower masses contain less hydrogen, but convert hydrogen at a slower rate. This slower rate causes small stars to last longer. Our sun is a small star and should last for over a billion years. Large stars last only millions of years. The Beginning of the End Eventually a star must raise the core temperature, and there is no hydrogen left. At this point the star will start to burn helium. The core shrinks rapidly and the outer regions of the star start to drift away. This means the star appears larger, and because the outer regions are cooler, the star appears redder. Stars such as these are called Red Giants. The End Eventually gravity overcomes the pressure (caused by temperature and density within the core), and a star dies. When this happens, the matter in the star returns to space so that the cycle may begin again. Exactly how this happens depends on the mass of the star. Low Mass Stars The cores of these stars become White Dwarfs. The remaining mass becomes a nebula around the star. Medium Mass Stars Eventually these become White Dwarfs as well. But before that, a medium mass star will supernova. A supernova occurs when the core of a Red Giant pulls in the outer regions of the star. The core then burns this new fuel and the result is literally explosive. A supernova is much like a bomb exploding.

More Massive Stars Larger stars also become a supernova, but the difference between these and the medium stars is that the larger stars enter the supernova phase faster and form a neutron star. These stars are so named because they are made of neutrons. The Most Massive Stars The most massive stars end in the most spectacular way. As the core shrinks, it may supernova and form a neutron star, but neither last long. All the mass is pulled to one point and forms a black hole. Black holes are so named because nothing, not even light, can escape the pull of a black hole. All of these types of stars can be found in the universe right now. They may not be viewable with the naked eye, but with advances in telescope technology mankind can see space at a much higher level of detail.

Star Gazing Tips Hopefully this book has made you want to look at the stars. Well, if you do, there are some things to take into consideration. Where The best places for star gazing are rural areas. Lower levels of light pollution, due to fewer buildings and streetlights, mean more stars are visible. The best areas are clear of trees and buildings, as these block a persons view of the sky. Atop a building would also be a good location, but open areas may be easier to find. When The best time for star gazing is a clear summer night. The reason for a clear night should be apparent. Summer nights are best for someone trying star gazing for the first time, or a fair weather astronomer. Overall, summer nights will be warmer and will lead to a more pleasant time. What to Bring Equipment is not necessary for star gazing. Many stars can be seen with the naked eye. But for someone with an interest in astronomy, beginner and hobbyist telescopes are available with reasonable prices. Some communities hold star parties to which people bring their own telescopes, but let the public use them. These parties are an excellent introduction to star gazing because the telescope owners know quite a bit about stars and can point out interesting points in space. When star gazing, it is good to come prepared. Bug spray, a jacket, a flashlight, and a chair, or blanket, are essential, especially when traveling long distances to look at the stars. Less necessary are things such as maps of constellations and laser pointers.

10

Constellations in Different Seasons Not all constellations are visible all year. Here are the constellations visible in the northern hemisphere and grouped by season. Some constellations are visible during multiple seasons and are listed as such.

Autumn and Winter Lynx, Auriga, Perseus, Triangulum, Andromeda, Pegasus, Aries, Pisces, Cetus, Aquarius, Taurus, Orion, Lepus, Eridanus, Cancer, Canis Minor, Monoceros, Canis Major, Gemini, Pyxis, Puppis, Columba, Fornax, Sculptor, Pisces Austrinus

11

Summer Andromeda, Lacerta, Cygnus, Lyra, Pisces, Pegasus, Vulpecula, Sagitta, Delphinus, Equules, Capricornus, Sculptor, Pisces Austrinus, Microscopium, Hercules, Corona Borealis, Bootes, Serpens Caput, Serpens Cauda, Ophiuchus, Scutum, Sagittarius, Libra, Scorpius

12

Spring Hercules, Corona Borealis, Serpens, Ophiuchus, Scorpius, Libra, Lupus, Centaurus, Virgo, Bootes, Ursa Major, Canes Venatici, Coma Bernices, Corvus, Crater, Antilla, Hydra, Sextans, Leo, Leo Minor, Cancer, Gemini, Canis Major, Canis Minor, Puppis

13

Glossary

Nebula- a cloud of matter in space Light pollution - light sources that interfere with natural lights Neutron star the result of a supernova, made of neutrons

14

Image Credits

Cover starryskies.com Page 2 space.about.com Page 3 sbcb.bioch.ox.ac.uk Page 4 www.wyenot.com Page 10 Microsoft clip art Pages 11-13 starryskies.com

15

About the Author Maija Mednieks lives in Harvard Massachusetts and is currently attending the Massachusetts Academy of Math and Science at WPI. She lives in Harvard Massachusetts and considers it a prime location for star gazing. She has been interested in space since she was in elementary school and has been staring at the sky since then.

16