Flow eHandbook

Monitoring Flow
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Table of Contents Keep metering problems from bubbling up

Entrained gas can affect Coriolis meters but you can take steps to optimize performance.

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Understand the Attraction of Magmeters

Magnetic flowmeters provide accuracy and can be used in a variety of applications and environments

Take a Different Look at Centrifugal Pumps

An unconventional assessment can provide insights for effective control.

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Keep metering problems from bubbling up

Entrained gas can affect Coriolis meters but you can take steps to optimize performance. and environments
By Tim Patten, Micro Motion, Inc.

Coriolis meters have long been used very successfully on single-phase f luids. However, liquids that contain bubbles (air or gas) cause dynamic changes to a Coriolis meter that are not present in a single-phase f luid and that lead to measurement errors. A Coriolis meter operates by driving one or two tubes at a resonant, or natural, frequency. In the meter, the electronics (or transmitter) send a drive signal to the sensor that tracks the frequency of the tube and maintains the proper vibration amplitude. Driving on the resonant frequency is important because it enables f luid density measurement and minimizes power requirements. All modern Coriolis meters are intrinsically safe (IS), which limits the amount of power that is allowed to drive the sensor. Bubbles moving around in the liquid tremendously increase fluid damping, which results in power requirements that far exceed what IS restrictions permit. So, the tube amplitude significantly decreases. This condition is sometimes called stall, although the tubes usually do continue to vibrate to some extent. When the tube amplitude decreases, the signal-to-noise ratio also falls, making it a challenge to extract the mass flow signal from the
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Figure 1. When fluid velocity cant overcome buoyancy, bubbles get caught in inlet leg.

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Figure 2. Even at low flow rate, measurements for 10,000-cP toothpaste with 2-5% void fraction are within specification.

relatively high level of noise. Older analog signalprocessing techniques are highly sensitive to entrained air because signal amplitude is low and noise is high; no algorithm is available to enhance the measurement signal, thereby improving the signal-to-noise ratio. In contrast, digital signal processing (DSP) can effectively filter the noise to yield a good stable measurement so long as the tube is vibrating, even at reduced amplitudes. Note: Even with DSP, when gas is present in a liquid stream the meter can only provide total-product density (including the gas), not liquid-only density.
The impact of fluid dynamics

Coriolis meters are not sensitive to flow profile and other disturbances that affect other metering technologies. For instance, since the fundamental measurement of delta T comes from the relative values of each of two tubes in bent-tube designs, swirl upstream of the meter doesnt impact the measurement because it doesnt matter how much flow
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goes through one tube or the other. Accuracy is not degraded even when one tube is completely plugged. However, when gas is present in a liquid, the flow profile can become a concern. Although the fundamental measurement is unaffected (that is, the relative delta T), the tubes can become imbalanced due to the large density difference between them (air in one, liquid in the other, for instance). An imbalance can cause meter zero errors; therefore, measuring low flow rates can be problematic. An equally significant problem occurs at rates too low to sweep bubbles out of the tubes. If the fluid velocity is less than approximately 0.6 m/s, air will hang up in tube regions where the flow is against gravity (Figure 1). Bubbles get caught in the inlet tube leg because fluid velocity is not great enough to push the bubbles down and out against gravity forcing the bubbles up. This issue is present in any bent-tube meter design because at some location in the tube the fluid velocity is fighting gravity. The solution is to keep flow rate high enough
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Figure 2. Even at low flow rate, measurements for 10,000-cP toothpaste with 2-5% void fraction are within specification.

such that fluid velocity can purge the sensor of air. A rate of 20% of meter nominal flow (1 m/s in the flow tube) or higher is adequate to completely purge the meter of bubbles and give good performance. In a U-shaped meter, mounting the sensor in a vertical pipe run with flow going up helps to keep the bubbles moving through the meter.
The role of fluid properties

Pressure, f luid temperature and viscosity all impact how a Coriolis meter deals with varying levels of entrained air. As pressure increases or decreases, the apparent void fraction changes, of course. This means, for instance, if two meters are piped in series, the downstream meter is at a distinct disadvantage because the pressure is lower and therefore the void fraction is higher. Temperature plays a minor role, in that it affects viscosity and surface tension. It also impacts void fraction to a small degree (higher temperature results in higher void fraction). Viscosity is a very important fluid parameter because it directly influences the propensity of the fluid to hold up air (or gas). In a low-viscosity
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liquid such as water, air bubbles coalesce from finely distributed small bubbles into large ones that collect at high points in the line. In contrast, if the bubbles stay finely distributed, as happens in high-viscosity liquids, they will be purged from the meter easily and not collect and metering will be accurate. Figure 2 shows results for toothpaste with a viscosity of 10,000 cP and entrained air level between 2 and 5%. Rates are quite low for a 2-in. meter (<0.6 m/s) yet performance is well within specification. The opposite viscosity extreme is water where air will always tend to separate. If velocity is high, bubbles tend to stay finely divided, which helps to keep the air well mixed. Figure 3 shows very good performance because mixing is good due to the high flow rate (38,000 kg/h). If the velocity is low, bubbles collect at locations in the meter flow tubes or piping where the flow direction is against gravity. Errors can easily exceed 5% if the velocity is less than 0.6 m/s and therefore mixing is poor.
Future improvements

Transmitters in development will enable accurate measurement of lower rates. There will always be a physical limit to the minimum rate that can
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be measured because of the previously described separation issues. However, noise rejection improvement with new DSP techniques will allow the minimum rate to be pushed lower. A significant problem with any two-phase flow (water/air, dog food with solids suspended in water, oil/gas, etc.) is at zero flow. When the flow is stopped, the multiple phases separate by gravity, prompting an imbalance in the tube. This imbalance causes an apparent meter zero change. Work on signal processing improvements to address this problem is currently a significant area of research.
A special case

Empty-full-empty batching can pose a related measurement issue. Such batching is most common to avoid cross-contamination of products when filling large tanks such as rail cars or trucks. Therefore, the loading line is purged with air or other inert gas between loads, leaving the meter empty before and after the batch.

Generally, this application is not too difficult because the batches tend to be long (greater than one minute). Any transient meter behavior at the beginning and end of the batch is small compared to the whole batch, so errors are washed out. However, when batches are short (less than one minute), the transient errors can account for a significant fraction of the total error. Air may be entrained for a brief period, but the main issue is the time it takes to fill the meter with fluid. For instance, an application running at 3 m/s will take about 0.1 s to fill if the tube length is 0.3 m; an application at 0.3 m/s will take a full second simply to fill the meter. Experience has shown that if the meter fill-time is less than 0.1 sec., good batching performance can be achieved, regardless of the meters tube geometry.
Tim Patten is director of measurement technology for
Micro Motion, Inc., Boulder, Colo. E-mail him at Tim.Patten@EmersonProcess.com.

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Understand the Attraction of Magmeters

Magnetic flowmeters provide accuracy and can be used in a variety of applications and environments
By David W. Spitzer

Magnetic flowmeters are among the most versatile of f lowmeter technologies. These meters measure liquid velocity, from which the volumetric f low rate is inferred. The measurement is linear with liquid velocity and exhibits a relatively large turndown. In addition, the range of accurate f low measurement is relatively large and easy to change after installation. Straight-run requirements are relatively short, so magnetic f lowmeter technology can be applied where limited straight run is available. In addition, the technology has no Reynolds number constraints, so it can be used for liquids with high or varying viscosity. However, liquid electrical conductivity constraints must be satisfied for these f lowmeters to function. The only wetted parts of the f lowmeters are the liner and electrodes, both of which can be made from materials that can withstand corrosion. This makes the f lowmeters suitable for use in chemical plants where corrosion may be a concern. Two-wire magnetic f lowmeters are available that do not require power wiring. These can replace an existing f lowmeter using the existing conduit or wiring with little or no electrical rework.
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Principle of operation

Magnetic flowmeters use Faradays Law of electromagnetic induction to determine the velocity of a liquid flowing through a pipe. Following Faradays Law, flow of a conductive liquid through a magnetic field will generate a voltage signal. This signal is sensed by electrodes located on the flow tube walls. When the coils are located externally, a non-conductive liner is installed inside the pipe to electrically isolate the electrodes and prevent the signal from being shorted. For similar reasons, non-conductive materials are used to isolate the electrodes for internal coil designs. The fluid itself is the conductor that will move through the magnetic field and generate a voltage signal at the electrodes. When the fluid moves faster, it generates more voltage. Faradays Law states that the voltage generated is proportional to the movement of the flowing liquid. The transmitter processes the voltage signal to determine liquid flow.
Selection factors

Many factors must be considered when selecting a flowmeter, including the ambient conditions to which the flowmeter primary and transmitter will be exposed. For the most part, the ambient temperature rating of the flowmeter primary is higher than that
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of the transmitter and does not limit applicability. Many primary and transmitter enclosures that are rated for NEMA 4X or IP67 provide adequate protection against ambient humidity and precipitation encountered in outdoor installations. Operating conditions inside the pipe include pressure, temperature and liquid conductivity. In addition, the liquid can be corrosive or abrasive. These conditions are typically addressed using appropriate mechanical design and material selection. Pressure requirements are addressed by appropriate design of the flow tube for the application. One supplier makes a specially designed magnetic flowmeter that can withstand 1,500 to 2,000 bar (more than 20,000 psi). Many primaries are available with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) liners that are rated to about 266 Degrees F and 356 Degrees F (130 Degrees C and 180 Degrees C), respectively. Less expensive liners rated to lower temperatures are often available to handle less demanding applications. Appropriate electrode and liner material selection can reduce the effects of corrosion and abrasion. Take care when using ceramic liners because they can shatter when temperature gradient constraints are exceeded. Whereas the conductivity of the liquid in a typical magnetic flowmeter must be maintained above about 5 mixro-Siemens/cm (micro-S/cm), special low-conductivity designs are available that operate as low as about 0.01 micro-S/cm. Some flowmeters require more than 50 micro-S/cm, however, they are low-cost units that are often applied to water or wastewater service where this conductivity is usually not a constraint. The amount of straight-run pipe required to achieve the stated accuracy of the flowmeter is a reflection of the quality of the design and the tightness of the accuracy specification. In many applications, these flowmeters will function accurately with about three nominal pipe diameters upstream and two nominal pipe diameters downstream of the electrode. Magnetic flowmeter operation requires good electrical connections between the electrodes and the liquid. The quality of this connection can degrade if an electrode becomes coated or corroded;
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this can compromise AC flowmeter accuracy by shifting the zero, and may cause the flowmeter to fail to operate. The advent of DC-pulse excitation transmitters reduced much of the need to address this issue. In addition, some manufacturers have designed their transmitters to exhibit a relatively high input impedance to help decrease the effects of connection quality. Magnetic flowmeter coils can use and store significant amounts of energy relative to the amount of energy needed to cause ignition. Most magnetic flowmeter transmitters are designed to be non-incendive, so normal transmitter operation will not cause ignition. However, when installed in some hazardous locations, formal approval is required, and the transmitter must be designed and installed to address the hazard. A hazard may be present not only in the general location of the primary and transmitter, but also inside the pipe where the electrodes can provide a source of ignition. To mitigate this hazard, the circuits of some designs limit the energy available at the electrodes to an amount less than that required for ignition. Maintaining equipment is simplified when selfdiagnostics are available to help the user. The extent and quality of the diagnostics and their ease of use varies by manufacturer. Changing ranges is easier and more accurately performed in a digital manner. Potentiometer adjustments and step switches are more prone to problems.
Other considerations

The market for magnetic flowmeters is competitive, so prices are relatively low. Magnetic flowmeters for water and wastewater service can be economical due to the economies of scale and the relatively low cost of liners and electrodes for this service. However, applying magnetic flowmeters to corrosive or abrasive services can significantly increase the cost of the meters. Magnetic flowmeters for use in the chemical industry are typically more expensive than vortex shedders. In some applications, the cost can rival that of turbine flowmeter or orifice-plate flowmeter systems. Magnetic flowmeters are typically more economical than Coriolis mass flowmeters.
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Flowmeter performance

Performance claims

The purpose of installing a flowmeter system is to accurately measure flow in a reliable manner. Issues related to physical properties, process parameters, electronic features and interconnections are often given much consideration. Relatively little emphasis, however, is given as to how well the flowmeter will perform its intended purpose. Adding to the confusion are the differences in how performance is expressed and the incomplete nature of the available information. Nevertheless, the quality of flow measurement should be a concern. The performance of a flowmeter is quantified by its accuracy statements. The reader must understand not only which parameter is being described, but also the manner in which the statement is expressed. In flow measurement, parameters are commonly described in terms of a percentage of the actual flow rate, a percentage of the full scale of rate, or a percentage of the meter capacity. These terms are mathematically related, so it is possible to convert one to another (Table 1). Note that when compared on a common basis, such as percent of rate, these statements describe significantly different performance. Other terminology may be used to express these concepts. When this occurs, confirm exactly what the other terms mean so they can be understood. Performance statements apply to a range of flow or, stated differently, between a minimum and maximum flow velocity. It is important to identify the range in which the statement applies because performance can be significantly degraded or undefined when the flowmeter operates outside of this range. Complicating the issue are some flowmeters that have different performance statements for different measurement ranges. For example, a flowmeter may have a reference accuracy of 0.25% of rate from velocities of 1 to 10 m/s, and an absolute error of 0.0025 m/s from 0.1 to 1 m/s. Performance is undefined below 0.1 m/s. Table 2 describes this performance using the above information. Note how performance degrades at low flows.
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For the most part, the claims made by suppliers regarding magnetic flowmeters are true statements, even though they may seem extraordinary. The problem is that the statement may be incomplete, and may not include certain facts and information that clarify the statement. Sometimes claims are simplified for convenience and easier understanding. However, in many cases, further investigation may reveal other motives for doing so. For example, consider a magnetic f lowmeter that has a reference accuracy of 0.25% of rate and a turndown of 1,000:1. The implication is that the f lowmeter can measure within 0.25% of rate over a 1,000:1 range of f low. Taken individually, both parts of the claim are likely true statements. Yet when combined, they can be misleading by omission. Further investigation will show that the reference accuracy of 0.25% of rate applies only within a range of f low rates. Below the minimum f low rate of the range, the reference accuracy becomes a fixed absolute error. So as the f low rate decreases, the accuracy expressed as a percentage of rate will increase. Assuming that the reference accuracy of 0.25% of rate applies between 5% and 100% of meter capacity, and that between 0.1% and 5% of meter capacity, the reference accuracy is fixed at the absolute error at 5% of meter capacity. Table 3 calculates reference accuracy throughout the range of flows. This illustrates that above 0.5 m/s, the reference accuracy is 0.25% of rate and that the turndown is 10/0.01 or 1,000:1, both as claimed. What is not stated in the claim is that the reference accuracy degrades below 0.5 m/s and can approach 12.5% of rate. Also not stated is that in actual installations, flows near meter capacity would rarely be encountered, so the 1,000:1 turndown would rarely be achieved. Assuming a more reasonable full-scale calibration range of 0 to 2 m/s, this flowmeter would achieve a 0.25% of rate reference accuracy from 0.5 to 2 m/s, or a 4:1 turndown, and only a 200:1, or 2/0.01, turndown when the stated performance at low flow rates is included.
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In addition to high turndown, some suppliers claim that their f lowmeter operates at extremely low f low rates. Consider a claim to measure velocity as low as 0.01 m/s. For a meter with a capacity of 10 m/s, this corresponds to a 1,000:1 turndown. Although the f lowmeter may operate at this f low rate, Table 3 shows that it does so with a reference accuracy of 12.5% of rate. Statements about magnetic flowmeters often claim high reference accuracy. What often is not stated is that it may apply over a range of higher flows, and much of this range may not be encountered in actual operation. Furthermore, the reference accuracy as a percentage of rate generally degrades or is undefined at lower flow rates (see tables). When the calibrated full-scale is low, and the high reference accuracy statements are limited to a small range of high flow rates, the stated reference accuracy may not be achieved.

In general, reference accuracy should be clearly and completely stated for all flow rates prior to performing any analysis. The range of applicability of the high accuracy statement and the actual operating flow range should be compared. Magnetic flowmeters are among the most versatile of flowmeter technologies. However, the user should be aware of the manner in which their application and operation are described in order to ensure that the proper magnetic flowmeter is selected and installed.
David W. Spitzer has more than 25 years of experience in
specifying, building, installing, commissioning and troubleshooting process-control instrumentation. Spitzer is a principal in Spitzer and Boyes LLC, which offers consulting services for the process industries in addition to product development, marketing and distribution consulting for manufacturing and automation companies.

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Take a Different Look at Centrifugal Pumps

An unconventional assessment can provide insights for effective control.
By Andrew Sloley, Contributing Editor

Often, critical understanding of a system comes from turning the common analysis on its head. With centrifugal pumps, this means thinking that flow results from back-pressure on the pump discharge, not that pump discharge pressure varies with flow rate. This unconventional approach was crucial in addressing a troublesome control system for the overhead of a natural gas liquids plants debutanizer, which goes to an accumulator downstream of a reflux pump (Figure 1). Varying the rate of liquid product controls tower pressure. A dual-range controller handles the reflux drum pressure -- one valve lets in fuel gas to pressurize the system when pressure drops, another vents the drum when pressure rises to too high a level. This rather odd system did not work. The reflux pump cavitated all the time and pressure control was erratic. The owner, which acquired the unit during a company buy-out, lacked tower drawings, exchanger information, pump curves, control valve information and historical operating data. Current operating personnel had no experience with the unit and never had seen it work stably. Lack of information doesnt justify ignoring the problem. So, lets examine this systems fundamentals and explore the most serious shortcomings. Centrifugal analysis starts by looking at two things: the system curve and the pump curve. The system curve is the head loss required versus flow rate through the system. The pump curve is the dynamic head generated by the centrifugal pump. The intersection of the system and pump curves defines the flow rate the system will get. We most commonly attain the required flow rate by
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adjusting the system curve by adding an extra pressure drop via a control valve. Alternatively, we can change the pump curve using an adjustable speed drive. In Figure 1, the reflux control valve is a hand-operated control valve (HCV). The reflux system doesnt include an automated pressure drop. It essentially has a fixed system curve. This brings us to thinking about the pump operation: pump flow stems from backpressure on the pump. Now, lets consider the tower pressure-control system. PC3 adjusts the product flow out of the system with the intent of changing the liquid level in the condensers. Varying wetted condenser area on the process side allows for pressure control. This is a simple, fast-acting and effective system for total condensation services. Meanwhile, the product drum pressure-control system maintains a constant destination pressure for the net product from the reflux pump. The static head to the top of the tower far exceeds the pressure change between the tower and product drum. The problem comes from how the systems interact. The pressure control system requires level to exist somewhere up in the heat exchangers. Think of the exchangers and piping as a tall narrow vessel -- if more liquid exits a vessel than goes in, the level drops, and vice versa. The pressure control system should perform similarly to a tight level control system. The system curve for the reflux stream includes two components: static head and system pressure drop. Static head doesnt change with flow rate, but system pressure drop does. If static head makes up most of the system curve, the curve is relatively flat. Flat system curves create large flow rate changes from small pressure drop changes.
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Debutanizer Overhead Figure 1. Lack of an automated pressure drop in the reflux system made control difficult.

The flow rate out of the vessel (heat exchangers and piping) is very sensitive to changes in the HCV position. The HCVs purpose is to generate enough pressure drop in the reflux line so the unit can operate in a sweet spot where the pressure control system will work. In this case, we suspect the sweet spot is too small. The back-pressure on the pump imposed by the HCV usually is too low. At low back-pressure the pump capacity exceeds the liquid rate. More liquid is leaving the vessel (heat exchangers and piping) than going in. Liquid level drops quickly. Finally, the pump cavitates. How can we address this problem? One way is to try to put as much dynamic pressure drop on the HCV as tolerable. This makes the reflux system curve steeper, which gives more stable control. This is cheap and quick. A second, and better, approach automates the
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HCV. Control systems should transfer a disturbance from where its important to where its not. Whats important here is the flow rate out of the vessel -- so we can maintain tight level control. We must move the disturbance to something unimportant. Many different configurations are possible. The cloud in Figure 1 shows one of the simplest and easiest options. A strap-on ultrasonic flow meter along with a bolt-on actuator on the HCV enables fully automated control of the overhead system. The disturbance now is in the valve pressure drop -- an unimportant spot. There are other ways to approach this problem. But a fundamental understanding of the system comes from looking at the pump backwards.
ANDREW SLOLEY is a Chemical Processing Contributing
Editor. You can e-mail him at ASloley@putman.net

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