PH 103, Fall 2008

Third (Long) Week (13-21 September 2008): Scalars and Vectors

Scalars are physical quantities, which need only one number (variable) to specify them; for example mass, length, area, volume, time, temperature, charge, energy and pressure. Vectors are physical quantities that need two or more numbers (variables) to specify them; their magnitude and direction. Examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, torque, gravitational, electric and magnetic fields and angular momentum. Last week we discussed the one-dimensional analogues of displacement, velocity, acceleration. This week we will discuss their two and higher dimensional analogues and various properties of vectors in general. The term scalar and vector respectively refer to any of the above mentioned or any other similar physical quantity. y-axis No of steps along y-axis

4 3 r1 1 O 1 2 5 No of steps along x-axis 3 4 r2 P r Q x-axis

Fig. 3.1 As discussed during the class, consider taking 3 steps from the origin at O in one direction, which I label as x-axis, and another 2 steps in a direction perpendicular to it, which I label as y-axis. Blue lines in Fig. 3.1 indicate the path of these steps. Then my position P after this short walk can be represented by the position vector OP , which is denoted by

. Note that to make things simple, I am using

bold letters to denote vectors in stead of the usual vector notation

from P I take another step in the x-direction and 2 steps in the y-direction coming to position Q (red lines). My new position is represented by the position

r . Continuing

vector OQ , or the vector displacement from P.

2.

The vector PQ , or

r , represents my

To proceed further we need to introduce the concept of unit vector n. It represents direction, its magnitude is unity and it has no units; n =1. We shall use i to represent unit vector along x-axis, j to represent unit vector along y-axis and k to represent unit vector along z-axis. In general we will use the symbol to denote unit vector along r:

r = rr ,
Where,

or

r= r

r is the magnitude of the vector

r . Note that units of the physical

quantity represented by

r are associated with its magnitude.

From Fig. 3.1 and its associated description we can write terms of i and j as follows.

r ,r
1

and

r in

r r

1 2

=2i + 3j, =3i + j and

(3.1) (3.2) (3.3)

r = i -2 j,
Or, from Eqs (3.1) - (3.3),

r =r 2 r1

, or (3.5)

(3.4)

r = r +r
2 1

Note 3.1: The positions vectors

r ,r
1

and the displacement

r does not

depend on the particular paths I took to get there, I could have first moved along the y-direction and then the x-direction or got there along any zigzag path.

Note 3.2:

be used to represent three-dimensional position vectors if I could have moved in the k-direction. Vector Addition: Eq. (3.5) is an example of vector addition. In general, lets consider having two vectors and

and

are two dimensional position vectors. These could also

A and B as shown in Fig. 3.2 (a). Since A

B specify the direction and magnitude of these vectors but not their

position, we can draw them anywhere on the page. In particular we can draw

B such that it starts with the tip of vector A as shown in Fig. 3.2 (b). The
vector

joining the beginning of

A with the tip of B gives their sum, or

(3.6)

resultant:

C =A + B
B A
(a) Fig 3.2 Instead of moving giving; (b)

C A C B B
(c) (d)

A A -A

B we could have moved A to the tip of B , Fig. 3.2 (c),

C =B + A
Therefore, addition of two vectors is commutative.

Likewise, if we had three vectors,

A , B and C , we could show that vector

addition is also associative by writing,

( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C ) = D
We can also think of but pointing in the opposite direction, Fig. 3.2 (d), so that

A as vector with the same magnitude as that of A

A + (A) = 0
Zero or null vector

0 may have any direction except when making the

magnitude of a vector vanishingly small. In that case it will have the same direction as that of the corresponding vector. As an example of the application of vector addition lets consider viewing a ball thrown vertically upward with a speed v 0 in a train moving with constant speed u . A person in the train will see the ball going up and returning back to its original position as shown in Fig. 3.3 (a). A person standing on the platform will see the ball moving in a parabolic path; Fig. 3.3 (b). If

v0

u
(a) Fig. 3.3 ( (b)

is the velocity of the ball se observed from the platform, then j

v =ui+ v
2 1 2

If is the time of flight of the ball then, the height H and the range R of the parabolic trajectory of the ball are given by;
1 H = g = g 2 , and 8 2

R = ut

The angle
tan = v0 u

that the initial velocity

makes with the x-axis is given by,

By writing, u = v cos , v0 = v sin and replacing

by

v0 , we get the familiar g

expressions for the projectile motion that are derived below using the standard method. To do this we consider the components of

along x- and y-axis;

v x = v cos , v y = v sin If u x ( t ) and u y ( t ) are the x- and y-components of the velocity, a x ( t ) , a x ( t ) those of its acceleration and x(t ) and y (t ) are its coordinates of the projectile at

any time t during its motion then we may write, du ( t ) dx( t ) ux (t ) = , ax (t ) = x dt dt du y ( t ) dy ( t ) u y (t ) = , ay (t ) = dt dt But, since acceleration due to gravity g is in the y=direction, a x ( t ) = 0 , and a x ( t ) = g . Therefore from the above equations we get du x ( t ) = 0 , or dt du x = o , giving (3.7) du x = u x = v cos du y ( t ) = g , or dt du y = gdt , du y = g dt , giving u y ( t ) v sin = gt (3.8)

Substituting the value of u x ( t ) from Eq. (3.7) in u x ( t ) =

u x ( t ) = v cos =

dx( t ) , or dt dx (t ) = v cos dt , and recalling that v cos does not depend on t , we get x (t ) = v cos()t The range R of the projectile is the horizontal distance it covers during its time of flight ; R = v cos() (3.9) dy ( t ) Likewise substituting the value of u y ( t ) from Eq. (3.8) in u y ( t ) = we get dt dy ( t ) u y ( t ) = v sin gt = , or dt dy (t ) = (v sin gt ) dt = v sin()dt gtdt , Recalling that v sin and g are both independent of t , integrating the above equation gives, 1 y (t ) = v sin()t gt 2 (3.10) 2 The highest point in the trajectory of the projectile H is reached for t = , where 2 the vertical component of its velocity becomes zero. Therefore, Eq. (3.8) gives, 0 = u y ( t ) = v sin g , or 2 2v sin = (3.11)
g

dx( t ) we get, dt

Substituting this value of

in Eqs (3.10) and (3.9) we get,

2

1 v 2 sin 2 ( 1 H = y ( ) = v sin() g = 2 2 2 2 g 2

H =

From the above equation it follows that the projectile has a maximum range for = 45 0 ;
R= v2 g v2 4g

2v sin () 2v 2 sin cos() v 2 sin ( 2) R = v cos() = (3.13) = g g g

v 2 sin 2 () 2g

v sin () g , or g
2

(3.12)

(3.14)

And its corresponding height is;

H =

(3.15)

We can also obtain the equation of the trajectory of the projectile motion by substituting the value of t from Eq. (3.9) in Eq. (3.10):
y = v sin() x 1 x g g = x tan () 2 x 2 , or v cos() 2 v cos() 2v cos 2 ()
2

g sec 2 ( ) 2 (3.16) x 2v 2 This is equation of a parabola symmetric about y-axis and its origin shifted to the y = x tan ( )

highest point of the trajectory. Check that for = 45 0 this point is at

R , H . 2

Q3.1 Repeat the activity of Q 2.5 of throw an object vertically upward and measuring the time it takes to return to its original position. a) Use this information to calculate its initial velocity. b) Using the above information predict its ranges if you were to throw it at angles 300, 450 and 602 with the horizontal along with your error estimates c) Check you pr4dictions to see if your ranges are within your expected errors. Vector Multiplication: We are now familiar with three mathematical quantities, numbers, scalars and vectors. Multiplying a vector by a number changes its magnitude but not its units and direction. Give at least 4 examples! Multiplying a vector by a scalar changes its magnitude and units but not its direction. For example if we mention earlier, multiplying the displacement

r by the inverse time we average velocity which has the r but different magnitude and units.

same direction as

Q3.2: Think of at least three physical quantities that are scalars and three other physical quantizes that are vectors such that the product of the scalars with the vectors give you at least three other familiar vector physical quantities We can multiply vector

A and B in two ways. The result of one, known

(3.17)

as scalar or dot product, is a scalar quantity and we write it as;

A B = ab cos( )
or, in terms of their components

A B = A B

1 1

+ A2 B2 + A3 B3

(3.18)

It is clear from Eqs (3.17) and (3.18) that scalar product is commutative:

B A = AB cos( )

B A= A B

1 1

+ A2 B2 + A3 B3

Q3.3: Think some vector physical quantities such that their scalar product gives you familiar scalar physical quantities The other is known as vector or cross product. In this case the result is another vector

C.
(3.19)

A B = C = ab sin ( ) n
or, in terms of their components

A B = C =( A B
2

A3 B2 ) i + ( A1 B3 A3 B1 )

j +(A B
2

A1 B 2

)k

(3.20)

The direction of the unit vector

is given by the right hand rule; stretch the

fingers along the first vector in the product, in this case towards the second vector, in this case

A , and move them

B , your thumb, stretched at right angle n.

to your fingers, will point in the direction of

The expression on the right hand side of Eq. (3.20) is given by the determinant:

i j k A A A B B B
1 1 2 2

3 3

Q 3.4: Think some vector physical quantities such that their vector product gives you familiar vector physical quantities

Home Work: Go through all the check points and solved examples of Chapter 3 of HRW, 8th Ed, and attempt the following questions at the end of this chapter or the corresponding question of the 7th Ed. Q 4, problems 5, 7, 15, 23, 31, 35, 39, 43 Also go through all the check points and solved examples of sections 4.1- 4.6 of Chapter 4 of HRW, 8th Ed, and attempt the following questions at the end of this chapter or the corresponding question of the 7 th Ed Q 9, problems 1, 7, 11, 15, 21, 29, 31, 35, 39, 45, 51, 59, 61, 65, 69, 75, 79