A desert is a landscape or region of land that is very dry because of low rainfa ll amounts (precipitation), often has little

coverage by plants, and in which st reams dry up unless they are supplied by water from outside areas.[1] Deserts ca n also be described as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation.[2] Desert plants must have special adaptations to survi ve with this little water. Deserts generally receive less than 250 millimetres ( 10 in) of rain (precipitation) each year.[1] Semideserts or steppes are regions which receive between 250 millimetres (10 in) and 400 to 500 millimetres (16 to 20 in).[2][3] Contents [hide] 1 Physical geography 1.1 Classification 1.2 Weathering processes 1.3 Dust storms and sandstorms 1.4 Major deserts 1.5 Features 1.6 Water 2 Biogeography 2.1 Flora 2.2 Fauna 3 Human relations 3.1 Human life in deserts 3.2 Mineral extraction 3.3 Solar energy capture 3.4 In culture 3.4.1 In literature 3.4.2 In poetry 3.5 In war 4 Deserts on other planets 5 Etymology 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 Further reading 10 External links Physical geography Classification Cold desert: snow surface at Dome C Station, Antarctica Deserts have been defined and classified in a number of ways, generally combinin g total rainfall, number of days on which rain falls, temperature, and humidity, and sometimes additional factors.[3] For example, Phoenix, Arizona receives les s than 250 millimeters (10 in) of precipitation per year, and is immediately rec ognized as being located in a desert due to its arid adapted plants. The North S lope of Alaska's Brooks Range also receives less than 250 millimeters (10 in) of precipitation per year and is often classified as a cold desert.[4] Other regio ns of the world have cold deserts, including areas of the Himalayas[5] and other high altitude areas in other parts of the world.[6] Polar deserts cover much of the ice free areas of the Arctic and Antarctic.[7][8] A non-technical definitio n is that deserts are those parts of the Earth's surface that have insufficient vegetation cover to support a human population.[9] Potential evapotranspiration supplements the measurement of rainfall in providin g a scientific measurement-based definition of a desert. The water budget of an area can be calculated using the formula P - PE S, wherein P is precipitation, P E is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is amount of surface storage of wa ter. Evapotranspiration is the combination of water loss through atmospheric eva poration and through the life processes of plants. Potential evapotranspiration, then, is the amount of water that could evaporate in any given region. As an ex

ample, Tucson, Arizona receives about 300 millimeters (12 in) of rain per year, however about 2,500 millimeters (100 in) of water could evaporate over the cours e of a year.[10] In other words, about eight times more water could evaporate fr om the region than actually falls as rain. Rates of evapotranspiration in cold r egions such as Alaska are much lower because of the lack of heat to aid in the e vaporation process.[11] Deserts are sometimes classified as "hot" or "cold", "semiarid" or "coastal".[9] Hot deserts are mostly located near the Tropics of Capricorn or Cancer. The mea n temperature is about 22 C (72 F), with a daily range of 40 C (104 F) to 7 C (45 F) o r even lower. The rainfall is very low, especially in winter, and may come in th e form of a very occasional heavy downpour. The soil is coarse-textured gravel o r sand, shallow and well drained. Plants here tend to have deep taproots and may only open their stomata at night.[12] Cold deserts can be covered with snow or ice for part of the year; frozen water unavailable to plant life. They are found in Greenland, the nearctic ecozone of North America and Antarctica. The mean winter temperature is between 4 C (39 F) an d -2 C (28 F) and the annual precipitation between 15 and 26 cm (6 and 10 in). The soil is fine silt, saline and heavy. Plants growing here tend to be widely sepa rated, deciduous, low and spiny.[12] Semiarid deserts have long, mostly dry summers and little rainfall in winter. Th e temperature does not rise as high as in hot deserts, averaging 21 C (70 F) to 27 C (81 F) in summer and the evenings and nights are cool. As a result, condensatio n occurs and these areas may receive most of their precipitation in the form of dew. The soil ranges from a fine sand to a coarse gravel and is usually shallow and well-drained. Plants tend to be spiny or have glaucous, silvery or glossy le aves.[12] Coastal deserts are mostly found on the western edges of continental land masses in regions where cold currents from the polar regions approach the land or cold water upwellings rise from the ocean depths. The cool winds crossing this water pick up little moisture and the coastal regions receive only slight precipitati on though they often experience mists or fogs, especially in the winter. The ave rage summer temperature is in the range 13 C (55 F) to 24 C (75 F) and the winter te mperature lower than 6 C (43 F). The soil is usually fine-textured and well draine d. Deserts of this type occur in Chile, south-west Africa, southern California a nd Baja California.[12] In 1961, Peveril Meigs divided desert regions on Earth into three categories acc ording to the amount of precipitation they received. In this now widely accepted system, extremely arid lands have at least twelve consecutive months without ra infall, arid lands have less than 250 mm (10 in) of annual rainfall, and semiari d lands have a mean annual precipitation of between 250 and 500 mm (10 20 in). Bot h extremely arid and arid lands are considered to be deserts while semiarid land s are generally referred to as steppes.[3] The Agasthiyamalai hills cut off Tirunelveli in India from the monsoons, creati ng a rainshadow region. Deserts are also classified by their geographical location and dominant weather pattern as trade wind, mid-latitude, rain shadow, coastal, monsoon, or polar des erts.[13] Trade wind deserts occur either side of the horse latitudes at 30 to 35 North and South. These belts are associated with the subtropical anticyclone and the large-scale descent of dry air moving from high-altitudes toward the poles. The Sahara Desert is of this type.[14] Mid-latitude deserts occur between 30 and 50 North and South. They are mostly in areas remote from the sea where most of t he moisture has already precipitated from the prevailing winds. They include the Tengger and Sonoran deserts.[13] Monsoon deserts are similar. They occur in reg

ions where large temperature differences occur between sea and land. Moist warm air rises over the land, deposits its water content and circulates back to sea. Further inland, areas receive very little precipitation. The Thar Desert near th e India/Pakistan border is of this type.[13] In some parts of the world, deserts are created by a rain shadow effect. Orograp hic lift occurs as air masses rise to pass over high ground. In the process they cool and lose much of their moisture by precipitation on the windward slope of the mountain range. When they descend on the leeward side, they warm and their c apacity to hold moisture increases so an area with relatively little rainfall oc curs.[15] The Taklamakan Desert is an example, lying in the rain shadow of the H imalayas and receiving less than 38 millimetres (1.5 in) rainfall annually.[16] Other areas are arid by virtue of being a very long way from the nearest availab le sources of moisture.[17] Montane deserts are arid places with a very high altitude; the most prominent ex ample is found north of the Himalayas, in the Kunlun Mountains and the Tibetan P lateau. Many locations within this category have elevations exceeding 3,000 mete rs (10,000 ft) and the thermal regime can be hemiboreal. These places owe their profound aridity (the average annual precipitation is often less than 40 mm or 1 .5 in) to being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture and are often in the lee of mountain ranges. Montane deserts are normally cold, or may b e scorchingly hot by day and very cold by night as is true of the northeastern s lopes of Mount Kilimanjaro.[18] Polar deserts such as McMurdo Dry Valleys remain ice-free because of the dry kat abatic winds that flow downhill from the surrounding mountains.[19] Former deser t areas presently in non-arid environments, such as Sandhills (Nebraska), are kn own as paleodeserts.[13] In the Kppen climate classification system, deserts are classed as BWh (hot desert) or BWk (temperate desert). In the Thornthwaite clima te classification system, deserts would be classified as arid megathermal climat es.[20][21] Weathering processes Exfoliation of weathered rocks in Texas Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range, with high d aytime temperatures, and low nighttime temperatures. The humidity may be as low as 2 to 5% and because water vapour in the atmosphere acts to trap long wave inf rared radiation from the ground, the cloudless desert sky is incapable of blocki ng sunlight during the day or trapping heat during the night. Thus, during dayli ght, most of the sun's heat reaches the ground, and as soon as the sun sets the desert cools quickly by radiating its heat into space. In hot deserts, the tempe rature in the daytime can exceed 45 C (113 F) in the summer and dip to below freez ing point at night during the winter.[22] One square centimetre of windblown sand from the Gobi Desert Such large temperature variations have a destructive effect on the exposed rocky surfaces. The repeated fluctuations put a strain on exposed rock and the flanks of mountains crack and shatter. Fragmented strata slide down into the valleys w here they continue to break into pieces due to the remorseless sun by day and ch ill by night. Successive strata are exposed to further weathering. The relief of the internal pressure that has built up in rocks that have been underground for aeons can cause them to shatter. Exfoliation also occurs when the outer surface s of rocks split off in flat flakes. This is caused by moisture that has entered through minute cracks becoming trapped. Minerals present in the rock in the for m of salts and clay swell up and a strain develops which causes a thin layer of stone to break off.[23]

As the desert mountains decay, large areas of shattered rock and rubble occur. T he process continues and the end products are either dust or sand. Dust is forme d from solidified clay or volcanic deposits whereas sand results from the fragme ntation of harder granites, limestone and sandstone.[24] There is a certain crit ical size (about 500) below which further temperature-induced weathering of rocks does not occur and this provides a minimum size for sand grains.[25] As the mountains are eroded, more and more sand is created. At high wind speeds, sand grains are picked up off the surface and blown along, a process known as s altation. The whirling airborne grains act as a sand blasting mechanism which gr inds away solid objects in its path as the kinetic energy of the wind is transfe rred to the ground.[26] The sand eventually ends up deposited in level areas kno wn as sand-fields or sand-seas, or piled up in dunes.[27] Dust storms and sandstorms Main article: Dust storm Dust storm about to engulf a military camp in Iraq, 2005 Sand and dust storms are natural events that occur in arid regions where the lan d is not protected by a covering of vegetation. Dust storms usually start in des ert margins rather than the deserts themselves where the finer materials have al ready been blown away. As a steady wind begins to blow, fine particles lying on the exposed ground begin to vibrate. At greater wind speeds, some particles are lifted into the air stream. When they land, they strike other particles which ma y be jerked into the air in their turn, starting a chain reaction. Once ejected, these particles move in one of three possible ways, depending on their size and density; suspension, saltation or creep. Suspension is only possible for partic les less than 0.1 mm (0.004 in) in diameter. In a dust storm, these fine particl es are lifted up and wafted aloft to heights of up to 6 kilometres (3.7 mi). The y reduce visibility and can remain in the atmosphere for days on end, conveyed b y the trade winds distances of thousands of kilometres (miles).[28] Denser cloud s of dust can be formed in stronger winds, moving across the land with a billowi ng leading edge. The sunlight can be obliterated and it may become as dark as ni ght at ground level.[29] In a study of a dust storm in China in 2001, it was est imated that 6.5 million tons of dust were involved, covering an area of 134,000, 000 square kilometres (52,000,000 sq mi). The mean particle size was 1.44 m.[30] Wind-blown particles: 1=Creep 2=Saltation 3=Suspension 4=Wind current Sandstorms occur with much less frequency. They are often preceded by severe dus t storms and occur when the wind velocity increases to a point where it can lift heavier particles. These grains of sand, up to about 0.5 millimetres (0.020 in) in diameter are jerked into the air but soon fall back to earth, ejecting other particles in the process. Their weight prevents them from being airborne for lo ng and most only travel a distance of a few metres (yards). The sand streams alo ng above the surface of the ground like a fluid, often rising to heights of abou t 30 centimetres (12 in).[28] In a really severe steady blow, 2 metres (6 ft 7 i n) is about as high as the sand stream can rise as the largest sand grains do no t become airborne at all. They are transported by creep, being rolled along the desert floor or performing short jumps.[29] During a sandstorm, the wind-blown sand particles become electrically charged. T he electric field can produce sparks and interference with telecommunications eq uipment and range in size between 1 and 200 kV/m.[31] The electric fields are ca used by collision between airborne particles and when saltating sand grains impa ct the ground. The mechanism is little understood but the particles usually have a negative charge when their diameter is under 250 m and a positive one when the y are over 500 m.[32] Major deserts

The world's largest non-polar deserts Deserts take up about one third (33%) of the Earth's land surface.[3] Bottomland s may be salt-covered flats. Eolian processes are major factors in shaping deser t landscapes. Polar deserts (also seen as "cold deserts") have similar features, except the main form of precipitation is snow rather than rain. Antarctica is t he world's largest cold desert (composed of about 98% thick continental ice shee t and 2% barren rock). Some of the barren rock is to be found in the so-called D ry Valleys of Antarctica that almost never get snow, which can have ice-encruste d saline lakes that suggest evaporation far greater than the rare snowfall due t o the strong katabatic winds that evaporate even ice. See also: List of deserts by area The ten largest deserts[33]Rank Desert Area (km) Area (mi) 1 Antarctic Desert (Antarctica) 14,200,000 5,500,000 2 Arctic Desert (Arctic) 13,900,000 5,400,000 3 Sahara Desert (Africa) 9,100,000 3,500,000 4 Arabian Desert (Middle East) 2,600,000 1,000,000 5 Gobi Desert (Asia) 1,300,000 500,000 6 Patagonian Desert (South America) 670,000 260,000 7 Great Victoria Desert (Australia) 647,000 250,000 8 Kalahari Desert (Africa) 570,000 220,000 9 Great Basin Desert (North America) 490,000 190,000 10 Thar Desert (India, Pakistan) 450,000 175,000 Deserts, both hot and cold, play a part in moderating the Earth's temperature. T his is because they reflect more of the incoming light and their albedo is highe r than that of forests or the sea.[34] Features Aerial view of Makhtesh Ramon, an erosion cirque of a type unique to the Negev Contrary to the impression given by films such as Desert Sands (1955)[35] or Ice Cold in Alex (1958),[36] and books such as Wilfred Thesiger's Arabian Sands,[37 ] deserts do not always consist of sand.[38] Across the world, around 20 percent of desert is sand, varying from only two percent in North America to 30% in Aus tralia and over 45% in Central Asia.[39] Where sand occurs, it is usually in lar ge quantities consisting of sand sheets or extensive areas of dunes.[39] A n e o sand sheet is a near-level, firm expanse of partially consolidated particles i a layer that varies from a few centimetres to a few metres thick. The structur of the sheet consists of thin horizontal layers of coarse silt and very fine t medium grain sand, separated by layers of coarse sand and pea-gravel which are a single grain thick. These larger particles anchor the other particles in plac e and may also be packed together on the surface so as to form a miniature deser t pavement.[40] Small ripples form on the sand sheet when the wind exceeds 24 kp h (15 mph). They form perpendicular to the wind direction and gradually move acr oss the surface as the wind continues to blow. The distance between their crests corresponds to the average length of jumps made by particles during saltation. The ripples are ephemeral and a change in wind direction causes them to reorgani se.[41] Diagram showing barchan dune formation, with the wind blowing from the left Sand dunes are accumulations of windblown sand piled up in mounds or ridges. The y form downwind of copious sources of dry, loose sand and occur when topographic and climatic conditions cause airborne particles to settle. As the wind blows, saltation and creep take place on the windward side of the dune and individual g rains of sand move uphill. When they reach the crest, they cascade down the far side. The upwind slope typically has a gradient of 10 to 20 while the lee slope is

around 32, the angle at which loose dry sand will slip. As this wind-induced mov ement of sand grains takes place, the dune moves slowly across the surface of th e ground.[42] Dunes are sometimes solitary, but they are more often grouped toge ther in dune fields. When these are extensive, they are known as sand seas or er gs.[43] The shape of the dune depends on the characteristics of the prevailing wind. Bar chan dunes are produced by strong winds blowing across a level surface, and are crescent-shaped with the concave side away from the wind. When there are two dir ections from which winds regularly blow, a series of long, linear dunes known as seif dunes may form. These also occur parallel to a strong wind that blows in o ne general direction. Transverse dunes run at a right angle to the prevailing wi nd direction. Star dunes are formed by variable winds, and have several ridges a nd slip faces radiating from a central point. They tend to grow vertically; they can reach a height of 500 metres (1,600 ft), making them the tallest type of du ne. Rounded mounds of sand without a slip face are the rare dome dunes, found on the upwind edges of sand seas.[43] Windswept desert pavement of small, smooth, closely packed stones in the Mojave desert A large part of the surface area of the world's deserts consists of flat, stonecovered plains dominated by wind erosion. In "eolian deflation", the wind contin ually removes fine-grained material, which becomes wind-blown sand. This exposes coarser-grained material, mainly pebbles with some larger stones or cobbles,[27 ][39] leaving a desert pavement, an area of land overlaid by closely packed smoo th stones forming a tessellated mosaic. Different theories exist as to how exact ly the pavement is formed. It may be that after the sand and dust is blown away by the wind the stones jiggle themselves into place; alternatively, stones previ ously below ground may in some way work themselves to the surface. Very little f urther erosion takes place after the formation of a pavement, and the ground bec omes stable. Evaporation brings moisture to the surface by capillary action and calcium salts may be precipitated, binding particles together to form a desert c onglomerate.[44] In time, bacteria that live on the surface of the stones accumu late a film of minerals and clay particles, forming a shiny brown coating known as desert varnish.[45] Other non-sandy deserts consist of exposed outcrops of bedrock, dry soils or ari disols, and a variety of landforms affected by flowing water, such as alluvial f ans, sinks or playas, temporary or permanent lakes, and oases.[39] A hamada is a type of desert landscape consisting of a high rocky plateau where the sand has been removed by aeolian processes. Other landforms include plains largely covere d by gravels and angular boulders, from which the finer particles have been stri pped by the wind. These are called "reg" in the western Sahara, "serir" in the e astern Sahara, "gibber plains" in Australia and "sa" in central Asia.[46] The Tas sili Plateau in Algeria is an impressive jumble of eroded sandstone outcrops, ca nyons, blocks, pinnacles, fissures, slabs and ravines. In some places the wind h as carved holes or arches and in others it has created mushroom-like pillars nar rower at the base than the top.[47] In the Colorado Plateau it is water that has been the eroding force. Here the Colorado River has cut its way over the millen nia through the high desert floor creating a canyon that is over a mile (6,000 f eet or 1,800 metres) deep in places, exposing strata that are over two billion y ear old.[48] Water Atacama, the world's driest desert The driest place on Earth is the Atacama Desert.[49] It is virtually devoid of l ife because it is blocked from receiving precipitation by the Andes mountains to the east and the Chilean Coast Range to the west. The cold Humboldt Current and

the anticyclone of the Pacific are essential to keep the dry climate of the Ata cama. The average rainfall in the Chilean region of Antofagasta is just 1 mm per year. Some weather stations in the Atacama have never received rain. Evidence s uggests that the Atacama may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971. It is so arid that mountains that reach as high as 6,885 meters (22,590 fe et) are completely free of glaciers and, in the southern part from 25S to 27S, may have been glacier-free throughout the Quaternary, though permafrost extends dow n to an altitude of 4,400 meters and is continuous above 5,600 meters.[50][51] N evertheless, there is some plant life in the Atacama, in the form of specialist plants that obtain moisture from dew and the fogs that blow in from the Pacific. [49] Flash flood in the Gobi When rain falls in deserts, as it occasionally does, it is often with great viol ence. The desert surface is evidence of this with dry stream channels known as a rroyos or wadis meandering across its surface. These can experience flash floods , becoming raging torrents with surprising rapidity after a storm that may be ma ny kilometres away. Most deserts are in basins with no drainage to the sea but s ome are crossed by exotic rivers sourced in mountain ranges or other high rainfa ll areas beyond their borders. The River Nile, the Colorado River and the Yellow River do this, losing much of their water through evaporation as they pass thro ugh the desert and raising groundwater levels nearby. There may also be undergro und sources of water in deserts in the form of springs, aquifers, underground ri vers or lakes. Where these lie close to the surface, oases may form and plant an d animal life flourish.[39] Kharga Oasis in Egypt is 150 kilometres (93 mi) long and results from the removal by wind erosion of sand and dust to expose the wat er table just above the bedrock.[52] Seepages may occur in the walls of canyons and pools may survive in deep shade near the dried up watercourse below.[53] Lakes may form in basins where there is sufficient rainfall or meltwater from gl aciers above. They are usually shallow and saline, and wind blowing over their s urface can cause stress, moving the water over nearby low-lying areas. When the lakes dry up, they leave a crust or hardpan behind. This area of deposited clay, silt or sand is known as a playa. The deserts of North America have more than o ne hundred playas, many of them relics of Lake Bonneville which covered parts of Utah, Nevada and Idaho during the last ice age when the climate was colder and wetter.[54] These include the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake and many d ry lake beds. The smooth flat surfaces of playas have been used for attempted ve hicle speed records at Black Rock Desert and Bonneville Speedway and the United States Air Force uses Rogers Dry Lake in the Mojave Desert as runways for aircra ft and the space shuttle.[39]